7 - Production Phase Module PDF

Introduction to
Hydrocarbon Exploitation
Production Phase
September - October 2004
Uni vation
Univation
PRODUCTION PHASE
Production Phase
“The production phase commences with the first commercial quantities

of hydrocarbons ("first oil") flowing through the wellhead. This marks
the turning point from a cash flow point of view, since from now on
cash is generated and can be used to pay back the prior
investments, or may be made available for new projects. Minimizing
the time between the start of an exploration campaign and "first oil"
is one of the most important goals in any new venture”
Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 2
1
Production Phase
Development planning and production are usually based on the expected

production profile which depends strongly on the mechanism providing the driving
force in the reservoir. The production profile will determine the facilities required
and the number and phasing of wells to be drilled. The production profile shown in
Figure 1.1 is characterised by three phases:
1. Build-up period: During this period newly drilled producers are progressively
brought on stream.
2. Plateau period Initially new wells may still be brought on stream but the older
wells start to decline. A constant production rate is maintained. This period is
typically 2 to 5 years for an oil field, but longer for a gas field.
3. Decline period: During this final (and usually longest) period all producers will
exhibit declining production.
Operating and Maintenance Principles
It is important to define how the field will be produced and operate and
how the facilities are to be maintained, these two parameters will have a
big impact on the facilities design.
DEVELOPMENT OPERATING PHASE

PHASE
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
2
Operating and Maintenance Objectives
The production operation and maintenance group will develop a set of

operating and maintenance objectives for the project. It will be a guideline
when specifying the mode of operation and maintenance of the equipment
items and will incorporate:
¾ Business Objectives
¾ Responsibilities to the customer
¾ Safety and environmental Management Systems
¾ Reservoir Management
¾ Product Quality and availability
¾ Cost Control
Operating and Maintenance Objectives
The maintenance and operating objectives of a project might include statements

which cover technical, business and environmental principles such us:
¾ Meeting the company objectives of, say, maximising the economic recovery of
hydrocarbons.
¾ Ensuring that the agreed quantities of hydrocarbons are delivered to the customer
on time, to specification and in a safe manner.
¾ Ensuring an uptime of offshore facilities of, say, 98%
¾ Minimising manpower offshore
¾ Providing a safe working environmental for all staff and contractors
¾ Complying with a local legislation
¾ Measurement of hydrocarbon delivery to a specified accuracy
¾ Providing certain levels of employment within a local community
3
Operating Input
When preparing a field development plan (FDP), the production operations

department will become involved in setting out the way in which the field will be
operated, with specific reference to areas such as:
Operating Input
4
Maintenance Input
In conjunction with the operating input, maintenance engineering will

outline how the equipment will be maintained.
Statistical analysis of failures of equipment show a characteristic
trend with time, called the “bath tub curve”:
Maintenance Input
¾ Early Failures: may occur almost immediately, and the failure rate is determined
by manufacturing faults or poor repairs.
¾ Random Failures: are due to mechanical faults as the equipment becomes old.
One technique used by maintenance engineers is to record the mean time to failure
(MTF) of equipment items to find out in which period a piece of equipment is likely
to fail.
Equipment items will be maintained in different ways, depending upon their:
¾ Critically and the consequence of failure

¾ Failure mode
5
Equipment Criticality
Refers to how important an equipment item is to the process. For

example:
PROCESS FACILITIES OIL STORAGE TANK
PRODUCTION
POTENTIAL
10,000 B/D
OIL EXPORT PUMP
Univation
Field & Well Optimisation
Introduction to Design Philosophy
6
The Field Life Cycle
Pre-production Build-up Plateau Decline Decommissioning
Production
Rate
Time
Potential Projects: Funding required

New Projects: High capital spending
Young Projects: Cash generating
Ageing Projects: Self financing
Decommissioning: Cash
sink
Ref. Jahn, F et al. Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production, Elsevier
Total Fluid Production System
Process Plant Sales
Artificial Secondary
Lift Recovery
Production
System
Reservoir
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Total Fluid Production System
Reservoir
– Geology, structure and boundaries
– Rock characteristics
– Fluids
Well
– Damaged, fractured, stimulated
– Completion
– Tubulars, restrictions, manifolds
Artificial Lift
Field
– Pipelines, separators, compressors, injection facilities
The Constraints on Production
– During the production phase of a field life, the operator will apply
field management techniques aimed at maximising the profitability of
the project and realising the economical recovery of the hydrocarbons,
while meeting all contractual obligations and working with certain
constraints
8
Resource Allocation
Approach
– Resources should be allocated in a manner consistent with the profit
motive
Profit Motive
– Maximise revenue
– Minimise cost
– Political benefit
– Environmental protection
Resource Allocation
Additional
Benefit
resources
M reduces the
benefit
Maximum return
Maximum available
slope II
Resource Input
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Optimisation
Make the most or the best of…
Production Optimisation
– Operational
– Configurational
Operational Optimisation
Method of tuning existing system to give the most benefit
Examples
– Re-allocate gas lift
– Re-design ESP
– Alter depth of pump. e.g. rod pump or jet pump
– Turn a well on or off
10
Operational Optimisation
For a system of wells producing oil, water and gas, using gas lift the total revenue
∑ [$ q o, i + $ gp q gp, i - $ w q w, i - $ gi q gi, i ]
is given by:
f = o
wells
– There is a minimum amount of gas that must be added before any oil is
produced – the kick-off gas which may be zero if the well is naturally flowing
and,
– There is a maximum or optimum performance beyond which the addition of
extra gas causes less oil to be produced
Configurational Optimisation
Method of constructing the system to give the most benefit.

Examples
– Deviated vs. sub-sea tie-backs wells
– Commingled streams vs. separated pipelines
– Which wells should be manifolded together
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Configurational Optimisation
Because of constraints in operations with a real production system, there is a limit

to the increase in production, in such cases… configurational changes to the system
are required.
– Addition or removal of pieces of equipment
– Remedial treatments to well completion
– Drilling of new wells
– And the option always present:
• Abandon the field
Well Design for the Entire Life of the Well
– How the well should perform for the entire period of its operational life?.
– Factors that impact on this are:
• The performance of the reservoir throughout the field life. (pressure support
or lack of it).
• Reservoir constraints. Gas and/or water coning would occur at high rates and
therefore the wells do not need to be designed to handle these rates.
• The fluids handling and how this may change.
• The production problems. Scales, asphaltenes, wax etc. all impact the well
design and productivity.
• The likelihood of interventions. This will allow for a tubing size change or
implementation of artificial lift.
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Completion Design Process
Although the stages in the conceptual design are presented

sequentially, many of the decisions that need to be taken are
interrelated and in practice many of the evaluations need to be
carried out in parallel.
Three distinct phases in the process:
– Conceptual completion design.
– Detailed completion design.
– Procurement and installation.
1. Determining the Range of Well Performance
Conceptual Design Consideration

– Predict the range of initial ‘near ideal’ (minimum near wellbore effects)
inflow performance and determine how this performance is likely to
change with time.
Data Required
– All well test and formation evaluation data from appraisal or
analogous wells, including RFTs, cores and logs.
13
1. Determining the Range of Well Performance
Questions To Be Addressed
– What is the appropriate inflow performance relationship?
– What is the likely range of inflow performance and the impact on the project?
– How will the reservoir drive affect well performance?
– How will the initial reservoir pressure vary?
– What is the likely change in GLR and water cut?
2. Determining the Range of Outflow Performance
Conceptual Design Consideration

– In order to determine production rates, a method of accurately modelling
tubing performance is required. This model should be used to determine the
initial range of tubing performance and predict how this performance will
change with time.
Data Required
– PVT samples and flash data.
– Flowing gradient surveys from appraisal wells or analogous wells to validate
pressure drop prediction method.
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2. Determining the Range of Outflow Performance
Data Required…
– Initial view on likely wellhead flowing pressure.
– Desired completion life.
– Answers to questions on inflow performance raised earlier.
– Is there an appropriate method for predicting tubing performance
and what are the potential errors and their impact on the
predictions?
– What is the likely range of tubing performance over the area of the
field and with time?
3. Combining the Inflow and Outflow Performance
Conceptual Design Considerations

– Confirm to an acceptable range of accuracy that the rates
can be met.
– Determine the likely range of well performance over the field
life.
Data Required
– Results from above inflow and outflow analyses.
15
3. Combining the Inflow and Outflow Performance
– Is the range of initial rates economically and technically feasible?
– Is the selected WHFP the economic optimum. What are the
repercussions of changing it?
– What is the appropriate tubing size for the range of inflow
performance and production rates?
– Will this tubing size sustain flow at the required rate over the
completion life?
– Is re-completing with a smaller tubing size economically attractive?
– Is artificial lift likely to be a requirement? If so, what is the
conceptual technique?
4. Near Wellbore Performance

– The likely well performance was based on achieving ‘near ideal’
inflow performance (ie near zero skin). In the conceptual phase, the
aim is to identify wells where the near wellbore performance is
likely to be less than ‘ideal’ (positive skin), or where there is a
potential for better than ‘ideal’, ie stimulation (negative skin).
Data Required
– Appraisal well tests should be designed to acquire all the data
necessary to avoid near wellbore problems in the development
wells..
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4. Near Wellbore Performance
Questions to Be Addressed
– Identify the potential types of near wellbore damage,
possible stimulation methods and potential sand production
problems?
– Evaluate the sensitivity to perforating techniques?
– Identify if near wellbore performance is a critical factor in the
field development and attempt to quantify the risks?
5. Architecture of Completions

– Based on the above work, alternative designs for the
reservoir/wellbore interface need to be developed.
– Determine the number of zones to be completed and likely method
of production, ie segregated or commingled.
– Based on the tubing stress analysis and an evaluation of the
potential well servicing and workover techniques (see below)
alternatives for the casing/tubing interface should be evaluated.
– Provide input to casing design.
17
Data Required
– Formation evaluation data from previous or analogous wells.
– Results from well performance, near wellbore performance and
tubing stress analyses.
– Required completion life.
– Brief evaluation of potential well servicing and workover
philosophies.
– Do all the alternative structures satisfy all the requirements?
– Are the completions simple, safe, reliable and flexible?
– Do the completions have the ability to cope with unforeseen
problems?
– Does the design life of the completion tie in with the
production profile forecasts?
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6. Tubing Movement & Stress Calculations

– Identify whether standard stock tubulars are suitable for the
application.
– Can tubing movement be eliminated.
Data Required
– Pressures and temperatures associated with all likely well conditions.
– Will the selected strength of tubular satisfy all the operating
conditions with acceptable design factors?
7. Selection of Tubulars and Materials

– Identify the alternative materials that can provide the required
completion life given the well conditions.
– Is the desired completion life and workover frequency realistic?
– Evaluate the economic trade-off between corrosion resistant
materials and workover frequency.
Data Required
– Accurate samples and analyses of well fluids or reliable data from
analogous wells.
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7. Selection of Tubulars and Materials
– Is the data representative of conditions throughout the field?
– Can material of suitable strength be made in the desired corrosion
resistant material?
– Will conditions change with time?
– Have all the fluids likely to be used been considered?
– Does the selected material and completion life provide the lowest
risk and best economic return?
– Is the lead time on the selected material compatible with project
timing?
8. Selection of Completion Equipment

– This activity should be performed as part of the detailed
design process. However, if the completion requires special
equipment, care should be taken to ensure that the equipment
can be designed, tested and built within the time frame of the
project.
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9. Well Servicing & Workover Philosophy

– Identify the techniques required to maintain the well throughout its
life.
Data Required
– Likely well duty.
– Likely production chemistry problems.
– Are the conceptual completion designs compatible with the well
maintenance philosophy?
- The final stage in the conceptual design is to establish broad budget costs
and approximate lead times.
Completion Technology – Design Time Options
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Completion Technology
Completion technology – Upper Completion Issues
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Completion technology - Intervention Issues
For Instance:
Will the complexity of a completion frustrate well management

With wireline when scales, waxes and asphaltines precipitate?
Or does just age and corrosion make life difficult?
Would a monobore completion make life easier in later field life?

