MECHANISM OF FATIGUE FAILURE

Understanding fatigue mechanism will help improve fatigue resistance

resistance

There are three stages in fatigue failure:

1. Crack initiation (fatigue
(fatigue always starts at a crack)
crack)
2. Crack propagation
3. Fast fracture, which can be ductile or brittle (failure
(failure with no warning)
warning)

The initiation site is very small, extending only about two to five
five grains around
the origin. The location of the initiation is at a stress concentration and may be
difficult to distinguish from the succeeding stage of propagation,
propagation, or crack
growth. The crack initiation site is always parallel to the shear stress direction
direction..

Stage I Crack Growth Stage II Crack Growth

Cyclic stress causes dislocation movements
The crack that leads to fracture is usually nucleated in a slip

A slip band develops within a grain and then accumulates permanent
permanent damage
band on which the maximum shear stress is acting.

This damage results in intrusions and extrusions, and a crack is initiated

Slow propagation of crack along crystal planes with high resolved
resolved shear stress This is because slip is a shear process so more plastic
deformation will occur in slip bands on which the maximum
(the order of angstroms per cycle) shear stress is acting than in other slip bands

In stage II, the crack propagates very fast normal to the

applied stress
(crack propagation rates, microns per cycle)

The crack will eventually reach a critical size and failure

occurs

Mechanism of Fatigue Failure

The Striations are formed by a process called
plastic blunting:
blunting:
Advancing tip of the fatigue crack
becomes blunt (not sharp) during the tensile
portion of the stress cycle followed by
resharpening of tip during compression. This
is illustrated in Figure below.
(a) At the start the crack tip is sharp
(b) Tensile load applied: the small double
notch at the crack tip concentrates the slip
along planes at ~ 45oC to the plane of the
crack.
(c) As the crack widen to max its grows
longer by plastic shearing and becomes
blunter.
(d) When load changed to compression, the
slip direction in the end zone is reversed.
(e) The crack faces are crushed together and
the new crack surface created in tension is
forced into the plane of crack
(f) The resharpened crack is ready to
advance and blunted in the stress cycle.

Detailed examination of stage II
fracture surfaces, using optical and
electron microscopy, have provided
evidence that a pattern of ripples or
striations are frequently present on
these surfaces.

Each striation on the fracture surface
is produced by a single stress cycle.
The presence of striations means that
failure was produced by fatigue.

The absence of striations however,
does not mean that failure was not
produced by fatigue. Ductility of a
material plays a role in the presence
of striations. The lower the ductility of
a material the less obvious are the
striations because there is insufficient
plastic deformation.
Stage II Crack Growth

It is the stage II crack growth which is the controlling factor in fatigue failure of
most engineering materials. Stage II crack growth itself is controlled
controlled primarily by
the stress intensity at the crack tip.
tip.
No Load
Load reduced
From a design viewpoint, the assessment of crack propagation rates
rates for stage II
is of primary concern. The most effective approach to fatigue crack
crack growth has
been through the use of fracture mechanics.
mechanics. Here the crack growth is correlated
Slip with the cyclic changes in the state of stress near the crack.
Loaded No Load

The state of stress near the crack is described by the stress intensity
intensity factor KI.
The rate of crack growth da/dN should correlate with ∆K, the range over which
K varies during cyclic loading.
Max Load (tensile)
Loaded again
 Region I Region II Region III
Stage II Crack Growth The relationship between fatigue
crack growth rate and ∆K as Paris region
∆K = Kmax− Kmin shown in the graph Stable growth
da

Rapid-unstable crack growth

Slow crack growth
Divided into 3 regions: = A(∆K) m

Threshold region
∆K = β σ max πa − β σ min πa dN

Log (da/dN)
∆K = βσ r πa • region I: No observable crack

Fast fracture region

growth m
∆ The basic equation that relates da/dN and ∆K is known as the Paris law,
law, and it
has the form
• region II: linear relationship
between crack growth rate and
da
dN
= A∆K m stress intensity factor

• Region III: accelerated crack A

∆ A and m are constants which depend on the materials. The value of
of m is usually growth.
between 2-
2-4 (for steel, m=3, for Al, m=3-
m=3-4) ∆Kth
log(∆K)

