Framing schematics - Steelconstruction.

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Most forms of steel framing used in UK construction may be grouped as follows:

Braced frames, in which the beams and columns are designed to resist vertical loads only. The
connections are designed as nominally pinned or ‘simple’.
Rigid or continuous frames, in which the framed structure is designed so that the connections
between the members are moment-resisting.
Arch structures, in which forces are transferred to the ground, mainly by compression within the
structure.
Tension structures, in which forces are transferred to the ground by tension (or catenary action)
and by compression in posts or masts, as in a tent.

Braced frames with simple connections and vertical bracing offer a very cost competitive structural
solution, and are the most commonly used structural system in buildings. Rigidly framed structures
are preferred if there is no opportunity for the use of vertical bracing, such as in fully glazed facades
or in large-span structures. In braced frames, columns are designed to resist mainly compression
forces. Columns used in rigid or continuous frames are also designed to resist bending.

Arch and tension structures rely on the compressive and tensile properties of steel, and follow well-
defined structural principles. Tension structures are commonly associated with expressive external
structures. The tension elements, in the form of cables or rods, are usually anchored to the ground.

Forms of open hot-rolled steel sections

A wide range of steel components is available to the architect and designer including:

Hot-rolled (open) sections, such as I, H and L shapes

 Structural hollow (closed) sections of circular, square and rectangular shape
Fabricated sections made by welding together steel plates
Cast steel sections for repetitive uses, such as nodes
Light steel components made from thin strip steel

Site connections are usually made by bolting, while welding may be preferred for factory-made
connections.

A wide range of standard hot-rolled steel sections is produced from which designers can select the
profile, size and weight appropriate to a particular application. These are beam sections (UB), wide
flange column sections (UC), parallel flange channel (PFC), structural hollow sections (SHS), and
angle sections.

Forms of structural hollow sections (SHS)

Components of a standard open steel section

Modern open steel sections have parallel flanges. The serial size varies in increments of about 50 mm
depth for the shallower sections, and about 75 mm for the deeper sections. The internal dimensions
between the flanges are governed by the rolling mills used and so the external dimensions may vary
with section weight. The standardisation of hot-rolled steel sections has led to the adoption of
standard connections, which have become familiar within the industry.

The figure gives an explanation of terms used in connection with open hot-rolled sections. Detailed
dimensions and sections properties of hot-rolled sections supplied by Tata Steel are available here

Steel beams
Complex services integration in cellular, long-span beams, Bishop Aukland Hospital
(Image courtesy of of Kloeckner Westok)

Beams are designed to resist bending moments and shear forces. The shapes of hot rolled profiles
are designed to achieve optimum bending properties for the use of steel. In the scheme design of
uniformly loaded steel beams, sections with a span/depth ratio of 18 to 20 are typically used, i.e. for a
span of 8 m, the steel beam will be approximately 450 mm deep. The table gives typical span-to-depth
ratios for various types of beams used in different floor systems. Primary beams span between
columns and secondary beams span between primary beams and support the floor slab directly.

Typical span/depth ratios

Span/depth ratios for different beam solutions

Form of construction
Secondary beams Primary beams

Steel beam 18-20 13-15

Composite beam 22-25 16-18

Cellular beam+ 20-27 15-18

Shallow floor beam 26-28 -

Steel truss+ 15-18 12-15

Note:
+
Allows for the passage of services through the beam depth

Composite beams
Composite edge beam with composite decking

Steel beams can be designed to act compositely with a concrete slab by the use of shear connectors,
normally in the form of welded steel studs that are welded at regular spacing to the top flange of the
steel beam. A composite edge beam with galvanised steel decking orientated parallel to the beam is
shown.

Composite action greatly increases the strength and stiffness of a steel beam, and consequently can
lead to longer spans for the same size of section or, alternatively, lighter, shallower sections may be
used for the same load and span configuration. For the efficient design of composite beams, the ratio
of span to beam depth is in the range 22 to 25, and so a composite beam is 25 to 30% shallower than
a steel beam, and up to 30 to 40% lighter in steel weight.

Composite decking supports loads during construction without temporary propping up to

approximately 4 m span, depending on the deck profile. Spans of up to about 5 m can be achieved, if
the slab is propped during construction. An alternative form of composite beam is to use precast
concrete slabs with a concrete topping.

