2016 Sem Bs Thesis

Cover Page
EML 4905 Senior Design Project
A B.S. THESIS
PREPARED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2016 SHELL ECO-MARATHON

Final Report
Evelyn Mojica
Kaira Sanchez
Santiago Norena
Advisor: Dr. Andres Tremante
April 17th, 2016
This B.S. thesis is written in partial fulfillment of the requirements in EML 4905.
The contents represent the opinion of the authors and not the Department of
Mechanical and Materials Engineering.
Ethics Statement and Signatures
The work submitted in this B.S. thesis is solely prepared by a team consisting of Evelyn Mojica,
Kaira Sanchez, and Santiago Norena and it is original. Excerpts from others’ work have been
clearly identified, their work acknowledged within the text and listed in the list of references. All
of the engineering drawings, computer programs, formulations, design work, prototype
development and testing reported in this document are also original and prepared by the same team
of students.
Evelyn Mojica Kaira Sanchez Santiago Norena

Team Leader Team Member Team Member
Dr. Andres Tremante

Faculty Advisor
II
Table of Contents
Cover Page .................................................................................................................................................... I
Ethics Statement and Signatures ............................................................................................................... II
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... III
List of Figures............................................................................................................................................ VII
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. IX
Abstract........................................................................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Problem Statement............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Motivation.......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Literature Survey .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.3.1 Rules and Regulations ............................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Energy Sources ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 Internal Combustion Engine ..................................................................................................... 3
1.3.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell .................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.5 Battery Electric .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Survey of Related Standards .......................................................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles ................................................................................. 12
1.4.2 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles ................................................................................. 13
1.5 Discussion......................................................................................................................................... 14
2. Project Formulation.......................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Project Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Design Specification ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.3.1 Steering Specifications ............................................................................................................. 16
2.3.2 General Vehicle Specifications ................................................................................................ 16
2.3.3 Electrical/Energy System ........................................................................................................ 18
2.4 Constraints and Other Considerations ......................................................................................... 20
2.4.1 Logo Specifications .................................................................................................................. 20
2.4.2 Emergency Shut Down Mechanism........................................................................................ 20
2.4.3 Propulsion and Energy Storage System Isolation ................................................................. 21
2.4.4 Fire Extinguisher Specifications ............................................................................................. 22
2.4.5 Safety Harness Specifications ................................................................................................. 22
2.4.6 Other Specifications ................................................................................................................. 23
III
2.5 Addressing Global Design .............................................................................................................. 24
2.6 Discussion......................................................................................................................................... 24
3. Project Management ......................................................................................................................... 25
3.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Breakdown of Work in Specific Tasks .......................................................................................... 25
3.3 Gantt Chart for the Optimization of Work and Timeline........................................................... 27
4. Design Alternatives ........................................................................................................................... 29
4.1 Overview of Conceptual Designs Developed................................................................................. 29
4.2 Body Design Alternative 1 .............................................................................................................. 29
4.6 Proposed Body Design .................................................................................................................... 33
4.7 Proposed Steering Design ............................................................................................................... 35
4.8 Feasibility Assessment .................................................................................................................... 38
4.9 Integration of Global Design Elements ......................................................................................... 39
4.10 Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 39
5. Engineering Design and Analysis .................................................................................................... 40
5.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 40
5.2 Kinematic Analysis of the System.................................................................................................. 40
5.3 Dynamic Analysis of the System .................................................................................................... 42
5.4 Structural Design ............................................................................................................................ 43
5.5 Force Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 45
5.6 Stress Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 46
5.7 Deflection Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 47
5.8 Airflow Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 48
5.9 Material Selection ........................................................................................................................... 52
5.10 Electric Motor Selection ............................................................................................................... 53
5.10.1 Electric Motor Alternative 1 ................................................................................................. 53
5.10.4 Electric Motor Chosen ........................................................................................................... 55
5.11 Battery Selection ........................................................................................................................... 56
5.12 Motor Controller Selection .......................................................................................................... 57
IV
5.12.1 Controller Specifications ....................................................................................................... 58
5.12.2 Energy System ........................................................................................................................ 59
5.12.3 Controller Communication ................................................................................................... 62
5.12.4 Speed Controller Implementation ........................................................................................ 66
5.12.5 Controller Box ........................................................................................................................ 69
5.13 Electrical Components Selection ................................................................................................. 72
5.13.1 Controller Box ........................................................................................................................ 72
5.13.2 Fuse Box .................................................................................................................................. 74
5.13.3 Propulsion System .................................................................................................................. 75
5.14 Design Overview............................................................................................................................ 76
5.15 Cost Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 77
5.16 Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 79
6. Prototype Construction .................................................................................................................... 80
6.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 80
6.2 Description of Prototype ................................................................................................................. 80
6.3 Prototype Design ............................................................................................................................. 80
6.4 Parts List .......................................................................................................................................... 83
6.5 Construction .................................................................................................................................... 84
6.6 Prototype Cost Analysis ................................................................................................................. 84
6.7 Discussion......................................................................................................................................... 86
7. Testing and Evaluation ..................................................................................................................... 86
7.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 86
7.2 Design/Description of Experiments ............................................................................................... 86
7.2.1 Vehicle Body ............................................................................................................................. 86
7.2.2 Steering System ........................................................................................................................ 87
7.2.3 Braking System ........................................................................................................................ 87
7.2.4 Battery Electric Motor............................................................................................................. 87
7.2.5 Implementation of Code .......................................................................................................... 88
7.3 Test Results and Data ..................................................................................................................... 93
7.3.1 Vehicle Body ............................................................................................................................. 93
7.3.2 Steering System ........................................................................................................................ 94
7.3.3 Battery and Motor ................................................................................................................... 95
7.3.4 Debugging the Code ................................................................................................................. 98
7.3.5 Braking System ...................................................................................................................... 100
V
7.4 Improvement of the Design .......................................................................................................... 100
7.5 Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 101
8.1 Health and Safety .......................................................................................................................... 101
8.2 Assembly and Disassembly........................................................................................................... 102
8.3 Maintenance of the System........................................................................................................... 103
8.3.1 Regular Maintenance ............................................................................................................. 104
8.3.2 Brake Maintenance ................................................................................................................ 104
8.3.3 Major Maintenance................................................................................................................ 105
8.4 Environmental Impact and Sustainability .................................................................................. 105
8.5 Risk Assessment ............................................................................................................................ 106
9. Design Experience ........................................................................................................................... 107
9.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 107
9.2 Standards Used in Project ............................................................................................................ 108
9.3 Contemporary Issues .................................................................................................................... 109
9.4 Impact of Design in a Global and Societal Context ................................................................... 110
9.5 Professional and Ethical Responsibility ...................................................................................... 111
9.5.1 ASME Code of Ethics ............................................................................................................ 111
9.6 Life-Long Learning Experience ................................................................................................... 112
9.7 Discussion....................................................................................................................................... 113
10. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 113
10.1 Conclusion and Discussion ......................................................................................................... 113
10.2 Evaluation of Intangible Experiences ....................................................................................... 114
10.3 Future Work ................................................................................................................................ 115
11. References .................................................................................................................................... 116
12. Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 117
12.1 Appendix A – Engineering Drawings ........................................................................................ 117
12.2 Appendix B – User’s Manual ..................................................................................................... 119
12.2.1 User’s Manual in English .................................................................................................... 119
12.2.2 User’s Manual in Spanish.................................................................................................... 122
12.2.3 User’s Manual in Dutch....................................................................................................... 125
12.3 Appendix D – Detailed Raw Calculations and Analysis .......................................................... 129
12.4 Appendix E – Project Photo Album .......................................................................................... 130
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: Thermodynamic Representation of an Internal Combustion Engine ............................................ 4
Figure 2: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Schematic ...................................................................................................... 6
Figure 3: Work Breakdown Structure (General)......................................................................................... 25
Figure 4: Work Breakdown Structure (Topic Selection) ............................................................................ 25
Figure 5: Work Breakdown Structure (Body Design) ................................................................................ 26
Figure 6: Work Breakdown Structure (Motor, Steering and Handling) ..................................................... 26
Figure 7: Work Breakdown Structure (Manufacturing/Build, Testing/Validation, and Optimization) ...... 26
Figure 8: Gantt Chart .................................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 9: Timeline....................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 10: Body Design Alternative 1 ........................................................................................................ 29
Figure 14: Preliminary Body and Chassis Setup Displaying Chassis Fitting Inside Body Perfectly ......... 33
Figure 15: Preliminary Body and Chassis Setup Displaying No Issues or Interferences. .......................... 34
Figure 16: Body and Chassis Displaying the Design Closer to the Final Vehicle Design.......................... 34
Figure 17: Go Kart Steering Schematic ...................................................................................................... 35
Figure 18: Steering Design Implemented Successfully into the Final Vehicle Design .............................. 37
Figure 19: Side View of Steering Design in the Final Vehicle Design....................................................... 37
Figure 20: Vehicle's 180 Degrees of Visibility for the Driver .................................................................... 38
Figure 21: Kinematic Analysis of Vehicle Assembly (Front and Back, Respectively) via SolidWorks .... 41
Figure 22: Body and Chassis Assembled Displaying the Success of the Kinematic Analysis ................... 41
Figure 23: Front Lexan Windshield Being Riveted On .............................................................................. 44
Figure 24: Force Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks ....................................................................... 45
Figure 25: Stress Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks ....................................................................... 46
Figure 26: Deflection Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks ............................................................... 47
Figure 27: Airfoil Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 28: Airflow Analysis of Design Alternative 1 ................................................................................. 49
Figure 32: Electric Motor Alternative 1 ...................................................................................................... 53
Figure 35: VPower 48V Battery Modeled in SolidWorks .......................................................................... 57
Figure 36: The DRV8301 Board with the C2000 Piccolo F28035 ............................................................. 59
Figure 37: Motor Controller without Sensors ............................................................................................. 60
Figure 38: Motor Controller Using Hall Sensors ........................................................................................ 61
Figure 39: General Layout of Motor Controller ......................................................................................... 62
Figure 40: Gate Driver IC Diagram ............................................................................................................ 63
Figure 41: Commutation in BLDC Motors ................................................................................................. 64
VII
Figure 42: N-Channel Switching Mosfets Diagram ................................................................................... 65
Figure 43: Micro Soldering a Wire into Pin Location #65 ......................................................................... 67
Figure 44: Model of Steering Wheel with Throttle Fixture via SolidWorks .............................................. 69
Figure 45: SolidWorks Modeling of the Controller Box ............................................................................ 70
Figure 46: Centerline Isometric View of Controller Box via SolidWorks ................................................. 71
Figure 47: 3D-Printed Controller Box ........................................................................................................ 71
Figure 48: Diagram of Connections between Battery and Motor Controller .............................................. 73
Figure 49: SolidWorks Modeling of the Fuse Box ..................................................................................... 74
Figure 50: 3D-Printed Fuse Box ................................................................................................................. 75
Figure 51: Propulsion System Diagram ...................................................................................................... 76
Figure 52: Styrofoam Mold Sanded and Ready for Fiber Glass Layup ...................................................... 81
Figure 53: Fiber Glass Layup of Top Layer ............................................................................................... 81
Figure 54: Fiber Glass Shell Sanded and Placed on Chassis ...................................................................... 82
Figure 55: Bulkhead with Electrical Components and Steering Assembly ................................................ 83
Figure 56: Personal Protection Equipment and Well Ventilated Area ....................................................... 84
Figure 57: Wooden Testing Mount ............................................................................................................. 88
Figure 58: GUI Layout................................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 59: GUI Layout (Cont'd) ................................................................................................................. 90
Figure 60: Target Configuration Window .................................................................................................. 92
Figure 61: CCS Edit Window ..................................................................................................................... 93
Figure 62: Current of Motor Plot ................................................................................................................ 95
Figure 63: Motor Rotational Speed Graph .................................................................................................. 96
Figure 64: Motor Voltage over Time Plot .................................................................................................. 96
Figure 65: Force of Motor vs. Required Force ......................................................................................... 129
VIII
List of Tables
Table 1: Tensile Property Limits of Aluminum 6061-T6 ........................................................................... 13
Table 2: Breakdown of Responsibilities ..................................................................................................... 28
Table 3: Track Width and Wheel Base Dimensions ................................................................................... 36
Table 4: Mechanical Properties of Lexan ................................................................................................... 44
Table 5: Carbon Fiber Properties ................................................................................................................ 52
Table 6: Fiber Glass Properties ................................................................................................................... 52
Table 7: AW Electric Bicycle Motor Kit .................................................................................................... 53
Table 8: Aosom Rear Wheel Motor Kit ...................................................................................................... 54
Table 9: Currie Technologies Direct Drive Electric Motor & Rear Wheel Assembly ............................... 55
Table 10: Power and Current Analysis ....................................................................................................... 56
Table 11: Results of Output Signal Testing ................................................................................................ 68
Table 12: Cost Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 78
Table 13: Parts List ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Table 14: Prototype Cost Analysis.............................................................................................................. 85
Table 15: Motor Running with No Load .................................................................................................... 97
IX
Abstract
The Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition was an opportunity seized to be able to
engineer an electric vehicle to compete against others in its class from universities all over the
Americas. Being an engineer not only entails understanding difficult concepts but also applying
those concepts to new ideas and innovations that will propel society forward. With the high
dependency on fossil fuel use in the United States (US), engineering electric vehicles are one of
the important energy alternatives to be considered. In addition, to aid in the transition for internal
combustion engines to electric vehicles, engineers must prove that this energy alternative is
capable of performing above expectations up to and including winning racing competitions.