The fatigue crack growth life Region I Region II Region III Nf af

can be obtained by integrating The number of cycles to failure, Nf is:
this equation Paris region Nf = ∫ dN =
0
∫
ai
da
A ( β ) m (σ r ) m (πa ) m / 2
Stable growth
da
dN
= A∆K m af
da
Rapid-unstable crack growth
Slow crack growth

= A(∆K) m
∫
Threshold region

da
dN Nf = 1
Log (da/dN)

Between the limits of initial and Aβ m (σ r ) m π m / 2 am / 2

final crack size ai
Fast fracture region

m If m ≠ 2
af
1 a −f ( m / 2 )+1 − ai−( m / 2 )+1
∆K = βσmax πa − βσmin πa = βσr πa
da m m
∫ da
am / 2
= a −( m / 2 )+1
− ( m / 2 ) +1
= − ( m / 2 ) +1
dN
= A(∆K ) = A( βσr πa ) ai

= A( β )m (σ r )m (πa)m / 2
A
1 KC 2
a f = π (σ ) because KC = βσmax πa f ∆Kth a −f ( m / 2 )+1 − ai−( m / 2 )+1
max β log(∆K) Nf = ( − ( m / 2) +1)Aβ mσ rmπ m / 2
 Example Solution

• A mild steel plate is subjected to constant amplitude uniaxial fatigue loads to ai = 0.0005 m,
produce stresses varying from σmax=180 MPa to σmin=-40 MPa. The static
properties of the steel are σo = 500, MPa, E=207 GPa, Kc=100 MPa.m1/2. 2 2
1  Kc 
 = 
1 100 
af =   = 0.078m = 78mm
π  σ max β
• If the plate contains an initial through thickness edge crack of 0.5mm, how
many fatigue cycles will be required to break the steel?  π  180 x1.12 

Assume an infinite wide plate with β =1.12. For ferritic-stainless steels a

a −f ( m / 2 ) +1 − a i− ( m / 2 ) +1 ( 0 . 078 ) − ( 3 / 2 ) +1 − ( 0 . 0005 ) − ( 3 / 2 ) +1
general correlation gives Nf = ( − ( m / 2 ) +1 )A β m σ rm π m / 2
=
( − ( 3 / 2 ) + 1)( 6 . 9 x10 −12 )(1 . 12 ) 3 (180 ) 3 (π ) 3 / 2
da ( 0 . 078 ) − 0 .5 − ( 0 . 0005 ) − 0.5
= 6.9 x10 −12 ( ∆K ) 3 ( MPa m )3 =
dN − 157 . 4 x10 − 6

Thus, A= 6.9 x 10-12 MPa√m, m=3.0 and σr = 180-0 (since compressive

stresses are ignored and we shall neglect the small influence of mean
stress on the crack growth. Nf = 261,000 cycles

Example 2
Solution:
• A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 70 (a) Given the values of σm (70 MPa) and σa (210 MPa) we are asked to
MPa, and the stress amplitude was 210 MPa. compute σmax and σmin
σm=(σmax+σmin)/2=70 MPa
σmax + σmin = 140 MPa
a) compute the max and min stress levels
b) Compute stress ratio
σa=(σmax−σmin)/2=210 MPa
c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.
σmax – σmin = 420 MPa

Simultaneously solving these two expressions leads to

σmax=280 MPa
σmin=−140 MPa
 Example 3
• The fatigue data for a brass alloy are given as follow:

(b) Using Equation Stress amplitude (MPa) Cycles to failure

170 3.7x104
the stress ratio R is determined as follows:
148 1.0x 105
R=σmin/σmax=−140 Mpa/280 MPa=−0.50
130 3.0x 105
114 1.0 x106
92 1.0x 107
(c) The magnitude of the stress range σr is determined using Equation 80 1.0 x 108
σr=σmax−σmin=280 MPa − (−140 MPa)=420 MPa 74 1.0 x 109

a) Make an S-N plot (stress amplitude versus log cycles to failure)

using these data.
b) Determine the fatigue strength at 4 x106 cycles
c) Determine the fatigue life for 120 MPa.

Solution
Example 4
• A cylindrical 1045 steel bar is subjected to repeated
compression-tension stress cycling along its axis. If the load
amplitude is 66,700 N. Compute the minimum allowable bar
diameter to ensure that fatigue failure will not occur. Assume
safety factor of 2.0.

(b) As indicated by one set of dashed lines on the plot, the fatigue strength at
4 x 106 cycles [log (4 x 106) = 6.6] is about 100 MPa.