Floor grillage of 7.5m span primary beams and 9m span secondary beams in composite construction
The layout of floor beams in buildings depends largely on the spacing of the columns. The columns
along the perimeter of the building are generally spaced at 5 to 8 m in order to support the façade
elements. In most buildings, the secondary beams are designed to span the longer distance in the
floor grid, so that the bending moment they resist is similar to that of the primary beams and therefore
they can be of the same depth as the primary beams.

The layout of beams in a 7.5 m x 9 m grid is shown in which the primary beams span the shorter grid
distance, and are chosen to be the same depth as the secondary beams. When shear connectors are
to be welded through the steel decking, the top flange of the steel beams is not painted. Heavier
beams should ideally be connected to the column flanges, but this is not always possible because
wider beams may have to be ‘notched’ to fit between the column flanges. Special detailing measures
may be required when wide beams connect to narrower columns.

In buildings where headroom is limited, such as in renovation projects, UC sections may be used,
instead of UB sections, as shallow, albeit heavier, beams.
Long spans, open plan commercial office space – Vulcan House, Sheffield

In many buildings, designing longer internal spans creates more flexible space planning. A variety of
structural steel systems may be used to provide either long-span primary beams or secondary beams.
These long-span systems generally use the principles of composite construction to increase their
stiffness and strength, and often provide for integration of services within their depth via openings in
the webs of the beams.

Shallow floor construction differs from other forms of steel construction in not requiring secondary
beams, other than tie members to connect the columns for robustness and for stability of the structure
during construction.

[top]Cellular beams
Castellated or cellular beams are examples of longer span members which have large, generally
regular, openings within the web depth. These beams achieve the benefits of greater structural
efficiency by increasing the section depth for a given use of steel, and provide multiple routes for
services. Cellular beams have greater architectural appeal because of their apparent lightness and
distinctive appearance in long-span roofs and floors.

In a castellated beam, the web of a rolled section is cut along the length of the beam in a hexagonal
‘wave’ form. The two pieces are separated, offset and then welded together to achieve a deeper
section.

Fabricating a cellular beam

(Images courtesy of Kloeckner Westok)

Floor grid using long-span cellular beams with a central elongated opening

In a cellular beam, the web of a rolled section is cut to form circular or elongated openings. The
diameter of the openings can vary between 0.5 to 0.8 times the depth of the beam. Cellular beams
are structurally efficient and offer many architectural opportunities. When formed from rolled steel
sections, the top and bottom parts of the cellular beam can be of different sizes, and the sections can
be easily adjusted and curved prior to the welding process. Very little waste is generated in this
process and all steel offcuts are 100% recycled. An example of a floor system using cellular beams is
shown right.

When beams are fabricated from three steel plates, the flange sizes can be varied but the web is of
constant thickness. The opening sizes can also be varied along the beams to suit the servicing
requirements.
The most appropriate use of cellular beams is for long spans with moderate loadings, such as
secondary beams in floor grillages or in roof structures. The regular circular openings in a cellular
beam are very efficient for distribution of circular ducts in heavily serviced buildings. Elongated
openings can be placed closer to mid-span (as shown) where the shear forces are low.

Cambered cellular roof beams

(Image courtesy of Kloeckner Westok)

Beams with large web openings

Stiffened, large rectangular web opening in a steel beam

In composite beams, large openings may be formed through the web for the passage of services
within the beam depth. Large openings are normally rectangular in shape, but more regular openings
are generally circular. Welded stiffeners placed horizontally above and below the openings increase
the size and aspect ratio of opening that may be used. For the scheme design of composite beams
with various forms of openings, it is recommended that:

Opening depths should generally be between 50 to 70% of the beam depth

Circular openings may be placed at a spacing of half of their diameter (as for cellular beams).
 Large rectangular openings should be placed in the middle third of the span of the beam and
should have a length-to-depth ratio of no more than 2, unless horizontal stiffeners are used.
The spacing between the edges of rectangular openings, or to the connections of secondary
beams, should not generally be less than the larger of the beam depth or opening length.
For wide rectangular openings, horizontal stiffeners should be extended at least 150mm past the
opening.