Are there disadvantages with monobores?
Will future zonal isolation be possible when

water breakthrough occurs?
Has allowance been
made for future
Sidetracks?
Will tubulars corrode? Can Coiled Tubing

Can the well be
Intervention reach the end
effectively stimulated
Of a horizontal section?
Or inhibited against
Scale formation?
Well Management – Link to Facilities
23
Univation
Field Optimisation
Production Debottlenecking
Production operations
– A process facility bottleneck is caused when any piece of equipment becomes

overloaded and restricts throughput.
– In the early years of a development, production will often be restricted by the

capacity of the processing facility to treat hydrocarbons.
• If the reservoir is performing better than expected it may pay to increase plant
capacity.
• If, however, it is just a temporary production peak such a modification may not be
worthwhile.
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– As a field matures, bottlenecks may appear in other areas, such as water

treatment or gas compression processes, and become factors limiting oil or gas
production.
– These issues can often be addressed both by surface and subsurface options,
though the underlying justification remains the same; the NPV of a
debottlenecking exercise (net cost of action versus the increase in net revenue)
must be positive.
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– It is not always easy to predict how a change in one part of a processing chain
will affect the process as a whole.
– It may be difficult to estimate the cost in terms of extra manpower and

maintenance overheads, where an increase in capacity demands additional
equipment.
– To be able to make a decision it is important to have realistic incremental cost

and revenue profiles, to judge the consequence of either action or no action.
• The types of facilities bottleneck which appear late in field life

depend upon the reservoir, development scheme and facilities in
place.
• Two of the most common capacity constraints affecting production
include:
- produced water treatment
- gas handling
» Both are more difficult to manage offshore than on land, where space and
load bearing capacity are less likely to represent restrictions
26
Produced Water Treatment
– Extra tankage or other low maintenance options are usually too heavy
or take up too much room on an offshore platform.
– Additional capacity in the form of hydrocyclones may be a technical

option, but will increase existing operating and maintenance costs, at a
time when opex control is particularly important.
Produced Water Treatment
– If extra treatment capacity is not cost effective, another option may be to

handle the produced water differently:
• If disposal specifications can be relaxed, less treatment will be required, or a
larger capacity of water could be treated. It is unlikely.
• Reduce water production by well intervention methods.
• water cut layers in the 'wettest' wells can sometimes be isolated with bridge plugs
or 'scab' liners.
• Similar operations can be considered in water injectors to shut off high
permeability zones if water is being distributed inefficiently
27
Gas Handling
As solution gas drive reservoirs lose pressure → produced GORs increase →

larger volumes of gas require processing.
Oil production can become constrained by gas handling capacity → limited

compression facilities.
– A solution is to install additional equipment, but the added operating cost

towards the end of field life is often unattractive, and may ultimately
contribute to increased abandonment costs.
Gas Handling
– Gas re-injection into the reservoir may be an alternative, although this

implies additional compression facilities.
– Gas production may be reduced using well intervention methods similar
to those described for reducing water cut
• In some undersaturated reservoirs with non commercial quantities of gas
but too much to flare, gas has be used to fuel gas turbines and generate
electricity for local use.
28
Updating the Reservoir Model
Well Management – Well Testing
29
Well Management – Example Problems
Well Management – Example Problems
30
Well Management - Downtime
Well Management – Aim for Profit?
31
Well Management – Adding Value by Thinking !
The Field Life Cycle

Actual vs. Estimated OPEX
A
PRE-PRODUCTION
DECOMMISSION
OPEX $
BUILD PLATEAU DECLINE INCREMENTAL E

UP PROJECT - PLANNED
PRODUCING TIME
32
Field Rehabilitation Targets
Accelerated & Additional Reserves
33
Accelerated & Additional Reserves
Cashflow at End of Field Life

PRODUCTION RATE
PRE-PRODUCTION
PLATEAU
DECOMMISSION
CASHFLOW
EXPOSURE
BUILD DECLINE
UP
TIME
CASH SURPLUS
PAYOUT
34
Questions asked during Production Optimisation?
– How do we efficiently measure performance against plan ?

– How do we improve Ultimate Recovery ?
– How do we reduce Operating Costs ?
– How do we maximise Safety Performance ?
– How do we meet or exceed production targets ?
– How can we efficiently accelerate production ?
– How do we continually evaluate incremental projects ?
– How do we postpone abandonment ?
Field & Well Management Summary
35
Workover & Well Intervention
II
Workovers
“…any work performed after the initial completion that alters the
well performance or mechanical structure”.
36
Well Servicing & Workovers
Potential Well Problems

Well Servicing and Workover Techniques
Intervention Techniques
– Wireline
– Coiled Tubing
– Hydraulic Snubbing Units
– Surface Well Intervention Technique
Well Servicing & Workovers
During the conceptual design stage it is important to identify any potential reasons
for workovers and the applicable techniques.
When reviewing the impact of well problems and workover techniques on the
initial completion design, it is important to recognise the risk associated with that
problem and the potential consequences.
Optimising the completion design around potential well problems and workover
techniques is, like many other issues, a question of balancing risk against likely
consequence.
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Low Reservoir Pressure:

The reduction in reservoir pressure and hence flowrates is particularly acute in
dissolved gas drive reservoirs. In gas cap and water drive reservoirs, pressure
maintenance techniques can often offset the reduction in pressure due to depletion.
How to Solve it: The only workover technique that can mitigate the effects of
falling reservoir pressure is to recomplete the well with either smaller tubing or
some form of artificial lift.
Poor Permeability:
Fields with low reservoir permeability suffer a rapid decline once the
fluids near the wellbore are produced.
Matrix acidising is only effective in this situation if formation damage
is also present.
How to solve it: The most effective method of improving productivity
in these types of reservoir is to utilise a large hydraulic fracture
treatment.
38
Wellbore Restrictions:
Typical causes of restrictions include scale, sand, paraffin and asphalt etc. Many of
these problems may not be apparent during early field life but can become a
significant problem as the field matures.
How to solve it: A number of techniques, both mechanical and chemical, exist to
remove the restriction.
However, these workover techniques are remedial techniques and consideration
should always be given to the prevention of the problem.
Control of Water Production:
Excessive water production can lead to a number of production

problems including loss of production and eventual well death,
expensive treatment and disposal costs, corrosion and scaling.
Recovery from water drive reservoirs, however, requires a large
influx of water and considerable quantities of this water may have
to be produced to achieve the best economic return from the field.
39
Control of Water Production:
A significant increase in water production is usually a result of one of the following:

– A rise in water/oil contact as a result of reservoir depletion. This is a normal
occurrence in water drive reservoirs as the aquifer moves into the oil zone.
– If excessive water production is found to be a problem in this situation, then this
can usually be controlled by squeeze cementing or plugging back.
– A poor primary cement job which leaves channels between the casing and
formation, allowing water to flow behind the casing into the producing
perforations. This problem is again remedied by squeeze cementing.
– Water coning or fingering. Here water

is drawn up from the aquifer either
across bedding planes leading to
coning or along the bedding planes
leading to fingering.
– Eliminating these cones and fingers
usually requires reducing the offtake
from the wells or recompleting the well
in another zone.
Water migrating along a high permeability
streak.
Fracturing a well into the aquifer.
40
Control of Gas Production:
Excessive gas production from a well can result from solution gas in the oil evolving
as the pressure declines, or as a result of gas encroachment from the gas cap.
With pressure decline in saturated oil reservoirs, the gas evolved across the
reservoir may migrate to the gas cap.
However, the gas evolved near the wellbore as the oil is produced causes an
increase in gas saturation and allows the gas to be produced with the oil.
Control of Gas Production:
High gas/oil ratios (GORs) in this case are a function of the reservoir
drive mechanism and cannot usually be remedied by a workover.
An increase in GOR can also occur from a lowering of the gas cap
into the producing zone and through channels in the cement or casing
leaks. This increase in GOR can be temporarily remedied by
squeeze cementing and lowering the perforated interval.
41
Mechanical Failures:
Mechanical failures of tubing, casing and downhole equipment often require a

workover to rectify the problem.
Typical problems would include casing leaks, either as a result of corrosion or
collapse, tubing failures, packer failures and downhole safety valve failures.
Many of these failures result in a unacceptable level of annulus/tubing
communication which require a full workover to rectify the problem.
Primary Cement Failures:
A poor primary cement job which leaves channels behind the casing
can lead to the influx of unwanted fluids and in certain instances
casing collapse.
The repair of cementing failures can be achieved using a number of
different techniques.
42
Well Servicing & Workover Techniques
The most commonly utilised workover techniques include:

– Wireline operations;
• slickline, braided line and electric line.
– Coiled tubing operations.
– Hydraulic workover operations.
– Remedial cementing.
– Concentric workover operations.
– Full rig workovers.
Wireline Operations
It has relatively low cost and ability to be run through a lubricator on the Xmas
tree with the well under pressure.
Slickline.
– This is a solid single strand of wire, the commonest size being 0.108in
Braided line.
– This wireline consists of stranded wire resulting in a higher load capacity than
slickline. Commonly used sizes are 3/16 and 5/16in
Electric line.
– This consists of stranded wire and a conductor capable of transmitting an
electrical signal to the surface.
43
Wireline Operations
The main functions of slickline are as follows:

– Installation and retrieval of flow control equipment.
– Running of pressure, temperature and flow monitoring devices.
– Cleaning the tubing.
– Bailing fill.
– Swabbing the well.
– Fishing equipment.
Wireline units are installed on various means of transport including trailers, trucks,
boats and barges. Units used on offshore platforms are typically skid mounted. The
wireline is spooled on to a reel that is usually hydraulically driven.
Wireline Operations
Braided line is commonly used in fishing operations where slickline

has insufficient strength to impart the required loads.
Electric line is used in any application where an electrical signal
needs to be transmitted up or down the well.
The principal applications are to activate equipment like packers,
perforating, and in data acquisition like production logging.
44
Coiled Tubing Units (CTU)
They have traditionally been used for well clean-out, well kick-off and spotting of
acid.
CTU applications are limited by the tensile capacity of the tubing, the lifting
capacity of the rig and the inability to rotate the tubing.
Although not as mobile and easy to rig up as a wireline unit, CTUs ability to convey
fluids and the significant cost advantages over conventional workover rigs has led
to the use of coiled tubing as the preferred technique for a number of well
maintenance problems.
Coiled Tubing Units (CTU)
In highly deviated and horizontal wells, it is being used for applications like shifting
sliding sleeves, which cannot be performed by wireline at high angles.
Coiled tubing is being utilised for scale mill outs using downhole motors and
remedial cementing.
Pressure drops in coiled tubing are significant as the fluid has to pass through the
complete length of tubing on the reel irrespective of depth. As a result of this,
circulation rates are limited to a few barrels a minute.
45
Hydraulic Workover Units (HWU)
A hydraulic workover or snubbing operates on the principle that pipe

can be inserted or withdrawn from a well under pressure.
The process utilises jointed tubing or drill pipe with a hydraulic

snubbing unit to run the tubing string without killing the well, and
allows small diameter tubing to be run through the completion.
(HWU)
The unit has to perform three basic

functions:
– Feed the pipe into and out of the
well in a controlled manner against
wellhead pressure.
– Provide a seal which maintains
integrity while at the same time
allowing the pipe to be inserted or
removed from the well.
– Provide a means of plugging the
inside of the pipe.
46
Hydraulic workover units have several advantages over conventional workover rigs
and greater capability than coiled tubing:
– The workover operation can be performed under pressure and in certain cases
with the well still flowing. This eliminates the risk of formation damage in
sensitive formations resulting from killing the well prior to a conventional
workover.
– Mobilisation and demobilisation are shorter reducing the overall time a well is
off production.
– The hydraulic workover unit is flexible, with a lifting capacity up to 340 000
lbs, allowing it to handle relatively large tools. The ability to rotate the pipe
enables light drilling and milling work to be performed.
The primary use for HWU was for emergency and non-routine well interventions.
This use has to some extent tarnished the reputation of HWU, in that most of the
experience has been gained under difficult or emergency situations.
Indeed, in many cases HWU was the only appropriate technique to control the
well. However, for some of the reasons outlined above, the HWU is now becoming
the preferred well servicing technique for certain situations.
47
Current applications include:

– Fishing or milling in casing.
– Cleaning out cemented solids in the tubing, liner or casing.
– Drilling out bridge plugs.
– Washing out frac materials.
– Pressure control/well killing.
– Circulating out heavy fluids.
– Acidising and washing.
– Running macaroni tubing to pump nitrogen in wells where depth and pressure
preclude the use of coiled tubing.
– Running completions under pressure.
– Sand consolidation.
– Squeeze cementing or plugging back.
Remedial Cementing
Remedial cementing uses various techniques to place small volumes in

specific targets. The type of operations fall into two categories:
– Cement squeezes, where cement is squeezed under pressure to seal
perforations or defects in the primary cement sheath.
– Cement plugs, which are set to isolate part or all of the wellbore.
48
Remedial Cementing
Remedial cementing is usually performed during the production

phase to control the fluids entering the wellbore, or to restore
pressure integrity.
Common applications include:
– Recompletion or perforation squeeze.
– Repairing of channels.
– Repair of casing leaks.
– Supplementing top of cement.
– Plug and abandonment.
Rig Workovers
Conventional rig workovers are usually employed to perform the

following:
– Retrieving and running completion strings.
– Repairing or modifying the permanent downhole equipment e.g running
scab liners etc.
– Changing the completion interval.
49
Concentric Workovers
Concentric workovers involve the use of a smaller diameter

workstring which is run inside the permanent completion.
Concentric workover methods include coiled tubing, HWUs and small
workover rigs.
Coiled tubing and HWUs have the advantage of being able to be
run in the well without killing the well.
Wireline Equipment
The minimum surface equipment required to perform wireline operations is:

– Wireline winch unit.
– Measuring device.
– Weight indicator.
– Hay pulley and wireline clamp.
– Stuffing box.
– Lubricator.
– Blowout preventer (BOP).
– Wireline.
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Wireline Equipment
Wireline Equipment
The most common wireline winch unit is skid mounted and has a double drum, one
with 20 000 ft of 0.108in wire and the second with 15 000 ft of 7/32in wire.
The measuring device, as the name implies, provides the operator with the location
of his tool relative to some datum, usually the swab valve.
– The operator uses this device to locate the tool string, monitor the speed, and
to avoid running the tool string into the stuffing box when pulling out of the
hole.
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Wireline Equipment
The weight indicator displays the total load or line tension and is
critical to jarring operations to avoid breaking the wire. The device
will also indicate restrictions in the tubing, changes in fluid density
and losses or increases in weight when setting or retrieving downhole
equipment.
The hay pulley guides the wire down from the lubricator and out
parallel to the floor to the winch drum. The hay pulley is attached to
the Xmas tree via the load cell for the weight indicator.
Wireline Equipment
The wireline clamp is used to secure the wire when required e.g.
when removing the lubricator.
The stuffing box provides the pressure seal on the wire and consists
of a packing gland that can be adjusted by means of an external
nut.
– In the event that the wire breaks and is forced out of the packing, there
is a an internal BOP plunger that is designed to seal off the stuffing
box.
52
Wireline Equipment
The BOP or wireline valve provides a means of well control in emergency

situations. BOPs can either be single or double.
The BOP can isolate pressure with or without wire in the well. The BOP rams have
resilient seals which can close and seal around a wire, without damaging or cutting
the wire.
Dual BOPs are normally employed for braided line or fishing operations.
Electric Line
The primary use is for cased hole formation evaluation and production logging. It
is also routinely used for perforating, setting bridge plugs and packers etc.
Production logging is the term used for any survey which is run to evaluate the
nature and behaviour of fluids in the well during production or injection.
The applications of production logging include:
– Well test evaluation.
– Determining reservoir characteristics.
– Evaluating completion efficiency.
– Identifying unwanted fluid flow eg thief zones.
– Reviewing stimulation treatments, before and after.
53
Electric Line
There are several other surveys commonly carried out on electric line
which are not generally considered to be production logging. These
include casing corrosion and integrity logs as well as cement bond
logs.
These are generally run before the tubing is run in new wells, or
after the completion has been removed in older wells being worked
over.
Measuring Devices
There are various measuring devices that are utilised in production

logging. These include temperature, pressure, flowmeters, electrical,
nuclear, magnetic, sonic and mechanical. In order to provide
meaningful data these devices must be run in complementary suites.
54
Through Tubing Bridge Plugs
As the name suggests, bridge plugs are run through tubing and other downhole
restrictions and then expand to seal in the casing.
They are primarily used to shut lower watered out zones. There are two main types
available.
– Bridge plugs, e.g. Teledyne Merla plugs, which are set with an explosive
setting tool similar to a standard Baker setting tool.
– These have a diameter before setting of approximately 3 to 4in and expand
up to 4 or 5in and are similar to standard wireline bridge plugs.
Bridge Plugs & Production Packers
These are standard wireline plugs and packers run with a standard wireline
explosive setting tool. The plugs are commonly used to plug and abandon wells
after drilling, or to seal off casing strings.
Wireline set packers can be run with tailpipes, although the length of pipe is
limited by the strength of the wire.
There are more exotic pieces of hardware that can be run with wireline setting
tools, e.g. casing patches.
55
Gas Lift Surveys
Troubleshooting of gas lift wells can be performed using a flowing

temperature and pressure survey.
Stationary readings are taken from above and below each gas lift
mandrel and this enables a graph to be plotted of pressure against
depth for various well conditions.
Analysis of this graph can show the status of individual gas lift
valves.
Coiled Tubing Equipment
Coiled tubing is run and pulled from the well by means of the
injector head. The endless chains and friction blocks are driven by a
hydraulic motor.
Unlike wireline, coiled tubing has initially to be fed or injected into a
pressured well. The injector head also works in reverse and actively
feeds the string out of the well when recovering the tubing.
The coiled tubing reel itself purely acts as a spooling device taking
up the slack or paying out the tubing as required.
56
The inner end of the tubing is connected to a rotary swivel to

facilitate the pumping of fluids.
The running speed of the coiled tubing is dependent on the
application but is typically between 40 to 100 ft per minute.
Coiled tubing provides a cost-effective well servicing tool.
57
CT Equipment
58
Standard Coiled Tubing Operations
Coiled tubing units are routinely used for the following operations:
– Nitrogen lifting.
– Sand lifting.
– Cleaning out the wellbore utilising a downhole motor.
– Circulating fluids.
– Drill stem testing (DST).
– Sand control.
– Corrosion inhibitor placement.
– Spotting acid, Spotting cement.
– Coiled tubing conveyed electric line services.
– Inflatable bridge plugs.
– Fishing operations.
Nitrogen Lifting
Pumping nitrogen down coiled tubing to reduce the hydrostatic head of the well
fluids is utilised in a number of well operations.
Lifting unstable wells and circulating out completion fluids following a workover
are common applications.
The injection rate required to bring on the well is a function of the pipe size, depth,
fluid characteristics and reservoir performance.
Coiled tubing can also be used to provide the required underbalance prior to
perforating.
59
Sand Lifting
Coiled tubing can be used to clean out sand fill from sumps that has
occurred during production or as a result of hydraulic fracturing
operations.
Coiled tubing’s ability to maintain circulation while running in or
pulling out of hole make it ideally suited for this application. If
possible sand lifting should be performed with the well flowing.
This may alleviate the need for injecting gel, although cross linked
polymer is usually injected.
Cleaning Out with DH Motors
This technique is utilised when the deposits in the well are compacted
or cemented and is particularly useful in the removal of insoluble
scale deposits.
A downhole motor is used to drill out the deposit which is then
washed to the surface.
The downhole motor operates on the Moineau principle which utilises
fluid being forced through a progressive cavity to supply the
rotational power.
60
Clean Out
Circulating Fluids
Coiled tubing obviously provides a convenient and economic means