(c) As noted by the other set of dashed lines, the fatigue life for 120 MPa is
about 6 x 105 cycles (i.e., the log of the lifetime is about 5.8).
 Example 5
Solution • A 6.4mm diameter cylindrical rod fabricated from a 2014 T6
This problem asks that we determine the minimum allowable bar diameter to aluminum alloy is subjected to reversed tension-compression
ensure that fatigue failure will not occur for a 1045 steel that is subjected to load cycling along its axis. If the maximum tensile and
cyclic loading for a load amplitude of 66,700 N. From the Figure, the fatigue compressive loads are +5340 N and -5340N respectively,
limit stress amplitude for this alloy is 310 MPa. Stress is defined as σ =F/A0. determine its fatigue life. Assume the stress plotted is stress
For a cylindrical bar A0 = π(do/2)2 amplitude.
Substitution for A0 into the Equation to
F F 4F
σ= = =
Ao π ( d o ) 2 πd o2
2
We now solve for d0, taking stress as the fatigue limit divided by the factor of
safety. Thus

 
 
4F 4(66,700) N
do = =   = 23.4 x10 −3 m
σ   310 x106 N / m 2 
π   π ( ) 
 
N  2 
= 23.4mm

Solution
• We are asked to determine the fatigue life for a cylindrical 2014-T6
aluminum rod given its diameter (6.4 mm) and the maximum tensile
and compressive loads (+5340 N and –5340 N, respectively). The
Appearance of Fatigue failure
first thing that is necessary is to calculate values of σmax and σmin

Fatigue results in a brittle appearance of fracture. On Smooth
Fmax Fmax a macroscopic scale, fatigue displays very little plastic region
σ max = = deformation.
Ao π (d o / 2) 2
= 166 Mpa Rough

Two different regions can be distinguished. region
σmin = -166 MPa
1. The first is a smooth region,
region, through which the crack has Beach
grown under cyclic loading. “Beach marks” marks” are marks
characteristics of fatigue failure and may indicate crack
Stress amplitude , σa = (σmax-σmin)/2 = 166MPa origin

From figure, the number of cycles to failure is 1x107 cycles 2. The second region is a rough area covered by the crack
during the final fracture, where the component has failed
in a ductile manner when the cross section was no longer
able to carry the load
 The crack progressed slowly
through the crank arm (dark area)
until the remaining fragment was
incapable of supporting the
Rough region bending moment generated by
Rough region
the force on the pedal and the
crank arm fractured rapidly.

Rough region
Smooth region Smooth region
Beach Marks
Beach marks

Smooth region
http://materials.open.ac.uk/mem/mem_ccf4.htm Bicycle crack failure

FATIGUE CONTROL
Fatigue starts at the surface of the material. This is because:

 Slip is easier at the surface than in the interior of the material

material

Most fatigue failure can be traced to deficiencies in design rather
rather than
 The environment is in direct contact with the surface
inadequacies in materials or improper manufacture or maintenance.
maintenance.

These fatigue failures are usually caused by stress concentrations (which may
have been eliminated or minimised at the design stage)
Any change in the surface properties will result in a change in fatigue strength

Conditions which may reduce fatigue strength include:
Possible methods of designing against fatigue failure include:
1. Stress concentrations due to improper design  Avoid stress concentrations at the design stage
2. Stress concentrations due to improper manufacture (rough machined
machined surfaces)  Produce parts with polished surfaces (polishing eliminates machining
machining marks)
3. Residual tensile stresses due to grinding or cold forming  Surface treatment such as: surface hardening (nitriding, carburising)
carburising) produce
4. Plating layers in compression.
5. Surface condition introduced by heat treatment (oxide penetration,
penetration, decarburisation)  Any treatment that increases the hardness or yield strength of the
the material will
6. Size (most published fatigue date on materials are based on small small laboratory increase the stress level needed to produce slip, resulting in enhance
enhance fatigue
specimens with do not adequately evaluate the fatigue strength of of large parts) strength
 SUMMARY

• Occurs when a material experiences lengthy periods of cyclic or

repeated stresses
• Failure at stress levels much lower than under static loading
• Fatigue is estimated to be responsible for approximately 90% of all
metallic failures
• Failure occurs rapidly and without warning
• There is no fixed ratio between materials Yield-and Fatigue
Strength
• Normally the ratio varies between 30-60%
• Fatigue Strengths are usually average values

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