Openings formed in the webs of long span beams for passage of services

A cross-section through a perforated beam is shown. In this case, the opening depth is 400 mm and
the beam depth of 600 mm is suitable for a span of up to 15 m. As shown, the overall floor depth
allowing for a raised access floor and suspended ceiling is approximately 1.05 m.

Shallow floor construction

Shallow floor beam supporting hollow-core precast concrete units

Shallow floor systems use steel beams where the bottom flange is wider than the top flange. These
may be proprietary rolled sections, USFBs or a flat steel plate welded to the bottom flange of a
standard UC section. The wider bottom flange supports the floor slab so that the beam is partially
encased within the floor depth, resulting in a structural system with no downstand beams, which leads
to reduced floor-to-floor heights. The floor slab may be in the form of precast, hollow core concrete
units or deep composite steel decking, in both cases supporting in-situ concrete that is placed level
with or above the top flange of the beam.
Spans of the order of 6 to 9 m can be achieved in both directions. The overall floor depth is typically
300 to 350 mm, depending on requirements to control floor vibrations and provide fire resistance and
acoustic insulation. The partial encasement of the steel beam in concrete means that, in general, 60
minutes fire resistance is provided, and 90 or 120 minutes fire resistance can be achieved by using
additional reinforcement or by protecting the bottom steel plate.

The UC beam can be replaced by a Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS) when used as an edge beam
because of its torsional stiffness and the neat edge it provides at the façade line. This may be visually
desirable in some circumstances, such as in fully glazed facades. Also, cladding attachments may be
made more easily to the RHS section than to a concrete slab or an encased steel-section.

[top]Summary of spans of the structural options

Typical spans and structural depths of different steel and concrete structural options are shown in the
tables. The overall floor depth includes the services and ceiling zone, and, if necessary, a raised
access floor. For the long span systems, services are generally incorporated within the structural
depth, i.e. with web openings in the beams. An overall structural and services depth of 1 to 1.2m
(including 120mm for the ceiling) is generally used in planning for multi-storey buildings, depending
on the span.

Span range of various structural options

Typical floor depths for multi storey buildings

Structural depth
Structural option (floor to ceiling)
(mm)

Composite beam construction 800 – 1,200

Cellular beams (with service integration) 800 – 1,100

Downstand beams with precast concrete floor slabs 1,200 – 1,450

Shallow floor or integrated beams 600 – 800

For offices and many other building types, 3m is used as the floor to ceiling depth, in which case, the
floor-to-floor zone is 4 to 4.2m. For some types of building, a 2.7m internal height is acceptable in
which case, the overall floor zone is 3.6 to 4m.

Typical floor-to-floor heights

Project type Typical floor-to-floor + height (mm)

Prestige office 4.0 – 4.2m

Speculative office 3.6 – 4.0m

Renovation project 3.5 – 3.9m

Note:
+Floor-to-ceiling height plus the floor depth including services

Columns

Column splice detail ised in a high-rise building in London

Columns in braced frames are generally in the form of UC sections that are spliced (joined)
longitudinally at appropriate points, usually every two or three storeys in tall buildings. Beam-to-
column connections are made either to the flanges of the column (major axis connections) or to the
web of the column (minor axis connections). It may also be necessary to stiffen the columns locally at
points of load transfer, such as for beams with moment connections. For 3 to 5 storey buildings, a 254
x 254 UC column is the starting point and for 6 to 8 storey buildings, a 305 x 305 UC is preferred.

Square or Circular Hollow Sections are very efficient in compression because of their increased
resistance to buckling compared to open sections. Both circular (CHS) sections and square (SHS)
sections are widely used as slender columns. The main design issue is the connection to the face of
the column, which is often in the form of welded fin plate with bolts to the beam web.

Columns may be designed to achieve greater compression and fire resistance by concrete
encasement (in the case of H sections) and concrete filling (in the case of hollow sections). For
example, the in-filling between the flanges of an H section column without reinforcement can increase
its fire resistance up to 60 minutes whilst retaining the same external dimensions of the section. The
in-filling of hollow sections with concrete can increase their fire resistance to up to 60 minutes without
reinforcement, and up to 120 minutes with bar reinforcement.

In structures such as portal frames, where bending moments are the dominant form of loading, UB
sections are generally used for the columns.