Entering this competition required careful consideration of many factors including, but not limited
to: electric motor and battery cell specifications, material types, weight distribution, and
aerodynamic profile.
1. Introduction
1.1 Problem Statement
As a country, the US is highly dependent on energy produced mainly from fossil fuels.
Being the largest petroleum consumer, the US consumed 18.6 million barrels of petroleum
products per day in 2012 alone. The atmosphere absorbs tons of greenhouse gases naturally, but
due to annual increases in greenhouse gas emissions it is trapping up to 25 percent more of the
sun’s radiation and is becoming more absorbent each year. This is a result of the constant increase
of fossil fuel usage. One of the greatest challenges future engineers will need to face is how to
cope with the increase of damaging effects caused by fossil fuel use. Technological advances must
be made in every industry to combat this issue. As such, alternative energy methods in all kinds of
applications are being used. One of these applications is the use of electric engines in vehicles.
1
Electric motor vehicles can perform well for everyday use and have been used in other applications
successfully. Making innovative changes such as these will aid in forward thinking towards a less
fossil fuel dependent era.
1.2 Motivation
The Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition allows for the opportunity to improve and
optimize upon existing concepts in the electric vehicle sector. It is an excellent opportunity for
students to apply their engineering knowledge and existing skills to the design and manufacturing
of an energy efficient vehicle, and to acquire new skills in the process. Students creating different
design alternatives that include different material selections, body shapes, stress and strain
analyses and other important factors make for the ultimate engineering experience. Above all, the
ability to represent Florida International University (FIU) and collaborate with a group of fellow
student engineers to innovate and compete makes for a rewarding journey.
1.3 Literature Survey
1.3.1 Rules and Regulations
The Shell Eco-Marathon organizers have provided a 2016 Official Rule Book that
thoroughly describes all vehicle design considerations, safety guidelines, driving rules, required
documentation, and process mandates to follow until the date of competition. It is vital for the FIU
team to scrutinize all details in the rules handbook in order to comply and be able to participate in
the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition. This document does not provide all content
found in the rule book, however, the main regulations that pertain to the battery electric prototype
vehicle design will be outlined in this document in sections 2.3, and 2.4.
2
1.3.2 Energy Sources
There are many factors to consider when selecting the best energy source for a motor. The
Shell Eco-Marathon rule book clearly states that competitors have the option of designing a vehicle
using the following options:
(a) Internal Combustion
i. Shell FuelSave Unleaded 95 (Europe and Asia)/Shell Nitrogen Enriched (US) Gasoline
ii. Shell FuelSave Diesel (Europe)/Shell Diesel (Asia and US)
iii. Ethanol E100 (100% Ethanol)
iv. Shell Gas to Liquid (100% GtL)
v. CNG (Pure Methane)
(b) Electric Mobility
i. Hydrogen
ii. Battery Electric1
In this project it is vital to first consider which option is the most energy efficient. Another
important factor is whether the chosen option is viable based on various constraints. After
efficiency, simplicity is key.
1.3.3 Internal Combustion Engine
An internal combustion engine is a mechanism that uses heat in order to produce
mechanical power. As a result, it is considered a heat engine. At the most fundamental level from
a thermodynamic perspective, it is a system that takes heat from a hot reservoir at a high
temperature, uses this heat to output mechanical power and then any unused or wasted heat exits
the system through a colder reservoir at a lower temperature in accordance with the second law of
1
Eco-Marathon, Shell. “2016 Official Rules Chapter I.” Shell Eco-Marathon 2016 Official Rules. Shell Global, 2016.
3
thermodynamics (no engine is perfect). Figure 1 illustrates this phenomenon for an easier
understanding.
Figure 1: Thermodynamic Representation of an Internal Combustion Engine
In order to generate heat for the hot reservoir that produces power, fuel or an energy source
are needed. For an internal combustion engine, the fuel is usually gasoline which is a refined oil
product. Other types of fuel can be used such as diesel and ethanol. Fuel contains the chemical
energy that will be converted to heat via combustion for the hot reservoir. Combustion requires
the following three ingredients: Oxygen, fuel, and high temperatures. Modern internal combustion
engines use a piston cylinder configuration to produce mechanical energy. In the piston-cylinder
assembly of a combustion engine, there is atmospheric oxygen and a fuel mixture that enters the
cylinder. To produce heat, the combustion cycle is started with a spark that ignites the fuel in the
cylinder. Ignition will unleash the chemical energy stored in the fuel releasing carbon based gases
and water vapor. Linking the fact that pistons can convert thermal energy into mechanical energy
and how combustion is a satisfactory source of heat energy, internal combustion engines can be
seen as clever mechanisms combining these two observations into a world changing application.
Internal combustion engines have several advantages. They are relatively light for the
amount of power they produce. They are also very responsive and supply energy on demand. The
4
only problem is that they can be considered heavy since they are mostly made of metals to handle
the high temperatures produced from rapid combustion cycles. Additionally, they are very
expensive to design or purchase depending on how good the engine is.
In terms of safety, for use in small cars with limited safety features, they can overheat if
not looked after carefully. Overheating can cause engine fires or injury to those who are near the
engine. Aside from temperature and heating issues, they are notorious for producing carbon
monoxide gases which are incredibly dangerous when inhaled. Care should be taken when dealing
with internal combustion engines of any shape or size.
From an environmental standpoint, combustion engines release carbon dioxide gases
which may not be as dangerous as carbon monoxide gases, but are a major component of the
greenhouse gases which can be found in the Earth’s atmosphere. The US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has made strides in improving the environmental impact of gasoline engines, but
the increase of cars on the road each year has offset this increase in engine cleanliness.
When engines are maintained correctly and fail safes are used, combustion engines can
prove to be very powerful and effective systems for producing energy. Internal combustion engines
will be used for quite some time until other forms of energy generation devices can be created with
the same power and efficiency. Until now, these engines have changed the world since the early
20th century.
1.3.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Most cars on the roads today use an internal combustion engine to burn petroleum based
fuel, generate heat, and push pistons up and down to drive the transmission and the wheels. Electric
cars work in an entirely different way. Instead of an engine, they rely on batteries that feed electric
5
power to battery electric motors that drive the wheels directly. Hybrid cars have both internal
combustion engines and electric motors and can switch between the two to suit driving conditions.
Hydrogen fuel cells are a bit like a mixture between an internal combustion engine and
battery electric motor. Like a combustion engine, they produce power by using fuel from a tank.
The fuel is pressurized hydrogen gas rather than gasoline or diesel. But, unlike a combustion
engine, a fuel cell doesn’t ignite the hydrogen; instead, it is fused chemically with oxygen from
the air to make water. In this process, electricity is released and this is used to power an electric
motor that can propel a vehicle forward. The only waste product of a hydrogen fuel cell is water.
The reaction that takes place within fuel cells is called an electrochemical reaction. The
reaction involves two chemicals joining together, while electricity is produced as the reaction runs
its course. A fuel cell has three key parts similar to those in a battery. As shown in Figure 2, it has
a positively charged terminal (shown in red), a negatively charged terminal (shown in blue), and a
separating chemical, called an electrolyte (shown in yellow), in between the two keeping them
apart.
Figure 2: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Schematic
6
From Figure 2, here are the steps on how a hydrogen fuel cell creates electricity from hydrogen:
1. Hydrogen gas from the tank (shown as red dots) feeds down a pipe to the positive terminal.
Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive, so the tank needs to be pressurized.
2. Oxygen from the air (shown as light blue dots) comes down a second pipe to the negative
terminal.
3. The positive terminal is made of platinum, a metal catalyst designed to speed up the reaction
that happens inside the fuel cell. When atoms of hydrogen gas react with the catalyst, they split
up into hydrogen ions (which are protons) and electrons (shown as black dots).
4. The protons, being positively charged, are attracted to the negative terminal and travel through
the electrolyte to get to it. The electrolyte is a thin membrane made of a special polymer film
that only allows the protons to pass through.
5. The electrons flow through the outer circuit which powers the electric motor.
6. At the negative terminal, the protons and electrons will recombine with oxygen from the air in
a chemical reaction that produces water. The water will escape the fuel cell as a liquid or steam.
Hydrogen energy has many advantages that benefit both the driver and the ecosystem.
Hydrogen is a great source of energy as it is readily available. While it may take some work to
access, there is no element in the universe as abundant as hydrogen. Moreover, when hydrogen is
burned it leaves almost no harmful byproducts. Hydrogen is non-toxic, which makes it a rarity
among fuel sources. Nuclear energy, coal, and gasoline are all either toxic or found in hazardous
environments. This makes hydrogen ideal for use in a number of ways that other fuel sources can’t
compete against.
Hydrogen energy is also very powerful and very efficient. In fact, hydrogen is three times
as powerful as gasoline and similar fossil fuels. Hydrogen energy is a very efficient fuel source
7
when compared to other traditional sources of energy, and can produce more energy per pound of
fuel. This emphasizes that a car loaded with hydrogen fuel will go much farther than one using the
same amount of a traditional source of energy. Unlike non-renewable sources of energy, hydrogen
energy can be produced on demand. All that is needed is energy to break the water molecules to
separate the hydrogen from the oxygen.
Although hydrogen is being used to power some hybrid cars, it is not a viable source of
fuel. Hydrogen requires a lot of work to free it form other elements and is very rare to come across
on its own. Thus, it is expensive and time-consuming to produce. Hydrogen is also difficult to
move around. While oil can be sent through pipelines and coal can be carried in the back of dump
trucks, the super light hydrogen is hard to transport in large quantities. As expensive as hydrogen
is to produce and transport, it becomes even more expensive when you consider trying to use it to
replace gasoline. There is no existing infrastructure in place to accommodate hydrogen as a fuel
source for the average motorist.
Hydrogen is a very powerful source of fuel. However, it is highly flammable and caution
is needed when handling it. Though hydrogen energy is renewable and has minimal environmental
impacts, other non-renewable sources like coal, oil and natural gas are still needed to separate
hydrogen from oxygen. Dependency on fossil fuels can be reduced by using hydrogen, but in turn
fossil fuels are need to produce hydrogen fuel. This dilemma makes hydrogen fuel a bitter sweet
alternative energy source.
1.3.5 Battery Electric
Battery electric vehicles use electricity in a battery pack to power an electric motor and
turn the wheels. When depleted, the batteries are recharged using grid electricity, either from a
8
wall socket or a charging unit. Since they don’t run on gasoline or diesel, and are powered entirely
by electricity, battery electric cars and trucks are considered all-electric vehicles.
All cars, such as gas, electric, hydrogen, or any other “fuel”, are essentially energy
conversion devices: they turn potential (stored) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. In a
conventional car, the energy is stored in a chemical form, locked inside the gas that fills the tank.
The energy is released by a chemical reaction inside the engine in which the hydrocarbons
molecules in gasoline burn with the oxygen molecules in the air to release heat. The heat, or
ignition, pushes the pistons that make the wheels turn. Electric cars also use stored chemical
energy, though they release it electromechanically. This form of energy has no combustion, as
electrons flow from their slowly discharging batteries to power the motor. Battery electric does
not burn any fuel, produce any air pollution from the tailpipe, and has no emissions.
The demand for electric vehicles has surged in recent years. In the beginning, some of the
biggest challenges electric vehicles faced were that they were for short ranged trips, they lacked
recharging infrastructures, and they had a higher initial cost. Greenhouse emissions became a far
worse issue as scientists predicted that the planet is required to reduce emissions by 50-85 percent
by 2050 to maintain an average temperature of 2-2.4 percent above the pre-industrial era2. The
search on Google for the terms “electric car”, “electric vehicle”, and “electric mobility” has risen
and has taken a high peak in 20103. Many countries around the world have taken drastic steps in
enforcing their laws and creating varies regulations for the purpose of reducing carbon emissions.
Vehicles have been one of the biggest producers of greenhouse emissions, therefore the biggest
sought after energy source for vehicles has been battery electric. The most popular hybrid electric
2
Lucena, Samuel E. De. “A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology.” Electric Vehicles: The Benefits and
Barriers. 2011.
3 Christian, Hanke. "Socio-Economic Aspects of Electric Vehicles: A Literature Review." Evolutionary Paths towards the
Mobility Patterns of the Future Lecture Notes in Mobility. 2013.
9
vehicle that made an effect in the market, in 2010, was the Toyota Prius2. However, the Prius still
carried many of the recharging infrastructure issues. In 2009, the German federal government
published the National Development Plan for Electric Mobility, which states that Germany will
bring 1 million electric vehicles or hybrid vehicles by the year 20203. Ever since the mandate,
many countries across Europe have taken actions in order to meet similar mandates. In 2012, Tesla
launched the Model S, the world’s first premium electric sedan that is 100% electric. Today many
other automotive industries have followed releasing battery electric vehicles that are functional
and the companies are investing more money into the electric mobility industry.