of circulating fluids and is used for such varied purposes as
circulating kill fluid, washing drilling mud, and removing paraffin and
salt using hot oil or water.
61
Drill Stem Testing
Coiled tubing is often used as a means of artificial lift to assist wells which will
not flow naturally during DSTs.
Two methods are used, downhole jet pumping and nitrogen gas lift.
– The jet pumping method utilises the coiled tubing to both locate the jet pump
module in a landing nipple and subsequently convey the power fluid. The
power fluid is usually water, although a combination of water and nitrogen
can be used for low GOR crudes. Heavy crude oils may also benefit from
applying heat to the power fluid.
– The jet pumping technique is most appropriate for crudes with an API
gravity of 12 or less.
– Nitrogen gas lifting is more suitable for the higher API crudes.
Sand Control
Limitations on pump pressure and rates limit this application to shallow wells less
than 6000 ft.
Both resin coated sand and water activated plastic can be pumped with coiled
tubing.
To place water activated plastic:
– CT is run in the hole to the interval to be treated, and the well fluids are
circulated out to diesel. With the wellbore free of water, the plastic is pumped
through the coiled tubing with the annulus shut off.
– After the plastic is squeezed into the formation, the coiled tubing is shut in for
12 to 24 hours with sufficient wellhead pressure to prevent backflow of the
plastic from the formation.
62
Corrosion Inhibitor Placement
Coiled tubing has been used in conjunction with an inhibitor valve to

atomise corrosion inhibitor and coat the tubular on low rate gas wells
with potential carbon dioxide corrosion.
However, in many cases the use of inhibitor to prevent corrosion has
not proven to be cost-effective.
Stimulation
Coiled tubing is ideally suited for the selective placement (spotting) of acid and
can be used in a number of applications, including opening perforations and
dissolving acid soluble scale deposits.
Using coiled tubing in this manner avoids having to bullhead the well. Coiled tubing
allows acid to be circulated across the perforations and take the returns back up
the tubing.
In this way smaller amounts of acid can be used at lower pressures and the contact
time with the production tubing is reduced.
63
CT Conveyed Electric Line Services
Coiled tubing provides a convenient means of obtaining the

functionality of electric line in highly deviated and horizontal wells.
The system can be adopted in both cased and open hole. Coiled
tubing has certain advantages over other systems in that no
downhole wet connections are required and the tools are less prone
to damage.
Inflatable Bridge Plugs
Inflatable bridge plugs can be run through on coiled tubing, set in production liner
and subsequently retrieved.
The bridge plugs, manufactured by Lynes and Baker Oil Tools, consist of an
inflatable element that is set by pumping down the tubing and a hydraulic
disconnect which is activated by dropping a ball down the tubing and pressuring
up.
The tool has the advantage of being able to pass through restrictions in the tubing
and set in relatively large diameters.
64
Fishing Operations
Coiled tubing fishing techniques are proven successful, especially in

the recovery of fish buried under sand, cement or scale.
Fishing with coiled tubing allows fill to be cleaned out and the fish
washed over and latched during the same operation.
Application of this technology has potential in remote or offshore
locations where rig availability is a problem or in cases where the
CTU is already available on site.
Hydraulic Snubbing Unit
Hydraulic snubbing units are made up from modular units which can be easily
transported and rigged up.
When locating the unit, care should be taken to ensure that the structure or
wellhead can support the weight of the unit together with any forces generated
during the snubbing operation. A hydraulic workover unit (HWU) consists of the
following components
– The hydraulic jack assembly, guide tube, window, travelling and stationary
slips, rotary table and power tongs.
– The work basket and control panel.
– Hydraulic power pack and accessories.
– Circulating swivel, kelly hose and pumps.
– BOP stack.
65
BOP Stack Configuration
The main components of the BOP system are as follows:

– The stripper rubber is located immediately below the window and is used for
running pipe in and out of the hole without using the stripper rams. The stripper
rubber is a solid synthetic rubber element that can stretch as couplings etc pass
through, and maintain pressure integrity. This allows pipe to be stripped
through the rubber under pressure.
– In addition to the stripper rubber, stripper rams should always be incorporated
in a snubbing BOP. The stripper rams provide pressure integrity at pressures
above 3000 psi and also facilitate the running of downhole tools.
66
Between the two stripper rams is an equalising loop. This loop runs from below the
lower stripper ram to below the upper ram and is used to equalize the pressure
above the lower ram before opening it.
A choke is also included in the loop to regulate the rate of equalisation. These
chokes are changed out to suit the fluid in the well.
The vent line ties in below the upper stripping ram and is run to safe point away
from the snubbing unit. This line is used to bleed down the pressure between each
stripper ram.
The safety rams are located below the stripper rams and are used
to contain the well pressure in the event of a stripper ram failure or
a change in the stack. The safety rams are pipe rams and the
number used in the stack will depend on the well conditions and
planned operations. At least one set of safety rams must be
controlled from the basket.
These are the same as blind rams used in a drilling BOP and are
used to shut in the well when there is no pipe in the stack.
67
Blind/shear rams will cut the pipe and close in the well in a emergency situation.
The ram and blade type must be tested prior to rig-up, to ensure that they will cut
the size and grade of pipe.
Outlet spools provide access to the wellbore and should always be located above
at least one pipe ram preventer and have double valve isolation.
The choke and kill lines are attached to an outlet spool or ram body and as the
name suggests are used to pump fluid into, or take returns from the well. These
lines must have a working pressure equivalent to the BOPs.
Selecting Surface Well Intervention Technique
The cost of workovers on marginal or satellite developments, both with subsea and
unmanned platforms, is becoming a major factor in the economic viability of these
types of developments.
For many of the well problems outlined some form of remedial workover is
inevitable. Being able to perform the workover under pressure obviously has
advantages in terms of both time savings and reduced potential for formation
damage.
The choice is usually between an HWU and coiled tubing. The question of which
technique is appropriate is dependent on the type of operation and well
conditions.
68
Barrier Philosophy
“Health, Safety & Environmental protection must be considered during

all aspects of the design of completion”
Barriers:
In general, the well should have two reliable independent barriers
between reservoir and environment at all times.
Barrier Philosophy
Well Integrity:
Leaks of hydrocarbons or other damaging fluids should be
prevented during the life of the well.
Well Monitoring:
It is vital to be able to detect a leak of hydrocarbons from the
production string.
69
Well Control
The completion should have the ability to be plugged deep, if required, during the
life of the well.
When removing the BOPs, prior to installing a tree (conventional), there should be
two independent tested mechanical barriers, plus another barrier (i.e. safety valve)
between reservoir and environment.
When installing a completion, it should always be possible to circulate down and to
shut-in the well at surface.
Stimulation Techniques
III
70
Well Stimulation Objectives
Increase the P roduction E nhancem ent

productivity of Increase the productivity of a well by:
Remove damage near the wellbore
a well by: Superimpose a highly conductive structure

onto the formation
Increase the effective area of the reservoir in communication with

the wellbore
Primary Methods of Stimulation
Matrix acidizing Hydraulic fracturing

(acid or proppant)
71
Hydraulic Fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is a stimulation technique which consists in fluid injection into the
formation at high flow rates, causing an increase in pressure and a subsequent
formation breaking.
The breakdown and early growth, expose

new formation area to the injected fluid,
and thus the injected fluid leaking off into
the formation starts to increase. If the
pumping rate is maintained at a higher rate
that the fluid loss rate, then the fracture must
continue to propagate and grow.
72
Once pumping stops, the fracture closes. In order to prevent this, it is added propping agent o
the injected fluid to be transported into the fracture. When pumping stops and the fluids flows
back from the well, the propping agent remains in place to keep the fracture opened and
maintain a conductive flow path for the increased formation flow area during production.
Hydraulic Fracturing Objectives
Production Enhancement through:

through:
Skip damaged area around the well bore.
Productivity increase is
attached to enhance the
reservoir performance
73

through:
Screenless completions, frac-pack. Productivity increase is
attached to decrease the high velocities at the near-wellbore
area due to drawdown

through:
Wellbore
Static Pressure
rw
rs Asphalting deposition
prevention at the near-
Pressure drop
∆Pskin Pressure drop
well bore area due to
across Skin severe draw-down
attached to increase the
Skin or zone of
altered Flowing Pressure Pwf bottom hole flowing
permeability pressure (BHP)
74

Natural fractures connection
attached to reservoir
area in contact with the
“highway” to the well.

Scale deposition and H2S prevention: Time released
chemicals
attached to reservoir area in
contact with the chemical
75

Water conning retardation
Effective well bore radius
The fracture case can be

approximated by an
rw equivalent well bore having
rw’
the same area as the
fracture, and the radius of
this well bore is rw’
76
Production from Darcy’

Darcy’s Law (radial flow)
−3
7 . 08 x 10 kh ( p avg − p wf )
Q =
µβ o [ln (0 . 472 re / r w )− 0 . 75 + s ]
Q: Stabilized production rate for oil BPD

k: Effective formation permeability, mD
h: Formation thickness, ft
pavg: Average reservoir pressure, psi
pwf: Bottom hole flowing pressure, psi
µ: Fluid viscosity, cp
βo: Oil formation volume factor,
re: Drainage radius, ft
rw: Well bore radius, ft
s: Skin effect
{ }
Production increase
Qf = Stabilized production after frac

Qf ln (re / rw ) Qi = Stabilized production before frac
PI = = re = Drainage radius
Qi ln (re / rw′ ) rw = Wellbore radius
rw’ = Effective wellbore radius
Production increase
calculations
assumptions
• Steady state production
• Same drawdown for each production rate
• Single phase flow
• No skin damage for production before frac
77
Effect over production
104
Oil Flowrate
103 With fracture

(bpd)
102
Without fracture
101 0
10 20 30
Time (months)

Bottomhole flowing pressure (psia)
Effect over production

Production performance Productivity Index
12000 8.0 bpd/psi
10000 1/4”
1/4”
3/8”
3/8”
7/16”
7/16”
8000
Productivity Index
6000
0.58 bpd/psi
4000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Oil flowrate (bpd)
78
Hydraulic Fracturing Design
Proper treatment design is tied to several disciplines:
• Production engineering
• Rock Mechanics
• Fluid Mechanics
• Selection of optimum materials
• Operations
It is a multidisciplinary approach with a multitude of variables involved, with some

uncertainty in the absolute values of these variables: Engineering judgment is very
important.
Fracture Design Base Sequence
•Identification of elastics constants, effective stress and stress field

orientation.
•Fluid selection system applicable to the formation to be fractured.
•Proppant selection, based on stress and conductivity requirements.
•Selection of fracture propagation model for the formation characteristics

and pressure behaviour on the basis of in-situ stress and laboratory tests,
calibration treatments and log analysis (e.g. stress profile, gamma ray, sonic
logs).
•Tubing stress analysis to evaluate the completion integrity during the

treatment.
79
Fracture Design Base Sequence
•Determine fracture penetration and fracture conductivity for a selected

treatment size.
•Determine the injection rates, fluids and proppant volumes required and
fracture conductivity obtained.
•Determine the production rate and cumulative recovery over a selected

period of time for a specific propped penetration and its corresponding
conductivity.
•Calculated the NPV and perform a sensitivities analysis for and optimum
treatment design.
Fracture Design - Input data
Geomechanical
•Poisson's Ratio (Logs, Core Tests)