Trusses and lattice girders

Long-span, curved roof trusses

Robin Hood Airport, Doncaster
(Image courtesy of Tub econ)

Trusses and lattice girders are used in long span roofing and flooring systems. The term ‘truss’ is
generally applied to roofs, which may be pitched, whereas lattice girders are generally used as long-
span floor beams which are more heavily loaded and not pitched.

Trusses and lattice girders are often designed to be visible and therefore the choice of the members
used and their connections is important to the design solution.

Trusses and lattice girders are triangular or rectangular assemblies of tension and compression
elements. The word ‘lattice’ refers to the use of N-type or W-type bracing along the member. The top
and bottom chords provide the compression and tension resistance to overall bending, and the
inclined bracing elements resist the shear forces.

A wide variety of roof trusses can be created. Each can vary in overall geometry and in the choice of
the individual elements within them. Trusses may be designed to follow the roof profile, which may
also be curved, whereas lattice girders are used as long spanning beams. Trusses or lattice girders
may take a number of basic forms and they are fabricated by bolting or welding standard sections
together. For spans of up to 20 m, it is sufficient to use angles, tees and lighter hollow sections. For
very long spans, UC or heavier hollow sections may be required. The bracing members are usually
lighter than the chord members.

Curved triangular truss at Hamburg airport

The bracing (diagonal) members are usually arranged in a W or N form. In the N form, the orientation
of the bracing members normally changes at mid-span, as illustrated below. In the W form, the
members are often fabricated from tubular sections as they are efficient as bracing members, which
act alternately in tension and compression. In lightweight buildings, wind uplift can be significant and
may cause reversal of the forces acting on the truss.

Triangulated trusses are often used in long span structures as they are very stable due to their
shape. The normal form is for the triangle to point downwards so that the secondary beams span
between the top chords. A good example of a curved triangular truss at Hamburg airport is shown.
These trusses were supported on inclined tubular arms.

Space frames
Double layer space frame roof enclosing a street-scape at Belfast’s Victoria Centre

A ‘space’ frame is a form of construction that covers large areas using assemblies of small structural
components that are connected at pre-formed nodes. They are three-dimensional assemblies that
generally consist of tension and compression elements, connected by inclined bracing. Circular hollow
sections (CHS) are generally used in space frames as their wall thickness can be varied to suit the
forces in the members while maintaining a constant outside diameter. There are three generic forms
of support to space frames that determine the forces to which they are subject:

Point support by columns at four or more positions

Multiple supports by rows of columns or ‘column trees’.
Continuous edge support.

An example of the multiple point supports to a double layer space frame over a pedestrian street in
Belfast’s Victoria Centre is shown.

Forms of bracing in braced frames

X-bracing at All Saints Academy, Cheltenham

(Image courtesy of William Haley Engineering Ltd.)
Pin-jointed structural frames have to be braced in the vertical and horizontal directions. The stability
of the building is dependent on the form and location of the bracing. Other lateral force-resisting
elements, such as concrete cores, can be linked by floors or horizontal bracing. For simplicity, vertical
bracing is located in the façade or internal separating walls. Ideally, the bracing line would be on the
centre-line of the main columns, but this may conflict with the location of the inner skin of external
walls and so it may be necessary to integrate the bracing and wall construction without causing
thermal bridging.

The most common arrangements of bracing in multi-storey construction is ‘X’, ‘V’ or ‘K’ bracing using
steel angle or circular hollow sections. Inverted ‘V’ bracing is preferred where substantial openings,
e.g. doors, are required in the braced bay.

Tie rods connected to a circular ring in X-bracingfor a low-rise building

In the X braced form, the members may be designed to resist both tension and compression, or
tension only, which leads to more slender members. Tension rods or flat plates are ineffective in
compression, and, therefore, forces are resisted only in tension when using these elements. An
example of X bracing using tie rods connected to a circular ring is shown. This type of detail is often
used in both visually exposed and concealed bracing but the tension that can be developed in the tie
is limited by bending of the connecting ring.
Square hollow section members used in X-bracing in a 10 storey residential building

In the K and V-braced forms, the members must be designed to resist tension and compression.
Tension ties are not possible in this case. In X braced frames using circular or square hollow sections
(SHS), the members are designed also in compression, and splice details allow connection of the four
tie members at the cross-over points. An example of exposed X bracing using SHS sections is shown.
The shear forces that this system can resist are also dependent on the shear resistance of the bolts
at the splice.