Electric cars are green cars, in which the term refers to zero-emission vehicles that release
zero grams of carbon dioxide emissions per mile. Effectively, they do not cause any pollution
during operation. Electric cars are considerably more efficient than gasoline cars because electric
motors are inherently more efficient (about 80 percent) than internal combustion engines (about
30 percent for the engine alone). The combustion engine wastes a high proportion of the fuel they
burn as unusable heat. Hybrid cars achieve their higher efficiency and fuel economy largely by
switching from gasoline power to electric power whenever it is favorable, such as sitting in heavy
traffic. Where a typical car (a four-cylinder, 1.8L Honda Civic) driven by gasoline might achieve
31 miles per gallon (MPG), its equivalent hybrid (four-cylinder, 1.5L) manages a far more
impressive 45 MPG combined. In addition, not all the energy from an electric motor is wasted.
With regenerative brakes, the energy regenerates every time one stops at a light. The car’s electric
motor becomes a generator so when the brakes are engaged, the car slows down and kinetic energy
is converted into electricity that recharges the battery.
2
Lucena, Samuel E. De. “A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology.” Electric Vehicles: The Benefits and
Barriers. 2011.
3
Christian, Hanke. "Socio-Economic Aspects of Electric Vehicles: A Literature Review." Evolutionary Paths towards the
Mobility Patterns of the Future Lecture Notes in Mobility. 2013.
10
In addition, the maintenance of electric cars is less of a hassle, because electric cars are
generally simpler than gasoline cars. Electric cars cost about a third less than internal combustion
engine vehicles to maintain. An electric motor is simpler than a gasoline engine with far less parts
to wear out. Without a transmission or gearbox, the car is easier to maintain. Even the brakes last
longer, since regenerative braking means one needs to use conventional (frictional) brake pads.
One of the major issues of a battery electric vehicle is its battery. Despite their
environmental and economic drawbacks, a tank of gasoline can carry far more energy than
batteries in kilograms. Additionally, electric cars can take half an hour to an entire night to recharge
fully, then only be able to go a short distance compared to combustion engine vehicles. A gas tank
is relatively compact and inexpensive, while the batteries are expensive, bulky, and heavy and may
take up room needed for other things.
Convenience is also an issue for electric battery cars. While driving with a gas engine, one
is never too far from a gas station to refuel and drive again toward one’s destination, but charging
stations are minimal around the city to charge an electric car. According to the US Census Bureau,
they revealed that there are 121,446 gas stations across the US. By comparison, according to the
Alternative Fuel Data Center, there are 21,597 electric charging stations in the US. While it is true
that one can charge the car at home or at work, sometimes it is beneficial to charge up when driving
on the road for longer distances. In the future, with the help of on-board solar panels, future electric
cars could go more than 300 miles on a single charge.
The chosen energy source for the prototype vehicle was chosen to be battery electric. The
reasoning behind this is because of costs and logistics. Many factors were carefully taken into
consideration in order to meet all deadlines and prevent manufacturing obstacles. In order to make
a well-functioning and efficient enough vehicle as part of the competition goals, efficiency of
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energy used was first analyzed. Research on internal combustion and hydrogen fuel cell showed
that these energy sources are much less efficient than battery electric. In addition, the time it takes
to manufacture and put together an internal combustion or hydrogen fuel cell motor is much longer
and requires a greater level of understanding. This would generate many complications along the
process. The greatest challenge in the battery electric vehicle is the programming skills required
for the motor.
1.4 Survey of Related Standards
Every innovation begins with standards that need to be followed during the design,
manufacturing, and optimization process of a product. The Shell Eco-Marathon competition holds
their own standards for vehicle designs to promote safety as well as keep the competition regulated
for fairness. Prototype vehicles hold several regulations in different categories, this report focuses
on battery electric motor vehicles. This section will review related industry standards, such as those
created by organizations such as the American society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). All vehicles must pass a safety and technical
inspection prior to entering the track. If the vehicle does not comply, it will not be allowed on the
track for either the practice runs or the main competition. This section as well as sections 2.3, and
2.4 outlines all of these regulations and standards that must be adhered to. These standards and
regulations are to be followed not only for competition entry, but also for the health and safety of
the team participants and others involved.
1.4.1 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles
Industry standards that exist for battery electric vehicles can be found on the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)4 website. It can be found in the standards catalogue under
4
"Standards Catalogue: ICS 43.120: Electric Road Vehicles." International Organization for Standardization. ISO, 2016.
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ICS 43.120. These standards include safety specifications for the on-board rechargeable energy
storage system, vehicle operational safety, protection against electrical shock, and post-crash
electrical safety. The standards are put in place to address health and safety concerns as they pertain
to battery electric vehicles. These existing standards are subject to change as the battery electric
vehicle sector is still being developed. Gaps in this industry are identified and standards developed
to address any issues or concerns as they may arise.
1.4.2 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles
Standards used for the design of the prototype vehicle involve the material chosen for the
vehicle chassis, which is Aluminum 6061-T6. Aluminum 6061-T6 is standardized by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)5 under the designation B308/B308M. This
standard includes tensile limits for the aluminum alloy which will be taken into consideration,
displayed in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Tensile Property Limits of Aluminum 6061-T6
Elongations in 50 mm applies to sheet-type specimens machined into materials of 12.5 mm
in thickness. Elongations in 4D [5D or ] applies to round test samples produced from
thicknesses over 6.30 mm. The variables A and D are cross-sectional area of the sample and
diameter, respectively.
5 "Standard Specification for Aluminum-Alloy 6061-T6 Standard Structural Profiles." USAEC-RDT Standards. ASTM, 2010.
13
1.5 Discussion
Fossil fuels are used to produce most of the energy used by the United States, though its
use comes with consequences. Greenhouse gas emissions are a product of burning fossil fuels and
the increase in usage has made the atmosphere absorb 25 percent of the sun’s radiation. The
trapped emissions cause damaging effects to the environment, thus, engineers must learn how to
cope with the effects and lessen the impact of energy demands by using alternative sources.
Electric engines are an excellent alternative to internal combustion engines, and the Shell Eco-
marathon competition gives contending students the chance to improve on existing ideas while
proving the capabilities of the alternative engines. The history of electric motor vehicles shows
continuous optimizations of each component of the vehicle to help improve the performance of
the electric motor. These enhancements and innovations should be used to define any future design
alternatives, as well as optimize the advances of the electric motor. In addition, the standards set
by Shell for the competition need to be reviewed and satisfied to create a competition worthy
vehicle.
2. Project Formulation
2.1 Overview
Shell Eco-Marathon tasks students with engineering a battery electric vehicle to enter into
the competition in Detroit, Michigan (MI). A team of 6 engineering students was divided into two
groups of 3 students each. These two groups are to divide responsibilities, while working together,
to design and manufacture the competition vehicle. Objectives are identified and are made to
closely adhere to all competition rules, regulations, and specific requirements that are closely
looked at to ensure admittance into the competition.
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2.2 Project Objectives
The main objective is to design and manufacture a battery electric vehicle that can travel
the farthest while using the least amount of energy. As the team is split into two groups, the
objectives of each group are different, although there may be some overlapping components. The
tasks for this initiative have been divided as follows: interior body (chassis/framework), exterior
body (“shell”), wheels, braking, steering/handling, and engine components.
This team is tasked with the vehicle’s exterior body design and manufacturing (also known
as the “shell”), steering/handling, and the engine/energy components. These objectives include but
are not limited to various design alternatives, material selection, motor specifications, battery cell
capabilities, cost analysis, manufacturing, testing, and more. The two groups are to work together
to ensure that the design of the vehicle will accommodate the components designed by the other
team. In addition, both teams are to ensure that all rules and regulations set forth by Shell are
adhered to accordingly. The team is to verify that all components of the vehicle are to standard
and validate that the vehicle is in safe operating conditions; a thorough inspection will be
completed. Any corrections that may be needed are to be documented in detail.
2.3 Design Specification
Entering into the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon competition involves engineering an energy
efficient vehicle that can travel the longest distance using the least amount of energy. In the pursuit
of that, however, there are rules and regulations that must be followed. These regulations allow for
constraints that must be followed throughout the design process to yield a product that will not
only be safe, but also admissible in competition.
The competition allows for different fuel sources to be chosen. Among these choices are
the hydrogen fuel cell, diesel, and battery electric vehicle. This section will focus on the battery
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electric vehicle design specifications and constraints as they pertain to the vehicle body, steering,
handling, and engine/energy components. Other specifications and constraints will also be
outlined, as applicable, in the sections that follow.
2.3.1 Steering Specifications
For the competition, only front wheel steering is permitted and the vehicle must have a
turning radius of 8 meters or less. The turning radius is defined as “the distance between the center
of the circle and the external wheel of the vehicle.”1 The external wheels must have the ability to
follow a 90 degree arc of 8 meter radius in both directions. Joy stick operation of the steering is
not permitted, however, other electrically operated indirect steering systems are permitted. These
are permitted if they are operated by a steering wheel, rotary potentiometer, or similar. If this type
of steering system is chosen, the vehicle should automatically revert to the straight ahead position
in the event that the steering wheel is released by the driver or if electrical failure occurs.
2.3.2 General Vehicle Specifications
The specifications in this subsection are listed in Article 25 and 39 of the 2016 Official
Rules Chapter I manual of the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon and pertain to the general design of the
prototype vehicle. The regulations that will be focused on are summarized and listed below:
1. Prototype vehicles must have three or four running wheels that are in continuous contact
with the track.
2. All vehicle propulsion needs to be created only using the friction between the track and the
wheels of the vehicle.
3. Aerodynamic appendages that adjust or change shape with the wind during the motion of
the vehicle are forbidden.
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4. Any external appendages that may cause harm to other participants are not allowed. Sharp
points must be made of foam or deformable material, and need to have a radius of 5 cm or
greater.
5. Panels on the body must be stiff enough not to change shape with the wind.
6. The interior of the vehicle must be absent of any objects that can harm the driver during
collisions.
7. Windows are recommended to be made of polycarbonate, or any other material that does
not fragment into sharp shards.
8. Covers on the energy compartment need to provide easy access for quick inspection.
9. All components of the drive train must be confined within the body cover.
10. All objects must be secured safely in the vehicle. Bungee cords and other elastic material
cannot be used to secure heavy objects.
11. Vehicles must contain solid floors and rigid frames that keeps the driver from coming into
contact with the ground.
12. Prototype vehicles need to be fully covered.
13. A 15mm hole must be provided in the body of the vehicle for installation of telemetry
equipment.
14. While running the sound level of the vehicle should not exceed 90 dBA 4 meters from the
vehicle. If this sound level is surpassed, the team will be allowed to fix the issue for a
certain amount of time.
15. Dimensions of the vehicle must not exceed the measurements listed below:
a. Maximum height should be less than 100 cm.
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b. Maximum width should be at least 50 cm. This is measured between the midpoints
of the outermost wheels at the ground.
c. Ratio between maximum height divided by maximum track width needs to be less
than 1.25.
d. Wheelbase should be at least 100 cm.
e. Maximum total vehicle width cannot exceed 130 cm.
f. Maximum total length cannot exceed 350 cm.
g. Maximum vehicle weight, not including the driver, should be 140 kg.
h. All of the body dimensions listed cannot be achieved with design singularities. For
example, ‘stuck-on’ appendages or cut-outs1.
2.3.3 Electrical/Energy System
The nominal and maximum voltage on board any vehicle at any given time must not exceed
48 and 60 volts (V), respectively. The propulsion battery is the only on-board battery that is
allowed. Since lithium based batteries will be used a battery management system (BMS) tailored
to this type of battery must be installed to control and protect the battery against risk of fire. The
BMS provides cell balancing and over-voltage protection during off-track charging. This system
must automatically isolate the battery if any of the specified parameters are met or exceeded. The
maximum capacity allowed for the lithium based battery is 1000 watt-hour (Wh). Protection for
this battery whether it is charging inside or outside of the vehicle must be provided. In addition,
the battery must be equipped with a metal tray placed under the battery to prevent it from burning
through the vehicle body in the event of a fire or other scenario. All batteries and super capacitors,
if any, must be protected against short circuits. This may be done through the use of fuses or a
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circuit breaker. Automatic reclosing circuit breakers are not permitted. Short circuit protection
devices must be located on the positive conductor and as close as possible to the battery or super
capacitor itself. The rating of the short circuit protection device must be such that the battery or
super capacitor will be able to supply enough short circuit current at all times to open the device.
Both the positive and negative circuits of the propulsion battery or super capacitors must be
electrically isolated from the vehicle frame. All vehicle electrical circuits must be protected against
electrical overload by using individual circuit fuses or through setting current limits within an
electric controller.
A super capacitor is to be used if the powertrain is to have an embedded electric storage
device. Other types of electric storage devices are not permitted. In addition, only one electric
storage device is allowed and up to two electric motors can be used. The electric motors may be
purchased, purchased and modified, or purpose-built, however, the motor controller must be
purpose-built. A joule meter must also be placed between the battery and motor controller to
measure the vehicle’s propulsion energy consumption and must not be accessible by the driver.
The accessory battery provides for all allowed electrical needs such as safety devices and
must maintain a negative ground. The accessory battery is not allowed to power compressors,
blowers, engine cooling systems or motors. These components must be powered by the fuel cell
or super capacitor. All wiring associated with the accessory battery circuit must be clearly
distinguishable from the propulsion system by physical isolation or the use of different wire colors.
All electrical/electronic enclosures must be made of transparent material or at least have a
transparent cover to allow the technical inspectors to view the contents. A fuse must be installed
on the positive terminal of the fuel cell stack or super capacitor pack. For a fuel cell stack the
melting current of the fuse must be less than the active area of one cell of the stack. For a super
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capacitor, the fuse rating must be less than or equal to the maximum usable power divided by the
rated voltage1.