•Young’s Modulus (Logs, Core Tests)
•Fracture Toughness (Tests, History Match)
•Minimum Horizontal Stress (Minifrac, calculations)
•Stress Contrasts (Logs, Core Tests)
80
Reservoir
•Porosity (logs, cores)

•Compressibility (Test, Calculations)
•Net Pay (Logs, Cores)
•Permeability (Cores, Tests)
•Fluid Viscosity (Lab Tests, PVT)
•Fluid Compressibility (Lab Test, PVT)
Fracture Fluids
•Rheology (Lab Tests)

•Density (Lab Tests)
•Filter Cake (Lab Tests)
•Filtrate Viscosity (Lab Tests)
81
Completion
•Completion Schematic.
•Tubular and Connections Ratings
•Completion components specifications
Rock Mechanics in Hydraulic Fracturing
• The fracture is initiated near

the top of the interval.
• It’s height does not contact the
entire zone.
82
• The fracture grew out of the

zone
• It contacted mostly non-
reservoir rock.
• The fracture grew downward

the water-oil contact
• It would possibly result in water
production.
83
Tortuosity
Minimum horizontal
stress
Fracture initiation may not be perpendicular to the actual

minimum horizontal stress.
Stress field and well bore orientation
Orientation of hydraulic fractures

Schematic of the orientation of hydraulic between the minimum and maximum
fractures for two horizontal wells principal stresses
84
Methods to determine stress orientation
• Coring after an off-

bottom microfrac test. A
microfrac test is
conducted with the
openhole packer just
above the bottom of the
well. After the microfrac,
an oriented core is
recovered. The fracture
direction is observed
directly on the core.
• Anelastic Strain Recovery

(ASR). An oriented core is
taken and retrieved to surface.
Immediately upon recovery,
the expansion of the rock
indicates the direction of
maximum in-situ stresses. It
must be used an instrument
with a high resolution in order
to measure the displacements
85

• A high precision multi-arm
calliper is coupled with
orientation, pressure,
temperature-devices and open
hole packers. It is used in
conjunction with an open hole
microfrac. During the test, the
deformation of the well bore is
measured. Deformation
readings are taken before,
during and after the hydraulic
fracture initiation an
propagation.
Geometry models
2D Model
The fracture height estimated remains constant for the simulation. The
fracture length grows from a line source of perforations, and all layers have
the same penetration. The simulation can be approximated by the average
modulus of all the layers.
•KGD the fracture height is relatively large compared with its length.
•PKN the fracture length is the much large compared with its height.
86
Geometry models
Pseudo 3D model
The fracture initiates in the zone with the lower in-situ stress. The height growth
is determined by the bounding layers’ stress and other mechanical properties.
With a relatively low stress contrast, the two fractures join rapidly and behave
as a single fracture. The height growth depends on the stress and modulus
profile of the layers. The P3D model is a common geometry model for fracture
design.
Fracturing fluids
• Sufficient Viscosity to Create Fracture
• Low Friction Pressure to Minimize Equipment Horsepower on

Location
• Sufficient Leak off Control to Efficiently Create and Propagate

Fracture
• Sufficient Viscosity to Transport Proppant
• Must lose Viscosity (or “break”) after placement to facilitate

production
87
Fracturing fluids
100
80
Water
% Treatments
60
Oil
40
20
0
56 60 64 68 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 00 04
Year
Fracturing fluids
Oil fluids
• Non-damaging to clays
• Compatible with formation fluids
Water fluids
• Safe
• Available
• Economical
• Controlled break times
• Broad temperature range
88
Fracturing fluids-Viscosity
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluid
Viscosity = Stress / Shear Rate
Non-
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Viscosity µ= k/γ(1-n)
Power law Model of Viscosity used in Fracture Simulations
γ = Shear rate
k = Consistency Index.
n = Fluid Behaviour index
Fracturing fluids
Fracturing Fluids Chemicals
• Polymers
• Cross linkers
• pH Control
• Gel Breakers
• Clay Control
• Surfactants
• Fluid loss Additives
• Biocides
89
Fracturing fluids - Polymers
Base Gel Hydrated Polymer

Dry polymer
+ H2O
Dry polymer is added to water to swell (hydrate), forming a

viscous gel fluid.
Fracturing fluids - High Viscosity Guar
Viscosity of Linear Guar Fluids vs Temperature
• Can be used in brines.

• 6-8 % residue.
• Easy to crosslink.
• 40 Lb/Mgal 36 cp @ 511 1/sec.
90
Fracturing Fluids – Hydroxypropyl Guar (HPG)

• 1-2 % residue.
• Good crosslink control
• Good thermal stability.
20 lb/Mgal 30 lb/Mgal 40 lb/Mgal
Fracturing Fluids CarboxymethylhydroxypropylGuar (CMHPG)

• 1-2 % residue.
• Good crosslink control.
• Excellent thermal stability.
• 40 lb/Mgal 28 cp @ 511 1/sec.
91
Fracturing Fluids - Hydroxyethyl Cellulose (HEC)

• Residue Free.
• Not Crosslinkable.
• Limited Thermal Stability.
• 40 lb/Mgal 46 cP @ 511 1/sec.
Fracturing Fluids – Xanthan (XC)

• 3% Residue.
• Difficult to break control
• Easy to Crosslink.
• Good Thermal stability.
• 40 lb/Mgal 20 cp @ 511 1/sec.
92
Fracturing Fluids – LGC
Liquid Gel Concentrates ( LGC )
A dispersion of non-swelling polymer stabilized in a

hydrocarbon base
≈50 % polymer + ≈50 % diesel
Fracturing Fluids – Crosslinking agent
• Borate
• Zirconium
• Titanium
Crosslink Reaction
• Antimony
• Aluminum
93
Fracturing Fluids – Crosslinked Frac fluids
Polymer Crosslinker Max. Temp ºF
CMHPG Zr 275
CMHPG Zr 400
G,HPG B 350
G,HPG B 300
G B 200
G Zr 275
G B+Zr 300
HPG Ti 300
Fracturing Fluids – Crosslinked Frac fluids
Viscosity of Borate Crosslinked Gel 30 lb/Mgal Guar

400 pH8.5
Viscosity, cp @ 170 1/sec
pH8.1 pH9.1
350 pH9.5
300 pH7.2 pH10.6

250
200
150
100
50
0 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

Temperature, F
94
Fracturing Fluids – Gel breakers
Relatively high viscosity fluids are used to transport proppant into

the fracture. Leaving a high-viscosity fluid in the fracture would
reduce the permeability of the proppant pack to oil and gas, limiting
the effectiveness o the fracture treatment.
Gel breakers are used to reduce the viscosity of the fluid

intermingled with the proppant. Breakers reduce viscosity by
leaving the polymer into small-molecular weight fragments.
The most widely used fracturing fluid breakers are oxidizers and
enzymes.
Fracturing Fluids – Gel breakers
Enzymes
• Soluble / 60 -140 °F / pH 4 -8
• Encapsulated / 75 - 175 °F / pH 4 –9
Oxidizers (Soluble and encapsulated)
• Ammonium peroxydisulfate
• Calcium peroxide
• Sodium bromate
Oxidizer: Its decomposition produces highly reactive sulphate
radicals that attack the polymer, reducing its molecular weight and its
viscosifyng ability.
95
Fracturing Fluids – Fluid loss
Fluid Loss
Fluid loss to the formation during a fracturing treatment is a
filtration process that is controlled by a number of parameters,
including fluid composition, flow rate and pressure, and reservoir
properties such as permeability, pressure, fluid saturation, pore
size and the presence of micro fractures.
Fluid Loss Control

• Filtrate viscosity and relative permeability.
• Wall-building fluids: Filter Cake.
• (polymer and/or fluid-loss additives, silica, starch, soaps, waxes)
• Multi Phase Flow viscosity
Fluid Loss
Loss
Fracturing fluid
Gel Filter Cake

Zone Invaded by water
Uncontaminated Formation
96
Filter cake or fluid loss coeffcient

Fluid Loss
Loss ft/min½ or m/seg ½
Vol = Spurt + Cw time
Spurt
Volume Lost
Cw
time
Fracturing Fluids – Polymer damage
97
Fracturing Fluids – Low Polymer/High T
PrimeFRAC
Stable Low Polymer Rheology Over a Broad Temperature Range
(30 ppt polymer, Fann50 B5Bob, API Testing)
800
700
Viscosity @ 100 sec-1 (cp)
600
500
400 350°F
300 300°F
200 YF850HT -
300°F
100 250°F
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (minutes)
Fracturing Fluids – Viscoelastic
Viscoelastic Surfactant Based Systems (VES)

First polymer free, water-based fracturing fluid
Commercialized in 1997 ClearFRAC Principle
Three VES systems currently available
Viscoelastic Surfactant
+ NH4Cl
e.g., KCl
Electrolyte
MgCl2
+ +
=
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ +
+
+ + +
+
+ + + +
+
+ + +
+
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+
+
+ + +
+
Rod Shaped Micelles

+ +
+
+ + +
+
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ + + +
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
98
z Contact with Oil or

Condensate
z Dilution
z Very Little Residue Left

Upon Breaking
z Breakers Available to
Hasten Fluid Recovery
99
Production increase
Q f ⎛ after frac ⎞
PI = ⎜ ⎟⎟
Qi ⎜⎝ before frac ⎠
Increased Folds in Productivity Index Because of Fracture Stimulation
6
of Productivity Index, J/J0
5
Folds of Increase
4 h = 19.8m (65 ft)

k = 0.5 10-15 m2 (0.5 md)
3 rw = 0.1m (0.328 ft)
s =5
2 k = 60,000 10-15 m2 (60,000 md)
Vf = 6.13 m3 (217 ft3)
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
CfD
Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004
100
Conductivity considerations
High permeability Low permeability formations

formations (k>20 mD) (k<1
(k<1 mD)
• Put more reservoir area in
• Damage bypass.
contact with the well.
• Fracture length becomes less
• Fracture length controls
important.
production increase
• Geometry: Short and wide
• Geometry: Long and narrow
fractures.
fractures
Moderate permeability formations
(1 mD < k< 15 mD)
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Suggested FCD for design: 15.7-31.4
Overview
Matrix stimulation is injecting an acid/solvent at below the fracturing

pressure of the formation
– to dissolve/disperse materials that impair well production in sandstone
reservoirs
– to create new, unimpaired flow channels in carbonate reservoirs
101
Sandstone vs. Carbonate Acidizing
Sandstone:
• A small fraction of the matrix is soluble
• Relatively slow reacting acid dissolves the permeability damaging
minerals Wellbore
Damaged
Carbonate: zone
• A large fraction of the matrix is soluble (>50%)

• Rapid reacting acid creates new flow paths by dissolving formation rock
Key Issues
Successful matrix treatments require

– Correct choice of fluid to attack damage
– Uniform placement of treating fluid
102
Candidate Selection
“Good Wells Make the Best Candidates for Well Stimulation” - Al

Jennings
Candidate Selection (Recognition) is the process of identifying and

selecting wells for treatment which have the capacity for higher
production and better economic return.
Candidate Selection Process
• Review numerous wells.