Flat steel plates may be used when they are required to fit in the cavity of brickwork or in double layer
separating walls. Normally flat plates are used in X bracing, designed to act in tension.

Arrangement of a single-storey building

The most economical way to enclose a large space is to use a series of two-dimensional ‘rigid’ frames
that are spaced at equal intervals along one axis of the building. For single-storey buildings, stability
is achieved in the two directions either by the use of rigid framing, diagonal bracing, or through the
supporting action of concrete walls or cores. Rigid framing can be achieved in one direction by the
use of moment-resisting connections but is rarely used in the other direction which is therefore braced
conventionally.

[top]Exposing the frame

The frame may be exposed but may also extend outside the façade or roof to form an external
structure. Where the frame is located completely external to the cladding, it gives expression in the
external appearance of the building. Alternatively, the frame can be located wholly internal to the
building envelope. Between these two extremes, the interaction of the frame and cladding establishes
a further range of visual and spatial relationships.
A simple example of a framed structure that is continued outside the building envelope to visual effect
is shown. In this case, the perforated cellular beams enhance the lightness of the structure whilst
preserving its primary function as a rigid frame.

Where the steel structure penetrates the building envelope, care should be taken to minimise heat
loss via thermal bridging.

Portal frame structures

Multi-bay portal frame during construction

(Image courtesy of Severfield (Design & Build) Ltd.)

Portal frame structures are examples of rigid frames, and are the most common form of enclosure for
spans of 20 to 50 m. Portal frames are generally fabricated from hot-rolled open sections, although
they may be formed from lattice or fabricated girders. They are braced conventionally (by X or K
bracing) in the orthogonal direction in the side walls or sometimes between internal columns.

In general, portal frame structures are used in single-storey, industrial type buildings or enclosures
where the main requirement is to provide a large enclosed volume such as a sports hall or distribution
centre. As such, these structures may not be of architectural significance. However, the basic
principles can be used in a number of more interesting architectural applications, for example, by
forming curved rafters or by using perforated beams.
The frame members normally comprise rafters and columns with rigid connections between them.
Tapered haunches are introduced to strengthen the rafters at the eaves and to form moment-
resisting connections. Roof and wall bracing is essential for the overall stability of the structure. The
elements of a portal frame are shown in the figure.

Single span symmetric portal frame

The table presents some general guidelines for the design of portal frame structures. The minimum
roof slope, allowing for deflections, is normally taken as 6°. The columns are often heavier than the
rafters and the column height is approximately one-fifth of the frame span. The spacing of the frames
depends on the spanning capabilities of the purlins and the snow loading.

Guidelines for portal frame design

Parameter Typical value

Span of portal frame 15 to 50m

Spacing of frames 5 to 8m

Roof slope 5° to 10°

Rafter depth Span/50 to Span/60

Ratio of span to column height 4 to 7

Column weight (kg/m) 1.5 to 2 × Rafter weight (kg/m)

Haunch length 10% of span

Haunch depth 2 × Rafter depth

Spacing of purlins 1.5 to 2m+

Notes:

No cranes or heavy additional loads

+
Purlin spacing reduced close to the haunch to provide stability to the haunch
‘Hit and miss’ multi-bay building during construction

Two-bay portals are often designed in ‘hit and miss’ construction in which alternate internal columns
are replaced by a longitudinal spine beam that spans between the ‘hit’ columns and supports the
point load from the missing column. A mansard roof shape can be created from linear members using
welding or bolting. This approach can be extended by faceting shorter linear sections to form a
‘pseudo arch’.

Curved portal frame with ties at the moment connections

Curved beams may be used instead of inclined rafters. The radius of the curve is normally such that
the cladding can be installed to the roof curvature. However, some cladding systems, such as deep
composite panels, may be less tolerant to this type of on-site deformation.

The image shows an interesting architectural solution where a pinned beam to column connection in a
portal frame is made moment-resisting by the use of a tie member to the column. In this way, the tie
transfers a moment to the column.

Further reading
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction
Institute 2012
Architectural Design in Steel – Trebilcock P and Lawson R M published by Spon, 2004