2.4 Constraints and Other Considerations
2.4.1 Logo Specifications
Per competition guidelines, 10 cm must be left free on all four sides of the Shell logo, all
other logos must be smaller than the Shell logo which is 20 x 21.5 cm. The maximum allotted area
for sponsor stickers is 400 cm2. In addition, logos belonging to tobacco and alcohol companies
are prohibited. Logos of other energy companies and direct competitors to event sponsors require
prior written approval for their use1.
2.4.2 Emergency Shut Down Mechanism
An emergency shut down mechanism must be in place for every vehicle entering into the
competition. Its purpose is to shut down the propulsion system of the vehicle. This mechanism
must physically isolate the propulsion battery from the vehicle’s electrical system. The use of
power controllers or other logic systems for this purpose are prohibited. Relays are a good
alternative and if a relay is to be used it must be a normally open contact type6. This means that at
its initial state the relay is open, causing zero functionality from the propulsion system until an
electrical current is applied to the contacts that will cause the relay to close and allow for operation
of the propulsion system.
The vehicle must have both an external and an internal emergency shut down mechanism.
The internal mechanism is for use by the driver and the external mechanism must be permanently
installed to a non-detachable surface on the rear of the vehicle body. This rear shut down
1
1
6
"How Relays Work - Relay Diagrams and Relay Definitions." How Relays Work.
20
mechanism must also be clearly marked by a red arrow on a white background with measurements
of at least 10 cm long and 3 cm wide at the widest point. The emergency shut down mechanism
for the battery electric vehicle must be in the form of a latching red push button.
In addition to the emergency shut down mechanism all vehicles must also be equipped with
a dead man’s safety device, also known as operator presence control. This device is used in the
event that the driver becomes incapacitated, the vehicle’s propulsion power will automatically
become disengaged. Normally the device consists of a spring loaded hand operated accelerator or
foot pedal lever, however an electric switch can be used. If an electric switch is used it must be
located on the steering wheel and the driver must directly engage the switch at all times while
driving1.
2.4.3 Propulsion and Energy Storage System Isolation
The propulsion and energy storage system used by the prototype vehicle creates many risks
for the driver. These risks involve the driver coming into contact with any liquids, flames, or smoke
during fuel leaks or fires that may occur in the energy storage system. To protect the driver,
regulations were created in Article 27 of the 2016 Official Rules Chapter I Shell Eco-Marathon
manual. These standards focus on the bulkhead of the vehicle. The bulkhead must permanently
and completely separate the driver’s compartment from the propulsion and energy storage systems.
Thus, all components of the system need to be mounted behind the bulkhead. Moreover, the
bulkhead’s material needs to be fire retardant with its construction. No gaps or holes should be
present between the bulkhead and the energy compartment. Any gaps must be sealed with
aluminum tape or metal/aluminum sheeting. If holes are needed to pass wires between
compartments, the wires need to be protected from damage or chafing with the use of a grommet
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or similar protective devices. In addition, the energy compartment should be easy to access from
the outside for inspection purposes1.
2.4.4 Fire Extinguisher Specifications
Each vehicle must also have an onboard extinguisher type ABC or BC. The minimum
extinguishing capacity is of 1 kg, it must be full and have a manufacturing expiry date or
manufactured within the past 3 years. Any extinguisher that is past the expiration date that has
been re-inspected and tagged with an official date of recertification will be accepted. A plumbed-
in extinguisher may be located in the engine compartment and it must discharge into the engine
compartment. Any triggering systems must be located in the cockpit and operable by the driver in
normal driving position. A handheld extinguisher must be located in the cockpit that the driver can
access once having exited from the vehicle. This extinguisher must be mounted so as to prevent
movement during vehicle operation1.
2.4.5 Safety Harness Specifications
For the safety harness, there are several regulations that need to be accounted for. These
standards are available in Article 29 of the 2016 Official Rules Chapter I manual. The regulations
start by stating that the belts need to be fitted to the driver’s seat with at least five different
mounting points to secure the driver and prevent any motion of the driver’s torso. For the harness,
each belt should be firmly attached the main structure of the vehicle and the harness must contain
a single buckle. In addition, the buckle must withstand 1.5 times the weight of the driver to pass
inspection. If there is slack, the belt should be adjusted with the length adjuster which needs to be
located close to the connection point. The crotch strap should be mounted behind the chest line
1
1
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and the topmost straps need to have an angle of 10°, at least, below the shoulder line. As usual,
during motion the driver must wear the safety harness at all times1.
2.4.6 Other Specifications
Other specification as outlined in the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon rules and regulations
include the sound level, horn, vehicle access, exhaust system of the vehicle, and more. The sound
level must not exceed 90 dBA when measured 4 meters away from the vehicle. The exhaust gases
must be released outside of the vehicle body and the exhaust pipes must not extend past the rear
or the sides of the vehicle body. In addition, all vehicles are to comply with reasonable
environmental standards such as the amount of smoke and smell emitted. Each vehicle must be
equipped with an electric horn mounted towards the front of the vehicle so that it is effectively
audible to others when used. The horn must emit a sound greater than 85 dBA when measured 4
meters horizontally from the vehicle. It must also have a high tone pitch equal or greater than 420
Hertz. In addition, the driver of the vehicle must be able to exit the vehicle in less than 10 seconds
unassisted. To facilitate this the opening for the cockpit must be sufficiently large and the driving
position must be designed to allow for easy extraction of the driver by emergency personnel, if
necessary. The cockpit opening may be enclosed completely or partly by use of hinged, detachable
or folding doors. The release mechanism of the cockpit door must be easily accessible by the driver
inside of the cockpit and on the outside it must be clearly marked by a red arrow. Opening or
closing of the cockpit door must not require any tools.
When the driver is positioned, the helmet should be 5 cm below the roll bar and their
visibility must be unimpaired. The driver must have access to a direct arc of visibility ahead and
to 90 degrees on each side of the longitudinal axis of the vehicle without the use of any optical or
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electronic devices. The vehicle must be equipped with a rear-view mirror on each side of the
vehicle, each with a minimum surface area of 25 cm2 and cannot be replaced by an electronic
device. All parts of the drive train are to be within the confines of the body cover. Proper ventilation
for the driver inside of the vehicle is to be provided at all times. The driver’s clothing is to be of
fire retardant material and a helmet suitable for motor sport activities is to be worn at all times1.
2.5 Addressing Global Design
This project allows for involved students to learn how an energy efficient vehicle can be
improved upon and contribute to a decline in greenhouse gas emissions. It also allows for an in-
depth comprehension as to why other fuel alternatives, such as the hydrogen fuel cell, are not a
viable alternative in the automotive industry as of yet; primarily due to safety concerns. However,
in having to design and develop an energy efficient vehicle, one is able to analyze different
alternatives and assess their feasibility and safety as well as determine whether or not it aids in
reducing greenhouse gas emission, thus addressing global environmental concerns.
2.6 Discussion
The design process is very intensive. Other than choosing different alternatives all
constraints and specifications must be taken into account. As in any activity, risks are always
present. By controlling and recognizing the risks one can guarantee the well-being of the driver
and of the surrounding people during the marathon. This sections in conjunction with section 1.4
outlined all constraints/standards/specifications that are to be met. This will allow for the
manufacturing phase to go smoothly without having to spend excess time on rework. In addition,
all members need to be aware of all of these items to ensure accountability and that all regulations
as they pertain to certain aspects of the vehicle are being successfully met.
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3. Project Management
3.1 Overview
All projects require some sort of project management. This is especially true for large scale
projects. In building a full scale vehicle and with having involvement from two separate teams,
managing each aspect of the project will ensure positive outcomes and timely completion. Each
team divides the objectives assigned to them into specific tasks that need to be done to ensure
successful completion of their portion of the project. In addition to dividing the work into specific
tasks, the team also assigns deadlines to each task and communicates these to the other team.
Communication is essential in this project as both teams need to work together to ensure that there
are no complications with any overlapping components and that each team delivers their portion
of the work in a timely manner. Deviation from the deadlines may be considered on a case by case
basis, however, deadline extensions will affect the progress of both teams.
3.2 Breakdown of Work in Specific Tasks
Figure 3: Work Breakdown Structure (General)
Figure 4: Work Breakdown Structure (Topic Selection)
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Figure 5: Work Breakdown Structure (Body Design)
Figure 6: Work Breakdown Structure (Motor, Steering and Handling)
Figure 7: Work Breakdown Structure (Manufacturing/Build, Testing/Validation, and Optimization)
26
3.3 Gantt Chart for the Optimization of Work and Timeline
Figure 8: Gantt Chart
Figure 9: Timeline
27
3.4 Breakdown of Responsibilities among Team Members
Table 2: Breakdown of Responsibilities
3.5 Commercialization of the Final Product
The final product will not be commercialized. The vehicle will compete in Detroit, MI on
April 2016 and will be returned thereafter to the Eco Engineering Club at FIU, College of
Engineering and Computing. The vehicle will be made available to future students who would like
to optimize the existing design and enter it into future competitions.
3.6 Discussion
Proper project management is critical for the successful completion of any project;
particularly for projects of this magnitude. The breakdown of work into specific tasks helps
members know which target areas need to be addressed to fully complete a specific section. An
accurate and realistic timeline is also of upmost importance. Adhering to said timeline is crucial
in being able to complete the project with sufficient time left over to focus on testing and
optimization.
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4. Design Alternatives
4.1 Overview of Conceptual Designs Developed
Four different designs for the vehicle’s exterior body were developed. These designs were
made taking into consideration driver safety, feasibility, stability, and other factors. In addition,
these designs are developed in collaboration with the other team. This is due to the fact that the
other team has to design the chassis/framework to fit properly within the body and vice-versa.
With input from all six members, the three design alternatives described in the following sections
were developed. For the same reason, the final design was also chosen with the input from all six
members. In addition, the steering and handling components of the vehicle were chosen to best fit
the design. Lastly, the battery electric motor, battery, motor controller, and electrical components
with their specifications will also be outlined, however, in sections 5.10 through 5.13.
4.2 Body Design Alternative 1
Figure 10: Body Design Alternative 1
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By taking into consideration all the design constraints the first design above was made.
Input from all 6 team members as well as utilization of the chassis designed was used to develop
the initial body design as seen in figure 10. This design was a general overlap of the chassis that
was utilized for preliminary dimensions and preliminary airflow analysis. Other design alternatives
were created due to further optimization of this initial model. Results of an airflow analysis of this
design can be found in section 5.8.
By optimizing design alternative one the design above was made. During airflow analysis,
described in detail in section 5.8, the sharp edges of alternative one created too much turbulent
flow at the rear of the vehicle. Smoothing the edges optimized the design by greatly reducing the
turbulent flow that was seen at the rear. This follows general concepts of airfoil analysis, which
emphasizes the need of optimization to create the most aerodynamic shape. Aerodynamic shapes
have rounded or smooth edges, which are essential in order to reduce turbulent flow. Following
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this, fillets were applied to design one to make design alternative two. Results of an airflow
analysis of this design can be found in section 5.8.
The design shown in figure 12 is was the result of further optimization based on design
alternative two. The airflow analysis of this design can be found in section 5.8. This design did
exceptionally well during the analysis compared to the initial two designs. Although this is a
favorable design, further analysis showed that it presented issues when assembled with the chassis
as the chassis did not fit well inside the shape. Thus, a fourth alternative was developed.
31
This final design is satisfactory as it can be flawlessly assembled to the chassis designed
and it also has a favorable aerodynamic profile. Continuous research was done on airfoil analysis
which led to this final design. Airflow simulations of this design will be discussed in section 5.8.
All designs were developed taking into consideration a three-wheel design; one wheel in
the rear and two in the front. The largest part of the vehicle is at the rear where the engine and
battery management system are housed. The driver’s weight should be at approximately the center
of gravity of the vehicle, while still allowing sufficient room for the pedals, steering, and other
components. These components are to be installed at the front of the vehicle. Measurements of the
potential driver were also taken into consideration in the process of creating this design.
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4.6 Proposed Body Design
Design alternative four was chosen as the final design to be built for the competition. The
design was chosen by taking into considerations the feasibility assessment as well as the input
from all six members participating in the competition. Many factors that were looked into were
the load distribution of the design, material specifications, driver comfort, airfoil analysis, and
feasibility of build. The main factor that convinced the team to choose this design was the airflow
analysis using SolidWorks Simulation as shown in section 5.8. All altercations to the geometrical
shape of the body using the airfoil theory on lowering drag were tested by use of the simulation
software. Using information of the behavior of air around the body, design alternative four was
indeed the most aerodynamic as predicted. Figures 14 through 16 display the success of the design.
Figure 14: Preliminary Body and Chassis Setup Displaying Chassis Fitting Inside Body Perfectly
33
Figure 15: Preliminary Body and Chassis Setup Displaying No Issues or Interferences.
Figure 16: Body and Chassis Displaying the Design Closer to the Final Vehicle Design
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4.7 Proposed Steering Design
Choosing the steering design involved consideration of the regulations set for by the Shell
Eco-Marathon competition. Electric steering is not allowed and the turning radius of the vehicle
should be a maximum of 8 meters. In addition, the vehicle should be able to follow a 90 degree
arc. The steering design chosen is similar the type that can be found on go karts. It is comprised of
a steering wheel, steering shaft, tie rods, and spindles. The wheels chosen are installed on the
spindles, the tie rods are attached to the spindles and steering shaft. It is a fully mechanical system
that allows for movement of the tires when the steering wheel is moved to the left or right. Figure
17 shows a schematic of the parts that the steering system is comprised of. The spindles used to
mount the front wheels are welded onto the chassis and the body design chosen was modeled
around this entire system to ensure no interference. An analysis of the spindles can be found in
sections 5.5 through 5.7. Figure 18 and 19 displays the steering design successfully implemented
into the final vehicle design.