• Review of well logs/records, reservoir characteristics and information on
the completion/previous workovers.
• Map the productivity of each well.
• Establish reasonable upper production potential for fracturing and matrix
stimulation techniques.
• Evaluate potential mechanical problems.
• Focus on wells with the highest reward and lowest risk.
103
Data Sources
Production History Logs

– Oil/Gas/Water production – SP, Gamma, Porosity, Production
– Decline curve logs
– Drive mechanism – Reservoir characteristics
1000 • Hydrocarbon
• Homogeneous/Laminated
• Thickness
Oil Rate, BOPD
100
• WOC/GOC
offset well
10
Water oil contact
Gas-oil contact
1
0 20000 40000 60000 80000
Cumulative Oil, Bbls
100000 120000
Offset
Data Sources
Workovers Drilling records

Well tests – Type of mud
– Kh – Losses
Build up test
– Skin Completion
– Pres – Openhole/Cased/Fractured
– Directional survey
– Tubing/Casing
• USIT
• Calipers
104
Near-wellbore damage limits production
Formation Damage Characterization
Fines Migration Induced Particles

Swelling Clays – Solids
Scale Deposits – LCM/Kill Fluids
Organic Deposits – Precipitates
– Paraffin's Oil Based Mud
– Asphaltenes Emulsion Block
Mixed Deposits Wettability Changes
Bacteria Water Block
105
Sandstone Acidizing - Primary design considerations
Primary design considerations

Fluid selection – acid type concentration and volume
Wellbore and Completion characteristics
Injection schedule – planned rate schedule and sequence of
injected fluids.
Acid coverage and diversion (placement technique) – special
steps taken to improve acid contact with the formation.
Sandstone Acidizing – design - Methodology
Methodology
• Identify the damage mechanism
• Determine the mineralogy
• Know the well parameters
• Know the well fluids
• Select the specific system
• Apply the treatment
• Follow the results
106
Sandstone Acidizing – design - Mineralogy
Sandstone Acidizing – design – Well data

Well parameters – Well fluids
•Type of well (gas, multiphase)..
•Bottomhole static temperature
•Formation permeability
•It is important to know
the compatibility between
the produced fluids and the
acid (emulsion/sludge test).
Also the fluids used to drill
or complete the well.
107
Sandstone Acidizing – design/sandstones acids
Sandstones acids
The most common acids are Hydrochloric acid, HCl, and
Hydrofluoric Acid, HF.
HCl is used to dissolve carbonate minerals.
Mud Acid (Hydrofluoric/ Hydrochloric) is used to attack silicate
minerals such as clays and feldspars.
The regular mud acid is 12%HCl –3%HF
Some weak organic acid are used in special applications such high
temperature wells.
Sandstone Acidizing - design/sandstones acids
Sandstones acids
Usually sandstone acidizing means the use of fluids containing
Hydrofluoric Acid.
Sandstone acidizing differs drastically from carbonate acidizing.
In carbonate acidizing large quantities of rock are dissolved to
increase formation permeability.
In sandstone acidizing, the near-wellbore reaction removes the skin
damage caused by drilling, completion, fines migration, clay swelling,
etc.Only 1-2 inches of the wellbore are affected.
108
Sandstone Acidizing – HF reactions
HF reactions
Due to mineralogical differences, HF chemical reactions in sandstones
acidizing are very complex.
Carbonate acidizing involves only one reaction: the reaction of acid
with carbonate minerals to form calcium salts, water and carbon
dioxide .
Sandstone Acidizing – HF reactions
Primary reactions dissolves skin damage

as assumed.
109
Sandstone Acidizing - design
Sandstone Acidizing – design
Treatment stages – Pre-flush conditions by:
•Dissolving carbonates
•Pushing fluids out of the way
•Preparing formation through ion exchange
110
Treatment stages – Main Treatment
Dissolves skin damage to improve formation

permeability
Treatment stages – Over flush
Secondary precipitation near wellbore by driving

out fluids
111
Treatment stages – Displacement
Maximizing by forcing fluids from pipe
Sandstone Acidizing Fluid Stages
•Brine preflush displaces brines containing incompatible

cations away from the wellbore.
•HCl (or organic acid) preflush removes CaCO3 from matrix
to prevent the precipitation of CaF2.
•Overflush displaces spent acid away from the critical matrix.
112
Acidizing Additives
Inhibitors
Surfactants
Foaming Agents
Mutual Solvents
Anti-sludge Agents
Non-Emulsifiers
Iron Control
Friction Reducers
Clay Control
Specialty Additives
Guidelines for Acid Placement
Acid placement is one of the Five Stars for good matrix treatment design.
• Treatment strategy
• Formation damage characterization
• Placement technique
• Fluid volume and contact time
• Fluid compatibility
Several placement techniques are available
• Mechanical methods
• Bridging agents and diverters
• Self-selective fluids
113
Fluid Placement - Diversion
Successful acid matrix treatments, require the acid to be placed so

that all potentially productive intervals accept a sufficient quantity
of the total acid volume.
To achieve uniform damage removal, the original flow distribution
across the treated interval needs to be altered to provide
generally equal acid distribution.
The methods used to alter this flow distribution are called diversion
methods.
Criteria for selection of a diversion technique
• Must provide uniform distribution of treating fluid

• Must not cause permanent damage to formation
• A rapid and complete cleanup must be possible
• Diversion agent must be compatible with the treating fluid
• Must be effective at the applicable treatment temperature
114
Mechanical Placement Techniques
Advantages:
• Less sensitive to chemical composition of fluid and temperature.
Disadvantages:
• Requires special equipment.
• Requires good zonal isolation.
• Requires adapted completion (no gravel pack or open hole).
115
Diversion
Chemical Methods
Bridging agents (solids, bridge natural fractures) External
Particulates (Matrix) diverters
• Water Soluble
• Oil soluble
Viscous plugs Internal diverters
• Reactive
• Viscous-elastic surfactants
Foam
External Diverting Agents
Advantages
– Don’t require rigs or special downhole tools.
Disadvantages
– Compatibility between diverter and fluids
• Solubility (T, fluid type)
• Dispersability
• Chemical
– Careful design required to match rock pore size distribution.
116
External Chemical Diversion
Physical requirements
– Low cake permeability
– Minimal matrix invasion
– Well dispersed material
Chemical requirements
– Compatibility
– Cleanup
– Constant cake properties
− ∆P Constant with temperature
− ∆P Constant with fluid type
Flow Redistribution
117
Oil Soluble Diverting Agents
Liquid dispersion of finely divided oil-soluble resins

Delivered continuously or in slugs (recommended)
Problems
– (k)½ approximates pore size in microns
• Diverting agents bridge
– Size > 1/2 to 1/3 pore size
– Particle flows in and out
• < 1/6 pore size
Diversion – Get the acid to the right place!
118
Carbonate Field Test Results
Foam in Porous Media
119
Foam Mobility
A critical pressure drop must be imposed across pore

throats to mobilize interfacial films that stabilize foams
Foam Diversion Process: Step 1
Clean the near wellbore area

Displace oil or condensate
120
Saturate the near wellbore region with foamer

Remove damage form the thief zone
Saturate the rock with foamer to stabilize the foam
Foam injection
– Foam bank is formed in both layers
121
Shut-in period
– Foam dissipates rapidly in damaged zone
Inject treating fluid containing foamer

– Acid preferentially flows into low perm layer
122
Foam Diversion
Very effective technique

Involves pumping a base fluid + surfactant + N2 gas
Oil and gas wells
High water cut wells and wells with W/O contact
Vertical and horizontal wells
Horizontal Well Matrix Stimulation
Diversion from a known thief zone
Thief Zone
123
Damaged Fractures in a Horizontal Well
400 ft 400 ft 400 ft
Why Acidizing through Coiled Tubing
Wellhead / Completion tubulars protection

Accurate placement / Complete coverage
Live well operation
Jetting effect
Flowback - N2 kick off
Integrated service, fill cleanout and N2 kick-off
Wellbore fluids not bull-headed into formation
124
Dual Inflatable Packer
Downhole equipment
BHA
– Double check valve
– BHA fishing diagram
– Operating specifications
Nozzle design
DSP
125
Downhole Sensor Package (DSP)
Real-time downhole data acquisition system

– monitor temperature
– pressure
– casing collar
Accurate BHP and BHT data for any well profile
Evaluate - Treat - Evaluate
Optimized diversion
DSP Components
Plastic coated cable

inside CT str ing
M echanical
release sub
Cable clamp and assembly
check valve assembly
Pressur e and
temperature sensors
T reatment
ports/nozzle
126
Execution Precautions
Pickling of CT work-string internal surface

Personnel and well security
Pressure control equipment
Pumping equipment
Safety Considerations
Flow back
Unspent acid
Masks
Pin hole development
Swivel leaks
Communication devices
Gas detectors - H2S
Leather gloves/eye wash bottles/eye goggles
127
Foam diversion CT Rig Up
Nitrogen /Foam
generation
package
BOP Kill Port

Pumping tee
below
pressure
control
equipment
Sample
Point
Production
Tubing
Choke
Process and Recirculate
Manifold CT Nozzle/
tools
Disposal
DSP configuration
WITHOUT FLOW-BY HOUSING WITH FLOW-BY HOUSING

Coiled Tubing Coiled Tubing
CT Connector
CT Connector
CTHA Caple clamp/ The combination of these

Check valve two pieces is the CTHL,
needed for use with the
Schlumberger rope socket DSP
configuration
Weak-point
PEH-E mechanical
release
FLOW BY HOUSING
CCL Schlumberger
Schlumberger FTPT
(optional) GRC
FTPT-ECCL
EPG-520
PEH-FTPT
gauge
Bullnose
Bullnose
128
Pressure Control Equip. Configuration
Stimulation of Carbonates
The injection of acids into carbonate reservoirs leads to the formation

of highly conductive flow channels.
129
Alternative Dissolution Patterns
Patterns change depending on:

– Temperature
– Injection velocity
– Surface reaction rate
Increasing Injection Rate

Wormhole Pattern from Radial Flow
130
Acid Systems
HCl - Primary acid for carbonates Emulsified acids (SXE)