Figure 17: Go Kart Steering Schematic
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To abide by competition regulations, the turning radius of the vehicle should not exceed 8
meters. This was ensured by calculating the minimum steering angle needed to meet this
requirement. Equations 1 and 2 shown below were used to calculate this angle. If the vehicle was
modeled utilizing the allowable minimum track width (w) and wheel base (l) measurements, as
seen in Table 7, the minimum steering angle would be 7.414 degrees. Utilizing the measurements
of the actual vehicle designed, the minimum steering angle is 14.83 degrees. This means that as
the track width and wheel base increase, so does the minimum steering angle required to ensure
that the vehicle can maintain a maximum turning radius of 8 meters.
Table 3: Track Width and Wheel Base Dimensions
𝑤 𝑙 0.76 𝑚 1.95 𝑚
Turning Radius (r) = 8 m = + = + (1)
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑙 1.95 𝑚
𝜃 = sin−1 [ 𝑤 ] = sin −1
[ ] = 14.83 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 (2)
(𝑟 − 2 ) 0.76 𝑚
(8 𝑚 − 2 )
36
Figure 18: Steering Design Implemented Successfully into the Final Vehicle Design
Figure 19: Side View of Steering Design in the Final Vehicle Design
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4.8 Feasibility Assessment
All four body design alternatives that were made were taken into consideration, however,
design four has the best aerodynamic efficiency and can promise the best results in competition.
This design resulted in the best airflow analysis proved by using airflow simulations on
SolidWorks. In addition, the design chosen allowed for a clear cut out of the vehicle’s windows
ensuring the required 180 degrees of visibility for the driver, as required by the Shell Eco-Marathon
Regulations. The vehicle’s 180 degrees of visibility can be seen in Figure 20. Fabrication of all
designs was also taken into consideration and the last design is the most feasible alternative.
Selecting a motor with an attached wheel is the best option for the design of the vehicle.
This saves many additional costs that would have been included if the motor was bought separately
and two wheels at the rear end of the body were used instead. After careful analysis of all logistics
a hub motor from a bicycle motor kit is the best option. This will aid in the manufacturing of the
car by the competition deadline. There are other possible options for more efficient motors,
however due to cost constraints, a kit is optimal. A deeper analysis of motor selection can be found
in section 5.10.
Figure 20: Vehicle's 180 Degrees of Visibility for the Driver
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4.9 Integration of Global Design Elements
There are many global design elements that were considered in order to come up with a
final body design and motor. Understanding the behavior of air around the surface of the body was
based off of its geometrical shape. The shape is dependent on the position of the motor, the battery,
and the driver to be able to find the most optimal center of gravity. The selection of the motor with
higher weight can alter the total weight of the car, which affects the center of gravity and requires
the driver to be positioned closer to the front of the car for better balancing of the total weight of
the car as it is moving. All these element modifications when selecting the different components
clearly affect the final design of the body
4.10 Discussion
Any good design evolves from a combination of several ideas. More than one design is
developed to have several options to choose from, and so that a comparison and feasibility
assessment between multiple designs can be conducted. From these steps, the most feasible
alternative can be narrowed down and chosen. Input from all team members regardless of what
component they are working on is critical in the successful selection of a design. In addition,
consulting with seasoned engineers and skilled laborers also played an important role in choosing
different components of the vehicle. Seeking input from all team members as well as professionals
allowed for a reduction in conflicts that may have arisen.
39
5. Engineering Design and Analysis
5.1 Overview
Once the design has been chosen several other components come into play. Some of these
components include structural analysis, stress and force analysis, material selection, and
component selection. Different analysis can be made on the system using programs such as
SolidWorks to be able to determine if the chosen design is structurally sound. This also involves
testing several scenarios using different materials that are being considered. The result of these
analysis will streamline the decision making process in being able to select the best materials for
the design chosen, and if issues with the design are present, it allows sufficient proof to justify
redesigning the existing model.
5.2 Kinematic Analysis of the System
Various components of the vehicle were rendered using SolidWorks. This was done to
ensure that all parts would fit together seamlessly when assembled. In creating a SolidWorks
assembly with the parts designed, any imperfections or overlapping features can be detected and
addressed. It is crucial that this is process is completed in the design phase prior to beginning the
manufacturing phase for the parts involved. Even though this process may be tedious and slightly
time consuming, ultimately it saves money, time, and resources. If these issues exist and they are
not discovered and addressed prior to manufacturing, components such as the Styrofoam mold,
where the fiberglass body would be created upon, would not fit over the chassis and a secondary
mold would need to be made. In analyzing other components such as the steering, it was discovered
that a foot pedal for the throttle would not be ideal as it would cause interference with the tie rods
that make up part of the steering assembly. Figure 21 shows an example of what the SolidWorks
40
assembly looks like. In this example the chassis in assembled inside of the vehicle body and
inspected to ensure that it fits properly.
Figure 21: Kinematic Analysis of Vehicle Assembly (Front and Back, Respectively) via SolidWorks
Figure 22: Body and Chassis Assembled Displaying the Success of the Kinematic Analysis
41
5.3 Dynamic Analysis of the System
A dynamic analysis of the system was performed for both mechanical and electrical
components. The electrical components such as the horns, safety switches, and motor were tested
to ensure functionality of the entire system. For the motor this was initially done with the controller
basic controller. Due to competition guidelines, a controller must be programmed by the team. As
such, as the microcontroller was coded accordingly, tests were conducted in real-time to analyze
the performance of the system and be able to identify and address any possible errors found in the
code. As for the mechanical components, the dynamic analysis aided in ensuring that all parts and
assemblies would function properly when in use. Items such as the steering were tested in real-
time to ensure that the angle and orientation of the steering shaft was correct for optimum
performance. The analysis of this system led to the discovery that extra washers and larger screws
needed to be used to reduce or eliminate any play or “wiggle room” found in the joints of the
steering assembly. In addition, the placement of the steering shaft was modified to improve driver
operation of the steering mechanism.
While mounted onto the vehicle, the battery electric motor was analyzed while the car was
raised on car jacks. With this set up, the motor was tested with no load. Using a tachometer, the
motor shows a generation of 459 revolutions per minute (RPM) at a distance (D) of 2.167 feet.
Utilizing Equation 3 below, the maximum speed the car can achieve is 35.5 miles per hour (MPH)
when no load is applied.
60 ∙ 𝐷 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑅𝑃𝑀 60 ∙ 2.167 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 459

𝑀𝑃𝐻 = = = 35.5 𝑀𝑃𝐻 (3)
5280 5280
The car must achieve an average speed of 15 MPH to qualify to compete in the Shell Eco-Marathon
competition. More testing will be conducted with loads applied to determine whether the vehicle
will achieve the required speed.

42
5.4 Structural Design
The vehicle body is not analyzed structurally as the fiberglass shell used for the vehicle
body is not meant to withstand a force of 700 N. The chassis is the vehicle component that was
designed to withstand maximum forces to ensure driver safety. Although the body was not
designed to support maximum loads, it was designed for optimum aerodynamic performance as
discussed in previous sections. The results of the airflow analysis of the body can be found in
section 5.8.
The vehicle windows chosen were of polycarbonate material; better known as Lexan. This
material was chosen due to its ability to withstand impact, and when it breaks it does not break
into sharp shards. This small detail is of upmost importance for the safety of the driver and others
in the event that a window does break. The mechanical properties of Lexan are shown in Table 47.
The ultimate tensile stress at break for the Lexan window is listed by the manufacturer as 70 mega
pascals (MPa). After calculating the maximum stress that the window will experience during
normal use, it is determined that it is unlikely, even under extreme loading scenarios that the Lexan
window will fail. This is determined because the actual stress the window will experience during
normal operating conditions is less than the maximum stress the window can withstand. The actual
stress of the Lexan window was determined to be 13.56 kilo pascals (KPa) when a 700 N force is
applied on an 8” x 10” (0.0516 m2) sheet of Lexan, which is the smallest size used. As the size of
the Lexan sheet used increases, the total stress the window experiences when a 700 N load is
applied decreases. In addition, when the factor of safety (FOS) for the window is calculated,
utilizing the relationship seen in Equation 48 it is determined that the window will not fail because
7
"Lexan 9030 Product Datasheet." Theplasticshop.co.uk. GE
8
"Factor of Safety FOS Review." FOS Review. Engineers Edge.
43
the factor of safety is well over 1.0. It is calculated to be 5162. Figure 23 displays the Lexan
windshield being riveted onto the front of the body.
Table 4: Mechanical Properties of Lexan
𝑆𝑚 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑚
𝑆𝑤 = 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 {𝑆𝑤 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠) (4)
𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝐹𝑂𝑆)
𝑆𝑚 70 × 106
𝑓𝑠 = = = 5162.24
𝑆𝑤 13.56 × 103
Figure 23: Front Lexan Windshield Being Riveted On
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5.5 Force Analysis
In the steering structure, the cast steel spindles are the usual failure for any go kart steering
in the industry. The spindles will endure the most force out of all the components in the steering,
as they are placed at the left and right extremes and are directly in contact with the wheels. With
these facts, the spindle was a main component that needed to be modeled and tested in order to
analyze the reliability of the steering components. The left spindle was modeled in SolidWorks
and placed under a load of 700 newtons (N) in the –y direction, as shown in the Figure 24 below.
This load is extreme as it should only have about 400 N of force being applied due to the
distribution between the two spindles in the steering mechanism.
Figure 24: Force Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks
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As shown, the spindle passed under extreme conditions. The FOS of the spindle was the
main criteria tested for the force analysis. In the diagram, the minimum FOS is 2.6 which is above
the desired FOS of 1 that is used to determine if an object is safe under a specific load. These
results simulate that the spindle will not fail during normal operations and are favorable as they
prove the reliability of our steering design.
5.6 Stress Analysis
For the spindles of the steering design, Von Mises yield criteria were calculated using
SolidWorks Simulation software. The left spindle was modeled and placed under a load of 700 N
in the –y direction, as shown in Figure 25 below. Von Mises values are used to find if a design
will fail when a load is applied to a ductile object. As seen in Figure 25, the red colored areas are
the places the spindle can fail, however, the red color is very small compared to the overall green
and blue colors. The green and blue means that the spindle will not fail under the 700 N load. With
these results, it can be derived that the spindle will not fail due to any stresses during operation.
Figure 25: Stress Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks
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5.7 Deflection Analysis
Lastly, the left spindle was modeled in SolidWorks to find the resultant displacement of
the spindle under 700 N load in the –y direction. The resultant displacement will determine how
much the spindle will deflect because of the load applied to it. If there is too large of a deflection,
the spindle is approximated to fail under such a load. As shown in Figure 26 below, the spindle is
red, or in the danger zone, at the tip. This is not surprising as a cantilever beam will display the
same type of deflection under a load. The farthest point, or tip, is experiencing the most
deformation as it is the weakest point of the spindle. Although this section of the spindle is red,
the rest of the spindle displays an array of green and blue, illustrating that the spindle will not
deform enough to fail during normal operations. As stated before 700 N is an extreme load used
to test the limits of the spindle in SolidWorks. The actual load around 400 N will definitely not
cause the spindle to fail due to drastic deformation.
Figure 26: Deflection Analysis on Left Spindle via SolidWorks
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5.8 Airflow Analysis
To make the final body design of the vehicle it was essential to consider the airfoil. When
the car is moving the impact of airflow on the vehicle body has a great effect on the motion of the
vehicle based on the geometry of the outside body. These effects can increase the drag of the car
resulting in the car needing more power to move at desired speeds. This is one of the biggest factors
that need to be taken into consideration for the Shell Eco-Marathon competition. Making the body
of the car the most aerodynamic is perhaps one of the most important obstacles to overcome to use
the least amount of energy and win the competition.
Figure 27: Airfoil Analysis
48
Figure 27 shows how different geometrical shapes can alter the drag of the car. It is vital
to remove any possible turbulent flows in the air that is caused by shape of the body. The top figure
is the most ideal shape as the round edges cause the airflow to travel smoothly as a laminar flow.
The second shape has sharp edges that cause wakes and turbulence in the air. This results in an
increase in drag force. Another body design to avoid is when the angle at the rear is too steep. This
space allows wakes to generate around the rear surface of the body and causes an increase in drag.
An airflow analysis of all body designs was done to aid in the selection process.
SolidWorks was used for all simulations and are depicted in Figures 28 through 31 below. All
designs were analyzed at a velocity of 15 MPH.
Figure 28: Airflow Analysis of Design Alternative 1
49
50
All modifications made to the body of the vehicle using airfoil analysis can be clearly
observed from the figures above. Design alternative one has the very big wakes and turbulence at
the rear section of the body because of the steep angle from the highest point of the car to the lower
end of the tail. The modifications done to develop design alternative two improved the
aerodynamic profile of the body, however, the velocity throughout the profile is on the lower end
of the scale which is not optimal. The final two designs of the body had the best aerodynamic
shape by allowing the airflow to move the fastest and preventing any turbulence in the air along
the surface of the body. Although the last two designs have an optimal aerodynamic profile,
alternative four was chosen as it allowed for all components to be assembled without conflict.