Organic acids: • Retarded kinetics
• Less dissolution capacity Non-acid solvents
• Higher temperatures • Low corrosion
• Retarded kinetics
Blended acids:
• HCl / organic blends
• Less expensive than organic acids
Mud Silt Remover (MSR)
Fracture Acidizing
The injected acid non uniformly etches

the fracture faces, resulting in the
formation of highly conductive etched
channels that remain open after the
fracture closes.
The success of the

treatment depends on
two characteristics of the
etched fracture:
• effective fracture length
• effective fracture conductivity
131
Factors Influencing the Success of
Fracture Acidizing Treatments
Effective fracture length

• Rate of acid consumption
• Acid fluid loss (wormhole formation)
• Acid convection along the fracture
Effective fracture conductivity
• Etched pattern
• Volume of rock dissolved
• Roughness of etched surface
• Rock strength
• Closure stress
Fluid-Loss Problems
Carbonates are usually Fissured

Acid Destroys most Fluid Loss Additives
Fracture Faces are Constantly Eroded
Wormhole Formation
Natural Fractures Enlarged
Increased Leakoff Surface
Fracture-Pressure Maintenance
132
Design
Other factors to take into account for design
• Quality of the cement job for zonal

isolation.
• Size and conditions of wellbore
tubulars.
• Perforations
• Wellbore deviation
Tubing stress analysis
133
Design
Design
134
Design
Design
•The pad volume determines how much fracture penetration

can be achieved before proppant reaches the tip and stops
penetration in the pay zone.
•Too much pad can cause that fracture tip continues to

propagate after pumping stops, leaving a large umpropped
region near the fracture tip. An after flow can occur in the
fracture, carrying proppant toward the tip and living a poor final
proppant distribution.
•The ideal schedule is one where the pad depletes and

proppant reaches de fracture tip just at the desired fracture
penetration is achieved and also just as pumping stops.
135
Design
Tip Screen-
Screen -out (TSO)
Screen-out
•The tip screen-out fracturing technique applies hydraulic
fracturing technology to create a wide, short, fracture that yields
high production rates with reduced pressure drops. It can be a
highly effective technique in controlling sand and stimulating
maximum production from weak formations.
•A TSO is designed to cause proppant to pack at an specific

location because of width restriction, pad depletion or slurry
dehydration.
•Once packing occurs, further fracture propagation ceases at

this point, usually at the tip. Continued injection increases the
hydraulic fracture width and final conductivity
Job execution
Strategic Locations
on a Pressure Response Curve
1- Formation Breakdown
2- Propagation
3- Instantaneous Shut-In
4- Closure Pressure From Fall-Off
136
Job execution
Near Wellbore friction
•Three mechanisms exist that are known to cause a rapid
pressure increase with time during a fracturing treatment: near
wellbore or perforation restriction, complex fracture geometry
and screen-out mode.
Job execution
137
Job execution
Pump Truck
Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004
Job execution
Equipment
138
Job execution
Equipment
Reference treatment
Qmax: 60 bbl/min
hhp used: 17600
hhp Available: 20000
Volume: 3.2 million lb proppant
Job execution
Equipment
Reference numbers
Qmax: 60 bbl/min
hhp Available: 13400
Volume: 12.7 million lb
proppant
139
Job execution
Monitoring and control
Job execution
140
Production Operations
IV
One of the primary objectives of production operations is to deliver

product at the required rate and quality. Therefore the product
quality specification and any agreed contract terms will drive the
activities of the production operations department, and will be a
starting point for determining the preferred mode of operation.
141
The specifications, such as delivery of stabilized crude with a BS&W

of less than 0.5%, and a salinity of 70 g/m3, contractually agreed
fiscalisation points (where the crude will be metered for fiscal
purposes) should be clearly stated in the FDP. In gas sales contracts,
the quantity of gas sales is specified, and any shortfall often incurs a
severe penalty to the supplier. In this situation, it is imperative that
the selected mode of operation aims to guarantee that the contract
is met.
Product quality: is not limited to oil and gas quality; certain effluent streams will
also have to meet a legal specification. For example, in disposal of oil in water,
the legislation in many offshore areas demands less than 40 ppm (parts per
million) of oil in water for disposal into the sea. In the UK, oil production platforms
are allowed to flare gas up to a legal limit.
142
The capacity and availability of the equipment items in the process

need to be addressed by both the process engineers and the
production operations group during the design phase of the project.
Sufficient capacity and availability (as defined in Section 14.2) must
be provided to achieve the production targets and to satisfy
contracts. The process and facilities engineers will design the
equipment for a range of capacities (maximum throughputs), but the
mode of operation and maintenance, as well as the performance of
the equipment will determine the availability (the fraction of the time
which the item operates). Consultation with the production operators
is essential to design the right mode of operation, and to include
previous experience when estimating availability.
Concurrent operations: refers to performing the simultaneous activities

of production and drilling, or sometimes production, drilling and
maintenance. In some areas simultaneous production and drilling is
abbreviated to SIPROD. Clearly the issues which drive the operator's
decision on whether to carry out SIPROD are safety and cost.
Shutting in production while drilling will reduce the consequences of a
drilling incident such as a blowout, but will incur a loss of revenue.
143
Risk analysis techniques may be used to help in this decision, and if

SIPROD is adopted, then procedures will be written specifying how
to operate in this mode. It is common practice in production
operations to close in production from a well when another near-by
operation is rigging up or rigging down, to avoid the more serious
consequences of a load being dropped during equipment
movements.
Monitoring and control of the production process will be performed

by a combination of instrumentation and control equipment plus
manual involvement. The level of sophistication of the systems can
vary considerably. For example, monitoring well performance can
be done in a simple fashion by sending a man to write down and
report the tubing head pressures of producing wells on a daily basis,
or at the other extreme by using computer assisted operations (CAO)
which uses a remote computer based system to control production on
a well by well basis with no physical presence at the wellhead.
144
Computer assisted operations (CAO) involves the use of computer

technology to support operations, with functions ranging from
collection of data using simple calculators and PCs to integrated
computer networks for automatic operation of a field. In the extreme
case CAO can be used for totally unmanned offshore production
operations with remote monitoring and control from shore-based
locations. In considering the requirements for operations at FDP
stage, the inclusion of CAO would have a great impact on the mode
of operations. CAO may also be applied to reporting, design and
simulation of possible situations, leading to performance optimisation,
improved safety, and better environmental protection
By providing more accurate monitoring and control of the production operations,

CAO is now proven to provide benefits such as:
¾ increased production rates; through controlling the system to produce closer to its
design limits, reducing downtime, and giving early notice of problems
¾ reduced operating expenditure; less manpower costs, reduced maintenance costs
due to better surveillance and faster response, reduced fuel costs
145
¾ reduced capital expenditure; by increasing throughput, less facilities

capacity is required, less accommodation and office space, reduced
instrumentation
¾ increased safety; less people in hazardous areas, less driving, better
monitoring of toxic gases, better alarm systems
¾ improved environmental protection; control of effluent streams, better
leak detection
¾ improved database, more and better organized historical data,
simulation capability, better reporting, use as training for operators
Pump
Gas Liquid
Separator
Test
Separator
146
Testing of the production rate of each well on a routine basis can be

performed at the drilling platform or at the centralized production
facility. Consider an offshore development with four eight-well
drilling platforms and one centralized production platform. If the
production from each drilling platform is manifolded together for
transfer to the production platform then the there are two principal
ways of testing the production from each well on a routine basis.
Metering of the production for fiscal (taxation), tariffing and re-

allocation purposes may take place as the product leaves the
production platform, or as it arrives at the delivery point such as the
crude oil terminal. If the export pipeline is used by other fields
(including third party users) it would be common to meter the
production as it leaves the platform.
147
Standardization of equipment items is an area for potential cost savings, both in

terms of capital expenditure (capex) and operating expenditure (opex), and is a
decision which should be taken in consultation with the production operations
department at the FDP stage.
Standardization can be applied to equipment items ranging from drilling platforms

to valves. The benefits of standardization are:
¾ reduced design and capital costs
¾ reduced spares stock required and less inventory management
¾ less operating procedures, hence better safety and lower opex
¾ less training required
¾ The drawbacks to standardization are:
¾ less equipment available to select from (less variations possible)
¾ fewer vendors to select from
148
Flaring and venting policies will often be driven by legislation which

states maximum allowable limits for these activities. Such existing
regulations must be established at the FDP stage, but it is good
practice to anticipate future legislation and to determine whether it is
worth designing this into the initial facilities. Even if constant flaring
of excess gas is avoided by gas reinjection or export, a flare or vent
system will be required to relieve the process facilities in case of
shut-down. Flaring can be performed from a fixed flare boom or
from a separate, more remote platform. Venting is usually from a
separate vent jacket. Venting is more environmentally damaging
than flaring, since methane is approximately twenty times worse as a
contributor to the greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide.
Waste disposal is an aspect of the production process which must be considered at

FDP stage. This should cover all effluent streams other than the useful product
including
effluents discharged to the air (hydrocarbon gases, coolant vapours, noise and
light)
The treatment of these issues will be discussed jointly with the health, safety and
environment (HSE) departments within the company and with the process and
facilities engineers, and their treatment should be designed in conjunction with an
environmental impact assessment. Some of the important basic principles for waste
management are to:
eliminate the waste at source where possible (e.g. slim-hole drilling)
re-use materials wherever possible
reinjection waste material into the reservoir where possible
149
Utilities systems support production operations, and should also be

addressed when putting together a field development plan. Some
examples of these are:
¾ power system (fuel gas and diesel)
¾ sea water and potable water treatment system
¾ chemicals and lubrication oils
¾ alarm and shut-down system
¾ fire protection and fire fighting system
¾ instrument/utility air system
Manning of production facilities is a key part of field development planning. Every

person offshore requires accommodation, transport, administrative support,
managing, and at least one back-up to operate a shift system. Typically, every
one person offshore requires between three and five other employees as support.
If a platform is manned, then life saving systems must be provided, along with
other items like a mess, recreation room, radio and telecommunications facilities,
medical and sick-bay facilities. This is one of the main reasons for the drive
towards minimum manning or unmanned operations; it is not only safer, but also
cheaper. Along with the introduction of CAO, unmanned operations are now
becoming a reality.
If it is decided that an operation does require to be manned, then it may need to
be manned on a 24-hour basis, or a 12-hour basis, or only for daily inspection.
Accommodation may be provided on a separate living quarters platform or as
part of an integrated platform, or on a floating hotel.
150
Logistics refers to the organization of transport of people, and supply and storage
of materials. The transport of people is linked to the mode of manning the
operation, and is clearly much simplified for an unmanned operation.
For a typical operation in the North Sea, the transport of personnel to and from
the facilities is by helicopter. The transport of materials is normally by supply boat.
The storage of chemicals, lubricants, aviation fuel and diesel fuel is normally on the
platforms, with chemicals kept in bulk storage or in drums depending on the
quantities. A typical diesel storage would be adequate to run back-up power
generators for around a week, but the appropriate storage for each item would
need to be specified in the FDP.
Telecommunications systems will include internal communications within the