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5.9 Material Selection
Materials were chosen on the basis of safety, manufacturability, cost, weight, and other
factors. For the body, materials such as carbon composite molding, steel, and aluminum sheeting
were researched as feasible alternatives. Due to the added weight and other factors it was decided
that aluminum and steel would not be used for the body of the vehicle. Carbon composite molding
offered a lightweight alternative. As such, fiber glass and carbon fiber were compared in the
material selection process. These two materials were chosen for comparison as they are similar in
weight. As seen in Table 5 and 6, both carbon fiber and fiber glass have a high tensile strength,
however, fiber glass is slightly more flexible due to the lower tensile modulus. Due to the lower
tensile modulus, it is able to bend and take more strain without breaking. In terms of cost, the cost
of fiber glass is considerably less than that of carbon fiber. For the vehicle body the carbon fiber
would cost over $1,700 whereas fiber glass would only cost $150. As such, fiber glass was chosen
as the material for the body due to its material properties and cost effectiveness.
Table 5: Carbon Fiber Properties
Table 6: Fiber Glass Properties
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5.10 Electric Motor Selection
There are many factors that need to be taken into account in order to successfully select a
motor that will utilize the least amount of energy. The motor has to be able to draw the least amount
of current and have enough power to move the vehicle at a sufficient velocity. However, there are
many other factors that need to be analyzed before selecting the correct motor. When selecting a
motor at lower currents, it is extremely important to determine whether it will have sufficient
power to move the weight of the vehicle body to the desired speeds. The weight of the battery the
motor uses as well as the weight of the motor itself is also an important factor to account for. This
is due to the fact that these components will be part of the interior body and will be adding to the
overall weight of the vehicle.
5.10.1 Electric Motor Alternative 1
Table 7: AW Electric Bicycle Motor Kit
Figure 32: Electric Motor Alternative 1
Different alternatives for the electric motor were needed to compare which option would
provide optimal performance and increased efficiency. In pursuit of these and other goals, motor
alternative one was found and is pictured in Figure 32. Table 7 lists the specifications of the motor
such as motor type, power, voltage and efficiency. One thing of value with this alternative is that
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the kit includes a motorized 26 inch wheel, motor controller, thumb throttle, power break lever,
and wire harness. The technical specifications of the 3 motor alternatives will be compared in
section 5.10.5.
Table 8: Aosom Rear Wheel Motor Kit
The second electric motor alternative is pictured in Figure 33. The motor specifications are
listed in Table 8. This motor in comparison to the first alternative has increased power, voltage,
and top speed; while the efficiency and weight of the motor remain the same. This kit includes
two-hand brakes, throttle speed controller, battery bag, controller, and a 26-inch wheel.
54
Table 9: Currie Technologies Direct Drive Electric
Motor & Rear Wheel Assembly
The third electric motor alternative is pictured in Figure 34 with its technical specifications
listed in Table 9. This motor is different from the first two alternatives because it is a direct drive
system, whereas the others were geared systems. The power, voltage, and weight of the motor are
less than the other motors and although it may reach higher speeds, the efficiency of the motor is
approximately 10 percent less than the other options. This kit includes the motor and the wheel
only.
5.10.4 Electric Motor Chosen
Using the relationship of power to voltage times current as shown in Equation 5 below, the
amount of current that each motor will draw from the battery can be determined. The instantaneous
electrical power to the motor:
(𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟) = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) × (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡) → 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 (5)
Using Table 10 the motor alternatives are compared in terms of the amount of current each
one uses at maximum velocity. The 500-Watt motor that requires a 36 V battery will use 14 Amp-
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hours. It is expected that the vehicle will only operate at a top speed of 15 MPH, however, the
motor needs to be chosen taking into consideration the vehicle weight so that it can reach the
expected top speed.
Table 10: Power and Current Analysis
After further analysis of the three proposed motor alternatives, the second alternative was chosen.
This option was chosen as the best alternative as it has a greater amount of power, 1000 W vs. 500
W, and would allow for the vehicle to travel faster in competition. The weight difference between
the 500 W and 1000 W motor was negligible in comparison to the power output and its ability to
reach higher speeds
5.11 Battery Selection
The selections of batteries allowed in the Shell Eco-Marathon competition were a narrow
bunch. Lead-acid batteries were immediately crossed out from the options due to their high weight
and unsafe nature. Lithium based batteries were the primary option due to their safety and low
weight. Based on competition requirements, the maximum capacity of any lithium-based battery
used in any propulsion energy class vehicle is 1,000 Wh. Lithium Polymer was the first option,
however, they are very costly when having this amount of power. In addition, all these options that
have a BMS system included were outside the country which would take months to ship. It was
concluded that the best option was to use a lithium-ion battery by VPower products. It has the
capacity to provide 48 V and 20 amp-hours, which would fit competition requirement at exactly
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1,000 Wh. This option came with a battery charging bag as well as a charger. Below is a
representation of the battery that was created for the assembly of the vehicle.
Figure 35: VPower 48V Battery Modeled in SolidWorks
5.12 Motor Controller Selection
Due to the rules set forth by Shell Eco-Marathon after 2014, all battery electric motor
competitors were not allowed to use the pre-flashed controller that came with the motor. Therefore
a motor controller that best suited the project was vital to the completion of this project. There are
two options given by the organizers of the competition. The first one is to select a single-printed
board of similar applications that would sustain all power requirements of the battery and motor.
The second option was to design and manufacture PCB board that would control the motor. This
option, however, was out of the question because it would require years of electrical and computer
software experience as well as a substantial amount of time; approximately over a year. It was
necessary to simplify all variables and minimize any possible problems to be able to accomplish
the ultimate goal of having a vehicle that runs efficiently for the competition.
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The first step in selecting the right motor controller was to find a controller that will match
all motor requirements. These were a three phase BLDC motor that can run over 48 V and 20.84
amps (A). A margin of safety of at least 25 percent was necessary to maintain a working controller
that would not overload or get damage with current overshoots. The best option for this application
was found by using the RV8301-HC-C2-KIT sold by Texas Instruments. This component included
a microcontroller card that can be used for similar applications and well the connect gate switch
IC that would control the three-phases of the motor. However, one of the biggest tasks would be
to program the motor for this type of application.
5.12.1 Controller Specifications
The three phase BLDC Motor Kit with DRV8301 and Piccolo MCU was the best-suited
option for the competition. It is rated for 60 V and 82.5 A, which satisfies the 25 percent margin
of safety to the components based on the maximum voltage and amperage that the battery will
provide. The DRV8301 is the gate drive IC that controls up to six N-channel mosfets that are
embedded in the board. It has two current shunt amplifiers to provide accurate current to the motor.
This device has an internal buck converter to power the entire board as well as the microcontroller
card. The board provides overcurrent protection (OCP), power and ground under-voltage
protection (UVLO), ground under-voltage lockout (OVLO), over-temperature warning/shutdown
(OTW/OTS), and programmable dead time control (DTC). The controller card is the C2000
Piccolo F28035. It is the green component connected to the controller slot of the DRV8301 board
as depicted in the model below in Figure 36.
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Figure 36: The DRV8301 Board with the C2000 Piccolo F28035
5.12.2 Energy System
A diagram was made to represent how the controller is connected to the motor, electrical
components, and the battery. The diagrams are a schematic that represents all of these connections
as well as the pin on the board that was implemented for speed control. For coding purposes, there
were two options that could be have been incorporated to control the motor. Both representations
are shown below Figure 37 and 38, sensor-less and with sensors, respectively. The most common
type of sensors for BLDC motor applications are hall sensors, used to allow the controller to know
the position of the rotor for each phase. Normally, it is better to control a motor with high loads
and variable speeds using sensors. However by using Texas Instruments technology, sensors can
be removed and a motor with loads and variable speeds can be controlled more efficiently using
Field Orientated Commutation (FOC) or Back Electro-Magnetic Commutation (BEMF).
59
Figure 37: Motor Controller without Sensors
60
Figure 38: Motor Controller Using Hall Sensors
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5.12.3 Controller Communication
Understanding of the motor controller communication within is essential to validate that
the controller will work for this type of three phase BLDC motor application. More importantly,
in order to write a functioning code for this controller, a deep understanding of how all sub-
components communicate with each other is a requirement. Figure 39 below depicts the general
layout of the motor controller.
Figure 39: General Layout of Motor Controller
The gate drive IC chip is vital to controlling a three phase BLDC motor. Each phase of the
motor (A, B, and C) is controlled by each of the three half-bridge drivers. Each half-bridge driver
controls two N-channel mosfets, a high pass (GH) and a low pass (GL). The gate driver also has
two current amplifying sensors with current offsets to send ADC signals back to the control card.
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This component can also provide the microcontroller with any sensing of error and has SPI control
capabilities. A diagram depicting the schematic of a gate driver IC is shown in Figure 40.
Figure 40: Gate Driver IC Diagram
The N-channel mosfets are also an essential piece in controlling three phase motors. A
diagram of the schematic of an N-Channel switching mosfet can be found in Figure 42. Each phase
is assigned to two transistors, a high pass and a low pass. Each transistor is set to make
commutations to the motor, this is when it turns on and off in a pattern to allow current to pass
through the corresponding phase. For example, if the motor has phases A, B, and C, when phase
A is on, phase B is off, and phase C is just turning on. Then phase A is off, phase B is just turning
63
on, and phase C is fully on. This is how rotation in BLDC motors occur. The N-channel mosfets
are the method of energizing and de-energizing the coils on the rotor while it is running.
Controllers for permanent-magnet brushless motors know when to turn the electromagnets (in the
stator) on and off with perfect timing. For motors with sensors, the controller senses the “back
EMF” (Electro Magnetic Force) in the motor to see when one of the magnets is passing by a hall-
sensor. Since these are three-phase motors (all the coils in the stator are assigned into three groups
of coils), there are three hall sensors in a common brushless motor. Each of the three hall sensors
has three legs (nine legs total), and a three-phase motor has five hall wires. This is because one
wire provides a positive to all three of the sensors, one wire provides the ground/negative to all
three sensors, and then the three remaining wires are for the on/off signals (one signal wire for
each sensor). This layout is depicted in Figure 41 below.
Figure 41: Commutation in BLDC Motors
As explained before, in order to control a BLDC motor the rotational sequence position
and speed needs to be calculated to apply the correct current phase sequence (commutation) to the
motor windings at just the right time. Simply said, sensor-less BLDC means the motor’s position
and speed is determined without purpose built sensors, however, the motor’s sequence position is
sensed using the back EMF signal coming from one of the motor’s coils that is not currently
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receiving power. When this back EMF signal crosses zero voltage the microcontroller can
calculate the rotational speed and then when to switch to the next power sequence. Normally for
speed control using sensors is better, however with Texas Instruments’ BLDC InstaSpin, speed
control can be achieved with smooth signal steps.
Figure 42: N-Channel Switching Mosfets Diagram
65
5.12.4 Speed Controller Implementation
To control speed with a throttle, analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) is necessary. An ADC
pin converts a voltage value normally of two 5 V to digital value. The corresponding digital value
is determined by the resolution of the conversion pin. The analog-to-digital conversion provided
by the C2000 Piccolo as a resolution of 12 bits. This value of resolution can vary depending on
the microcontroller. The DRV8301 board provides the three available ADC pins that connect to
the control card. Unfortunately these three ADC are connected to the corresponding ADC channels
that have already been used by the base code to sense phases A, B, and C. As a result an alternative
was sought. At first the only option was to do the ADC conversion on a separate microcontroller
like an Arduino, convert it to a CAN-BUS interface and make communication with the motor
controller board as a CAN-BUS interface to connect both microcontrollers. This would take a lot
of research and time and create possible bugs in the code. As a result a more drastic option was
utilized. It was observed from the schematics that the control card had one available pin (ADC-
A4) that had no access from the board but did make contact with the controller slot. To complete
the overall objective of having a running vehicle by competition it was decided that micro
soldering a wire into the exact pin location #65 would allow access to using ADC-A4. Below are
some pictures that depict the entire manufacturing process that was performed to successfully
accomplish speed control using the ADC readings.
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Figure 43: Micro Soldering a Wire into Pin Location #65
The throttle that controls speed has a three-wire connection. One wire (green or red) is used
as an input of 5 V, another is the ground (black), and the third wire (white) is the output that is
used for the signal back to the controller of 1 V to 4 V. Unfortunately the pins that perform analog-
to-digital conversion on the microcontroller could only read up to 3.3 V, which means the throttle
should be powered to a limit lower than the 5 V input connection in order to signal back a lower
67
voltage. To properly implement into the code ADC results from the throttle, it was very important
to find the exact voltage value that the throttle will signal back to the controller when the throttle
loaded spring is at initial position and at highest positioning angle. The initial position of the spring
is when the car is not moving and the highest positioning angle is when the car moves at maximum
velocity. To obtain these values, a controlled power supply was connected to the throttle. Since
this type of throttle usually draws very little current, to make sure that the throttle that would be
used on the car will not be damaged, all needed values were first found using a testing throttle with
similar standard specifications. Table 11 displays the results found.
Table 11: Results of Output Signal Testing
Testing Throttle
Voltage Current
Input
3.3 0.006
Min. Max.