platforms (telephone, radio, walkie-talkie, air-ground-air, navigation, public
address) and external systems (telephone, telex, fax, telemetry, VHF radio, and
possibly satellite links). These systems are designed to handle the day-to-day
communications as well as emergency situations.
If the development is so far from shore that direct line of sight communication is not
possible, then satellite communications will be installed, with one platform acting as
a satellite link for the area.
In case of a major disaster, one platform in a region will be equipped to act as a
control centre from which rescue operations are coordinated. Evacuation routes will
be provided, and where large complexes are clustered together, a standby vessel
will be available in the region to supply emergency services such as fire fighting
and rescue.
151
Measurement and control of operating costs: The management of operating

expenditure (opex) is a major issue, since initial estimates of opex are often far
exceeded in reality, and may threaten the profitability of a project. Within the
FDP, it is therefore useful to specify the system which will be used to measure the
opex. Without measuring opex, there is no chance of managing it. This will involve
the joint effort of production operations, finance and accounting, and the
development managers.
The projection of operating expenditure should be budgeted on an annual basis,
to reflect the annual work programme for the following year. Maintaining good
records of actual operating costs simplifies the process of budgeting for the future,
as well as comparing actual expenditure with budget. These statements sound
obvious, but require a considerable amount of integrated effort to perform
effectively.
Production Optimization
V
152
During the production phase of the field life, the operator will apply
field management techniques aimed at maximising the profitability
of the project and realising the economical recovery of the
hydrocarbons, while meeting all contractual obligations and working
within certain constraints. Physical constraints include the reservoir
performance, the well performance, and the capacity and
operability of the surface facilities. The company will have to
manage internal factors such as manpower, cash supply and the
structure of the organisation. In addition, the external factors such as
agreements with contractors and the national oil company or
government, environmental legislation and market forces must be
managed throughout the production lifetime.
153
At the development planning stage, a reservoir model will have

been constructed and used to determine the optimum method of
recovering the hydrocarbons from the reservoir. The criteria for the
optimum solution will most likely have been based on profitability
and safety.
A programme of monitoring the reservoir is carried out, in which
measurements are made and data are gathered.
154
In a reservoir consisting of layers of sands, the sweep of the reservoir

may be estimated by measuring the production rate of each layer
using the production logging tool (PLT)
The objective of managing the well performance is to reduce the

constraints which the well might impose on the production of the
hydrocarbons from the reservoir. The well constraints which may limit
the reservoir potential may be split into two categories; the
completion interval and the production tubing. The following table
indicates some of the constraints:
To achieve the potential of the reservoir, these well constraints should
be reduced where economically justified.
Unwanted fluids are those fluids with no commercial value, such as
water, and noncommercial amounts of gas in an oil field
development.
155
The tubing string design should minimise

the restrictions to flow. Monobore
completions aim at using one single
conduit size from the reservoir to the
tubing head to achieve this. The tubing
size should maximise the potential of the
reservoir.
During production, the operating conditions of any artificial lift technique will be
optimised with the objective of maximising production.
Sand production from loosely consolidated formations may lead to erosion of
tubulars and valves and sand-fill in both the sump of the well and surface
separators. In addition, sand may bridge off in the tubing, severely restricting flow.
The presence of sand production may be monitored by in-line detectors.
During production, the "health" of the well is monitored by measuring:
¾ Production rates (oil, water, gas)
¾ Pressures (tubing head and downhole)
¾ Sand production
156
During the production period of the field, managing the surface

facilities involves optimising the performance of existing production
systems. The operating range of any one item of equipment will
depend upon the item type (e.g. liquid-gas separator) and its
selection at the design stage, but there will be maximum and
minimum operating conditions, such as throughput.
Managing operating expenditure (opex)

During the producing life, most of the money spent on the field will
be on operating expenditure. This includes costs such as:
¾ Maintenance of equipment (offshore and onshore)
¾ Transport
¾ Salaries (all staff in the company), housing, schooling
¾ Rentals of offices and services
¾ Payment of contractors
157
Infill Drilling
VI
Infill Drilling
Oil and gas reservoirs are rarely as simple as early maps and sections imply. Even
though this is often recognized, development proceeds with the limited data
coverage available. As more wells are drilled and production information is
generated, early geological models become more detailed and the reservoir
becomes better understood. It may become possible to identify reserves which are
not being drained effectively and which are therefore potential candidates for
infill drilling. Infill drilling means drilling additional wells, often between the
original development wells. Their objective is to produce yet unrecovered oil.
158
Infill Drilling
Hydrocarbons can remain undrained for a number of reasons:

¾ Attic / cellar oil may be left behind above (or below) production
wells
¾ Oil or gas may be trapped in isolated fault blocks or layers iii) Oil
may be bypassed by water or gas flood iv) Wells may be too far
apart to access all reserves
Infill Drilling
159
Infill Drilling
In the case of attic/cellar oil, and isolated fault blocks or layers it is clear that
hydrocarbon reserves will not be recovered unless accessed by a well. The
economics of the incremental infill well may be very straightforward; a simple
comparison of well costs (including maintenance) against income from the
incremental reserves.
Infill Drilling
Reserves which have been bypassed by a flood front are more difficult to recover.
Water will take the easiest route it can find through a reservoir. In an
inhomogeneous sand, injected water or gas may reach producing wells via high
permeability layers without sweeping poorer sections. In time, a proportion of the
oil in the bypassed sections may be recovered, though inefficiently in terms of
barrels produced per barrel injected. Drilling an infill well to recover bypassed oil
will usually generate extra reserves as well as some accelerated production (of
reserves that would eventually have been recovered anyway). To decide whether
to drill additional wells it is necessary to estimate both the extra reserves
recovered, as well as the value of accelerating existing reserves.
160
Infill Drilling
In a completely homogenous unfaulted reservoir a single well might,

in theory, drain all the reserves, though over a very long period of
time. Field development plans address the compromise between well
numbers, production profiles, equipment life and the time value of
money. Compared to the base case development plan, additional
wells may access reserves which would not necessarily be produced
within the field economic lifetime, simply because the original wells
were too far apart.
The additional well would have to be justified economically; the
incremental recovery alone does not imply that the third well is
attractive.
Infill Drilling
161
Infill Drilling
Incremental Development
VII
162
Most oil and gas provinces are developed by exploiting the largest
fields first, since these are typically the easiest to discover.
Development of the area often involves installing a considerable
infrastructure of production facilities, export systems and processing
plant. As the larger fields decline there may be considerable
working life left in the infrastructure which can be exploited to
develop smaller fields that would be uneconomical on a stand-alone
basis.
satellite development utilizes a proportion of the existing process

facilities (and carries the associated operating costs), it may allow
the abandonment rate of the mature field to be lowered and extend
its economic life.
163
Whether on land or offshore, the principle of satellite development is

the same. A new field is accessed with wells, and an export link is
installed to the existing (host) facility. Development is not always
easier on land, as environmental restrictions mean that some onshore
fields have to be developed using directional drilling techniques
(originally associated with offshore developments). A vertical well
can be drilled offshore away from the host facility, and the well
completed using a subsea wellhead.
Production
& Processing
Facilities
Production
&
Control Subsea
Export Satellite
Mature Field New Field
SATELLITE DEVELOPMENT
164
The role that a host facility plays in an incremental development

project can vary tremendously. At one extreme all production and
processing support may be provided by the host (such as gas lift and
water treatment). On the other hand, the host may just become a
means of accessing an export pipeline (if a production and
processing facility is installed on the new field).
The character of a satellite development has considerable
implications for a mature field in decline, but will not always have a
positive economic effect on the life of the host
One of the more recent forms of incremental development is

extended reach drilling (ERD), either to access remote reserves within
an existing field or reserves in an adjacent accumulation. Providing
the new hydrocarbons are similar to those of the declining field then
production can be processed using existing facilities without
significant upgrading. If no spare drilling slots are available, old
wells may have to plugged and abandoned to provide slots for new
extended reach wells.
165
Handling production from, and providing support to, a satellite field

from an older facility is at first glance an attractive alternative to a
separate new development. However, whilst savings may be made in
capital investment, the operating cost of large processing facilities
may be too much to be carried by production from a smaller field.
Whatever form of incremental development is considered, the

benefits to the host facility should not be gained at the expense of
reduced returns for the new project. Incremental and satellite
projects can in many situations help to extend the production life of
an old field or facilities, but care must be taken to ensure that the
economics are transparent
166
167

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Introduction to

“The production phase commences with the first commercial quantities

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 2

 Development planning and production are usually based on the expected

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 3

Operating and Maintenance Principles

DEVELOPMENT OPERATING PHASE

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 4

 The production operation and maintenance group will develop a set of

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 5

Operating and Maintenance Objectives

 The maintenance and operating objectives of a project might include statements

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 6

 When preparing a field development plan (FDP), the production operations

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 7

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 8

 In conjunction with the operating input, maintenance engineering will

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 9

¾ Critically and the consequence of failure

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 10

 Refers to how important an equipment item is to the process. For

OIL EXPORT PUMP

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 11

Field & Well Optimisation

Introduction to Design Philosophy

Pre-production Build-up Plateau Decline Decommissioning

Potential Projects: Funding required

Ref. Jahn, F et al. Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production, Elsevier

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 13

Total Fluid Production System

Process Plant Sales

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 14

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 15

The Constraints on Production

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 16

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 17

 Make the most or the best of…

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 19

 Method of tuning existing system to give the most benefit

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 20

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 21

 Method of constructing the system to give the most benefit.

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 22

 Because of constraints in operations with a real production system, there is a limit

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 23

Well Design for the Entire Life of the Well

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 24

 Although the stages in the conceptual design are presented

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 25

1. Determining the Range of Well Performance

 Conceptual Design Consideration

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 26

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 27

2. Determining the Range of Outflow Performance

 Conceptual Design Consideration

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 28

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 29

3. Combining the Inflow and Outflow Performance

 Conceptual Design Considerations

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 30

Production Phase ©abalt solutions limited 2004 31

4. Near Wellbore Performance

 Conceptual Design Considerations

Development planning and production are usually based on the expected

The production operation and maintenance group will develop a set of

The maintenance and operating objectives of a project might include statements

When preparing a field development plan (FDP), the production operations

In conjunction with the operating input, maintenance engineering will

Refers to how important an equipment item is to the process. For

Make the most or the best of…

Method of tuning existing system to give the most benefit

Method of constructing the system to give the most benefit.

Because of constraints in operations with a real production system, there is a limit

Although the stages in the conceptual design are presented

Conceptual Design Consideration

Conceptual Design Consideration

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations

Conceptual Design Considerations