Output (signal)
0.84 2.58
Vehicle Throttle
Voltage Current
Input
3.3 0.009
Min. Max.
Output (signal)
0.85 2.58
Using the power supply, the input wire was set at 3.3 V, since this is the voltage that the
user power access pin on the control board will provide. The output wire was connected to a multi-
meter. The minimum and maximum output voltage values were relatively the same for both the
testing throttle and the actual performing throttle. The throttle that would be used was found to
draw about 3 mA more, however this is negligible. Using these values, the step size and digital
values on the code can be found which will be explained in section 7.
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To properly mount the throttle on the steering wheel of the car, a fixture was manufactured.
Speed control by the driver was decide to work best for comfort and practicality by vertically
placing a shaft fixture behind the steering wheel to hold the throttle in place, as shown in Figure
44. This way the driver could have full speed control of the vehicle by only having to move one
finger. The throttle fixture that was manufactured is pictured on the right of Figure 44.
Figure 44: Model of Steering Wheel with Throttle Fixture via SolidWorks
The fixture was first made using modeling software to visualize how the throttle mount
should be mounted. Afterwards, all dimensions were found and a one-inch diameter cylinder piece
of aluminum was cut down on a lathe machine to fit the dimensions on throttle, which was about
7/8 of an inch. A cutting depth step size of about 0.010 inches was used for this application.
Aluminum was used to create a fixture that was both light and strong.
5.12.5 Controller Box
In order to properly mount the main motor controller inside the vehicle, a controller box
was required. Based on all options, using a 3D-printer with PLA plastic filament was the best
option to make a viable box that will hold the controller. The controller box was specially designed
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with certain features to prevent the controller from overheating, such as air vents along the sides
and the bottom of the box. A main hole was also added to the box to allow all wiring to be
connected through one single opening. The general layout of the controller box was created and
modeled in SolidWorks as shown in Figure 45. The left picture is the isometric view of the box,
and the right picture is the top view of the box while it is holding the motor controller.
Figure 45: SolidWorks Modeling of the Controller Box
By using the assembly of the diagram above, an offset of space was created on the box to
allow all wiring to pass along this space. On the bottom of the box, six holes were created to fit all
the #4-40 screws that hold the controller in place inside the bulkhead of the vehicle. As required
by competition rules, complete visibility access was required. Thus, an insert for a Lexan plastic
was made at the top of the box, as illustrated below in a centerline isometric view of the box
assembly, Figure 46. Figure 47 is the 3D-printed controller box, completely manufactured and
displaying the Lexan plastic at the top with the opening for wires on the side. The 3D-printed
controller box is successful in protecting and holding the controller perfectly in place with
complete visibility of the inner contents.
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Figure 46: Centerline Isometric View of Controller Box via SolidWorks
Figure 47: 3D-Printed Controller Box
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5.13 Electrical Components Selection
There are many electrical additions that must be included for this vehicle. The car must
have electrical horns, an emergency push button latching switch, a toggle switch, and fuses. All
the power for these components are supplied by the same battery that powers the motor. In order
to successfully make all the connections, converters and relays were necessary since components
like the horns and switches will be damaged when connected to a 48 V DC.
5.13.1 Controller Box
The diagram/schematic below shows all the electrical connections that were implemented
for the vehicle. As shown, all these connections are made between the battery and the motor
controller. The positive connection of the battery splits in parallel for three main connections. The
first one is for the horns. The horns are rated for 12 V, therefore a converter is needed to be
connected with a relay since they draw very little current. A 10-amp fuse was connected first to
protect the converter. The second connection in parallel from the battery is used to pass all current
and voltage to the controller. Since most of the current from the battery will pass through this
connection, a 30-amp fuse was connected at the beginning of this connection to prevent overshoot
damage at initial startup of the car that could destroy any component. The third connection that is
connected from the battery in parallel is to power the switches that will be connected to the relay.
The purpose of the relay is to use these switches without damaging them, since these types of
switches normally will not sustain more than 10-amps or less. A separate converter was connected
first powering the switching side of the relay, because this side is rated for less voltage and draws
very little amperage. A 10-amp fuse was connected at the beginning of this connection to protect
the converter. All ground connections, as illustrated, are connected to the same ground, which
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connects back to the controller. These connections were tested before making final vehicle
implementations.
Figure 48: Diagram of Connections between Battery and Motor Controller
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5.13.2 Fuse Box
The purpose of adding fuses to the vehicle is to keep all main components in the vehicle
safe if there are any current spikes, which is common in such systems. It is common for the fuses
to require replacement at any time while testing the vehicle when it is completed or during the
competition. A fuse box was made to have easy replacement access, as well as to keep the fuses
in the same location. Just like the controller box, it was decided that 3D-printing the fuse box was
the most feasible choice. The box was made to allow up to 5 fuses of different sizes to be connected
(in case future design changes warrant them), wiring access at all angles, and has mounting holes.
Below, in Figure 49, is the modeling of the fuse box in SolidWorks. This box will be 3D-printed
using ABS filament. Figure 50 displays the 3D-printed fuse box containing the fuses for the
electrical components. The fuse box is successful at holding and protecting the fuses needed for
the prototype battery electric vehicle design.
Figure 49: SolidWorks Modeling of the Fuse Box
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Figure 50: 3D-Printed Fuse Box
5.13.3 Propulsion System
Before making all the connections it was necessary to approximate the locations of all the
main electrical components. The main items include the controller, battery, motor, fuse box, and
other auxiliary components. This step must be done before integration and validation. Using the
propulsion system diagram, Figure 51, allowed a much clearer picture of the design as a whole. It
helped determine the size of the bulkhead needed to fit each component comfortably and neatly
before the manufacturing of the body and selection of the location of the bulkhead.
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Figure 51: Propulsion System Diagram
5.14 Design Overview
The designs outlined in this report includes the body, steering and motor components. The
body was chosen due to its aerodynamic profile that would reduce turbulent flow and drag.
Feasibility of assembly was also an important factor that was taken into consideration when
choosing the final body design. The results of the airflow analysis can be seen in section 5.8. The
go kart type steering was chosen as it is the best mechanical steering element for the intended
design. Finally, the 1000 W motor was chosen as it would give the vehicle the initial thrust it needs
to achieve higher speeds during competition.
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5.15 Cost Analysis
Before a product is manufactured and sold, a cost analysis must be made to ensure that the
product is not too expensive for its selling price or application. This involves product evaluation,
material selection, and material analysis. As seen in previous sections, the selected material for the
prototype’s vehicle body is fiber glass. Other material alternatives that were considered were steel,
aluminum, and carbon fiber. Each material was analyzed and compared. Factors that were
reviewed included each material’s factor of safety, ability to hold its shape at 15 MPH, weight,
cost and manufacturability. The material properties and cost effectiveness of fiber glass made it
the optimal choice. Carbon fiber sheeting would have also been a feasible alternative for the body,
however, carbon fiber is much more expensive and would cause the team to exceed the current
competition budget.
Several other items were researched to find viable options for the overall prototype vehicle.
These include: tires, batteries, steering wheels, driver seats, wiring cables, and personal protection
equipment. Each item was compared to others in their respective categories and the safest, most
reliable and most effective materials were chosen. The current materials list and their cost are listed
below in Table 13. The table shows the quantity needed of each item or service and their respective
total cost. The estimated cost for this project including travel and shipping of the vehicle is
approximately $6,053. The cost analysis is subject to change.
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Table 12: Cost Analysis
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5.16 Discussion
Once several designs are developed research and simulations are conducted accordingly to
narrow down which design is the best alternative. Some factors that are analyzed are cost,
manufacturability, material properties and aerodynamics. Material properties and aerodynamics
play a very important role in this particular application as the safety of the driver and others at the
competition is of upmost importance. Although cost of parts and equipment must also be taken
into consideration depending on the budget, cutting corners because of increased cost is never an
option as it would compromise the safety of others. All materials chosen were done so ensuring
that the budget was not exceeded and that the safety of others is not jeopardized.
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6. Prototype Construction
6.1 Overview
The next step in the process once the chosen designs are finalized and a cost analysis
compiled is to begin building the prototype. Some projects permit the build of an initial prototype
to be tested and optimized to then build the final working model to be used. In this case an initial
prototype is not feasible due to cost of parts and time constraints. When the prototype is meant to
be the final product, one must proceed with even more caution to ensure that every decision and/or
change made along the way does not compromise health and safety and that it still adheres to the
functionality of the proposed design.
6.2 Description of Prototype
The vehicle prototype will consist of a rigid body made out of fiber glass with clear Lexan
windows mounted in the front and sides to ensure that the driver has 180 degree of visibility. It
will also have two 20 inch tires in the front and one 26 inch tire in the rear. The wheels will be
mounted to the aluminum chassis and movement will be achieved by mechanical means using a
go kart steering system. The motor component will be found in the bulkhead behind the driver.
Vehicle will possess several safety features such as, two emergency shut down switches, a dead
man’s switch on the steering column, fire extinguisher, and an electric horn. In addition, the
prototype will have side view mirrors and a five point safety harness.
6.3 Prototype Design
The vehicle body can be seen as a shell that will be assembled to the chassis to make the
vehicle whole. This will be achieved by initially making a mold of the designed body. The mold
will be made out of Styrofoam material and the desired shape will be achieved using a hot wire
cutter. The hot wire device will cut into the Styrofoam material as directed by the user, thus
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leaving behind a mold in the shape of the intended vehicle body. The mold is sanded down as
needed to obtain a smooth surface, as shown in Figure 52. Fiber glass sheets are then laid on the
Styrofoam mold with resin and hardener and left to set, Figure 53. Once the fiber glass has set
the Styrofoam material is removed; leaving a fiberglass shell as the final product. The resin on
the fiber glass shell is sanded as needed (Figure 54), painted, and assembled to the chassis.
Figure 52: Styrofoam Mold Sanded and Ready for Fiber Glass Layup
Figure 53: Fiber Glass Layup of Top Layer
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Figure 54: Fiber Glass Shell Sanded and Placed on Chassis
The steering system as described in section 4.7 is assembled to the chassis and tested to
ensure proper mechanical movement. The spindle is welded to the chassis, tie rods are connected
to the spindles, steering shaft is connected to tie rods, and the wheels are mounted on the spindle
axle. Due to the type of wheel used, the axle where the wheel is to be mounted on requires further
modification. The axle is attached to the spindle. The axle has a 0.75 inch diameter whereas the
bore in the wheel hub has a 0.591 inch diameter. Due to this difference in diameter the axle had to
be modified using a mill to reduce the diameter from 0.75 inches to the required 0.591 inch
diameter. This axle is then threaded to match the thread of the nut being used to secure the wheel
in place on the axle. The battery electric motor is attached to the rear wheel and it will be inside
the bulkhead of the prototype vehicle along with the battery and motor controller. The bulkhead is
located behind the driver and is completely blocked off so as to prevent outside interference. Figure
55 displays the bulkhead with the electrical components on the left, behind the driver’s seat, and
the steering components assembled on the right.
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Figure 55: Bulkhead with Electrical Components and Steering Assembly
6.4 Parts List
The parts list for the battery electric prototype vehicle is shown in Table 14. The list
encompasses all items needed including the wheels, brakes, aluminum pipes, and more. The parts
list is subject to change.
Table 13: Parts List
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6.5 Construction
Construction of the prototype was done in a safe environment at all times. Whether
welding, cutting, painting or testing, maximum safety protocols were always adhered to. All work
was done in a well-lit and ventilated environment. For completing the fiberglass layup of the body,
proper safety equipment such as respirators were used at all times and the application of any
substances with strong chemical smell were done in an open, well ventilated area.
Figure 56: Personal Protection Equipment and Well Ventilated Area
6.6 Prototype Cost Analysis
The approximate cost in parts for the prototype is approximately $3,008. The breakdown
of this cost can be seen in detail in Table 15. This cost analysis does not include taxes, shipping,
or any labor costs that may be incurred. The cost analysis is subject to change.
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Table 14: Prototype Cost Analysis
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6.7 Discussion
When constructing any kind of project a detailed parts list must be compiled to ensure that
all required parts are denoted on the list. In addition, a cost must be associated with each part. This
cost analysis becomes what one uses to ensure that all parts needed can be purchased within the
proposed budget. This is also used to determine whether or not the given budget is reasonable or
whether an increase in funds needs to be requested. Maintaining the cost analysis up to date is
critical in the successful construction of the prototype to ensure that the project does not go beyond
budgetary constraints at any point in time.
7. Testing and Evaluation
7.1 Overview
With anything that is being designed there must be a testing and evaluation period. For a
project of this magnitude there were several components that required testing, evaluation, and for
some, modifications were also required. This process is essential in making sure that all vehicle
components are working at optimum conditions and that the driver safety and security is not
compromised.
7.2 Design/Description of Experiments
7.2.1 Vehicle Body
The vehicle body was tested and evaluated utilizing the three dimensional rendering
program, SolidWorks. When body designs were developed a 3D assembly was made of the body
and the chassis. This was done to ensure that these components did not overlap; the chassis needed
to fit completely inside of the body structure. Once the vehicle body was manufactured tests were
performed to ensure that the driver would have optimum visibility by placing windows and testing
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the driver’s ability to see objects or people placed at 30 degree intervals until it was determined
that a total visibility of 180 degrees was achieved. In addition, the driver was timed in their ability
to exit the vehicle in under 10 seconds
7.2.2 Steering System
The steering system was tested to ensure that the linkages would hold while the vehicle
was in motion and that there were no loose joints that would cause the steering to malfunction. In
addition, an 8 meter radius was traced and the vehicle was tested to ensure that it would meet the
required 8 meter (or less) turning radius.
7.2.3 Braking System
The vehicle is equipped with 3 Shimano hydraulic brakes; 2 for the front and 1 for the rear.
These brakes must pass an inspection where the vehicle is placed on a 20 degree decline. The front
and rear brakes must hold the vehicle stationary on the ramp when actuated individually. To test
the brakes a ramp was created using wood and placed at a 20 degree angle. The vehicle was placed
on this ramp and each braking system was tested individually to determine whether it would pass
the technical inspection at competition.
7.2.4 Battery Electric Motor
To test the motor while connected to the controller and battery, a testing environment was
developed. A wooden fixture was made to mount the shaft of the motor at both ends and allow
rotation of the wheel. To reinforce the fixture, an aluminum flat plate was added at each end of the
mount, depicted in Figure 57. These plates were designed to prevent any vibrations in the shaft of
the wheel and allow steady rotation.
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Figure 57: Wooden Testing Mount
To test the motor mounted on the vehicle, the battery electric motor was initially tested
with no load. This was done by raising the vehicle using jack stands and recording the rotational
speed the motor was producing. This output rotational speed is used to calculate the miles per hour
achieved. This is done to ensure that the vehicle is capable of reaching speeds higher than what is
required without load. This test is repeated with the vehicle on a flat level surface with all
components installed. This is referred to as the load test.
7.2.5 Implementation of Code
There are numerous steps that need to be taken in order to successfully connect the motor
to the controller before flashing any code in the controller. The first step in using the DRV-8301
motor control board to test the motor using the GUI. If the user is using Windows 10, it is important
to allow a trusted signature connection in the device manager by following steps that can be found
online. All connections from the battery and the motor should be made before powering up the
device. This information can be found in the controller reference guides. Once this is completed,
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the battery can be turned on to power the device and then the USB connection from the controller
to the laptop can be done. If all steps are completed in the same order, and once the GUI software
is opened on the computer, there should be successful a connection to the controller. The layout of
the GUI software can be seen in Figures 58 and 59.
Figure 58: GUI Layout
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Figure 59: GUI Layout (Cont'd)
The GUI is a vital step in order to set the motor parameters in the code as well as understand
the code. In the main tab of the GUI, main of the main motor parameters can be set up like speed
control, flux threshold, and turning on and off the motor. There are three graphs on this main tab.
The red graph represents flux waveform, the green graph represents back-EMF waveform, and the
blue graph represents current waveform. Using these graphs the right value for voltage threshold
can be found if a sensor-less code is to be used. This is very important in order to have
commutations of the phases at the exact timing and allow maximum motor performance. In the
settings tab, there are other features that can be altered if the motor runs using just current to only
control toque, or just speed, or both. These are the gain knobs. For this motor these can be neglected
because the code will be set to perform using voltage, or the duty cycle mode. However it is
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important to set the motor poles to 48. This will only change the RPM reading in the main tab of
the GUI.
Once a good understanding of the GUI is obtained, the coding can begin. For this device,
it recommended to use the latest version of the compiler. Texas Instruments provides a
downloadable version of Code Composer Version 6 online. It is also important to have all the
developments kits that TI provides by installing Controlsuite software that is included with the
controller. Before coding, a successful connection with the controller has to be made when using
the Code Composer. Following the steps below can complete this connection once the compiler is
open:
1. Click on the tab “View”
2. Click on “Target Configurations”
3. Right click on “Projects”
4. Set the filename as “xds100-f28035.ccxml”
5. Make sure to keep the default location
6. Click Finish
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Figure 60: Target Configuration Window
Once these steps are completed the window will automatically open a new tab to select the
right board that is been used. At this point follow the steps below:
1. In the connection box, make sure to use “Texas Instruments XDS100v1 USB Debug
Probe”
2. In the board or device box, search “28035”
3. Make sure to check the box next to “TMS320F28035”
4. Test connection to make sure it is successful
5. Click “Save” in the save configurations
6. Close the tab
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Figure 61: CCS Edit Window
Make sure the board is on and the USB is connected when making these configurations. If
all steps were completed correctly, the control board can now be flashed and debugged. To start
any code, some development kits can be imported to the compiler. There are different codes that
can be used will be closest to this type of application. If it is still not working, more information
can be found using the guides that come with the controller or by asking questions to experts on
this device on the TI community website.
7.3 Test Results and Data
7.3.1 Vehicle Body
The body was created and assembled to the chassis in the same manner that it was simulated
on SolidWorks. This proved successful as all vehicle components and the driver fit comfortably
inside of the vehicle. Additional openings that were created in the body were to accommodate
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driver visibility, entry/exit of the vehicle, steering system, and rear wheel. Creating the windows
of the body also proved successful with the test that was performed. After the openings were cut
and the Lexan windows permanently attached the driver’s visibility was double checked at 30
degree intervals for a total of 180 degrees of visibility and rear view windows were installed to
further improve visibility. The driver fits comfortably and securely in the vehicle and can still exit
the vehicle in under 10 seconds.
7.3.2 Steering System
After installing the mechanical steering system it was noticed that although the linkages
held, there was a lot of play in the system where the joints were held together. The solution to this
issue was to purchase shoulder screws that would fit precisely and hold the steering joints together
with minimal clearance or “wiggle” room. In addition, Locktite thread locker or star washers were
used to ensure that the joints would not loosen due to vibrations when the vehicle is in motion.
The first attempt at testing that the vehicle met the 8 meter (or less) turning radius requirement
failed. The turning radius was slightly over 8 meters and required adjustments to meet this criteria.
The solution was to lower the front wheels by raising the front of the chassis. Steel brackets were
made to place between the chassis and the spindles. Carbon steel has an ultimate tensile strength
of 400 - 550 MPa.9 Assuming a load of 1112 Newtons, the stress applied to these brackets is of
approximately 229.8 KPa. As such, these brackets were chosen due to their ability to withstand
more than the expected load it will experience during operation. These brackets have 3 hole
openings that enable them to be mounted to the chassis utilizing the top 2 holes and the spindle is
attached to the brackets utilizing the bottom 2 holes. With this set up the wheels are securely
9 "A36 Steel." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation.
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lowered from where they were originally placed. The test was repeated and the turning radius is
below the 8 meter requirement.
7.3.3 Battery and Motor
Various parameters were recorded to test motor performance and the time it would take for
the lithium-ion battery to charge and discharge. For first experiment the motor was connected to
the battery for eight hours using the maximum speed as set on the throttle without any load, on the
wooden testing mount. During this time, the voltage, current, and RPM of the motor were recorded
every twenty minutes into Table 15.
Figure 62: Current of Motor Plot
Using the graph above it can be observed that the motor will draw more current when the
battery is fully charged. However, the voltage reaches its rated value of 48 volts, the current
stabilizes at about 1.5 amps. If the motor was running with some load this value with be higher
since current is directly proportional to toque.
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Figure 63: Motor Rotational Speed Graph
Figure 64: Motor Voltage over Time Plot
By observing the voltage and rotational speed graphs, a similar correlation can be seen in
both parameters over time. There is a linear decrease in voltage as well as there is for rotational
speed of the motor. Initially, voltage is at about 51.51 volts and every 20 minutes it decreases by
0.4 volts to 1 volt. Rotational speed is initially 455 rpm and decreases every 20 minutes by about
one to three revolutions. From this information it be concluded the as voltage decreases, there is
an effect in rotational speed. Hence, as the motor runs over time, both parameters constantly
decrease steadily throughout the eight hours. The slope of the voltage graphs represents the time
battery takes to discharge while having no load, which is about 0.015 volts per minutes. This value
of discharge would increase if the battery were connected to the motor while having a load.
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The second experiment was implemented while the motor was mounted onto the vehicle.
The vehicle was tested with no load as described in section 7.2.4. The output rotational speed was
459 RPM. This was used to find that the car without load is achieving a top speed of 35.5 MPH.
The equations used to calculate this result can be seen below. This result is favorable because
without load the vehicle is travelling well over the required average speed of 15 MPH. It is
predicted that with the load of the vehicle and all its components the vehicle will be able to travel
at the required average speed.
Table 15: Motor Running with No Load
Time (Minutes) Current (Amps) Voltage (Volts) Rotational Speed (RPM)
0 2 51.51 455.0
20 1.9 51.00 454.5
40 1.8 50.61 452.5
60 1.8 50.23 450.0
80 1.8 49.93 447.0
100 1.7 49.60 444.4
120 1.7 49.30 442.0
140 1.7 49.02 439.7
160 1.7 48.68 436.5
180 1.6 48.34 434.0
200 1.6 48.05 431.5
220 1.6 47.72 428.5
240 1.5 47.44 426.6
260 1.5 47.20 424.3
280 1.5 47.02 422.8
300 1.5 46.81 420.9
320 1.5 46.67 419.2
340 1.5 46.47 417.5
360 1.5 46.25 416.2
380 1.5 46.05 414.2
400 1.5 45.80 412.2
420 1.5 45.58 410.4
440 1.4 45.33 408.2
460 1.4 45.04 405.9
480 1.4 44.80 403.5
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7.3.4 Debugging the Code
The complete code that was flashed on the microcontroller to control the speed of the motor
is an adjusted version to a development kit code with similar applications that Texas Instruments
offers with the device. After numerous testing, in order to complete the objective at task it was
decided that the best working option was to base the code from was the GUI version. Below are
some of the altercations in code that were made in order to control the speed of the code with an
attached throttle. Some of these values were found for the GUI software.
The REFVOLTS variable was set as a global variable at the beginning of the code to be
called later in the code. As can be seen below, two float variables were initialized at the beginning
of the interrupt along with other variables that the code already used for ADC purposes.
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An important step allowing the ADC pin that will receive the signal voltage from the
throttle is by clicking CTRL and selecting the ADC_MACRO_INIT (). Inside this library three
vital lines need to be added to turn on the correct channel has to be selected for ADC-A4, which
is channel 4. The other two lines under that are the number of bits assigned to that pin, and clock
speed. These values can be copied from other similar ADC pins that were already used.
The main code that allows speed control by using the throttle is shown below in the
beginning of lines 900. Once the conversion resolution of the pin was found, the step size was
found by dividing 3.3 by 4095. This value was multiplied by the receiving ADC signal value. Then
in order to have a value that starts at a value of zero, the reference voltage from the assigned global
value was subtracted. The function that control speed is between zero and one. Therefore the ADC
value was normalized by been divided by itself. It was set to only obtain an 89% velocity; hence
it was divided by a larger value of 1.9203 instead. The normalized speed was then placed inside
the speed reference function as shown in line 921 below.
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7.3.5 Braking System
The vehicle was placed on the 20 degree ramp and tested utilizing mechanical brakes and
160 mm brake rotors. This set up was unsuccessful in passing the test. Both front and rear brakes
failed to keep the vehicle stationary on the ramp when actuated individually. The mechanical
brakes were changed to hydraulic brakes and tested again. Although the hydraulic brakes
performed better than the mechanical brakes, they did not pass the test. The 160 mm brake rotors
were then replaced with 180 mm brake rotors. Utilizing these rotors and the hydraulic brakes the
car was put to the test once more. This time, the brakes passed the test. Both front and rear brakes
hold the vehicle stationary on a 20 degree decline when actuated individually.
7.4 Improvement of the Design
This vehicle can be improved in the future by adding solar panels as a secondary source of
energy. This will allow for an even further decreased dependence on fossil fuels as the charging
of the lithium ion battery required an electrical outlet. With the addition of solar panels the battery
can receive charge through solar power and reduce the amount of time it needs to be charged
utilizing a conventional electrical outlet. Also, the steering system can be changed to an electrical
system and a suspension can be added for increased stability and driver comfort. Finally,
regenerative braking is another improvement that can be made to the existing design. Regenerative
brakes allow for energy to be recovered when the brakes are applied to slow the vehicle down. Its
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kinetic energy is converted to usable energy that can be used immediately or stored to be used at
a later time. This improvement would greatly increase the overall efficiency of the vehicle and
extend the life of the braking system.10
7.5 Discussion
Testing and evaluation is a key component of all design in the engineering industry. A
product cannot be sold if it has not been tested for its reliability or safety. If a product is dangerous
and not caught before it is mass produced and sold, the company can be sued for endangering the
public and lose their business completely. In addition, testing a design allows for further
optimizations that can make the idea for efficient and feasible. Through testing, the fourth body
alternative design was found to be a successful choice as the shape passed the airflow analyses
with ease. The body also fit perfectly around the chassis with no interferences. The steering
assembly held multiple constraints but they were all fixed through testing and evaluation. The last
steering design has become full proof and is already working well on the final prototype battery
electric vehicle design. The battery and motor are doing exceptionally well during the evaluations
with no load, but further testing is needed to evaluate its efficiency with loads added on.
8. Design Considerations
8.1 Health and Safety
With anything that is designed and manufactured for use, health and safety is a major
concern. Engineers are tasked with innovating while still protecting “public health, safety, and
welfare.”11 With this in mind, the regulations set forth by Shell were outlined as seen in section
10 "Regenerative Brake." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.

11
"NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers." Code of Ethics. NSPE, n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
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2.3, with the purpose of having a quick reference to use while designing and moving forward with
manufacturing and testing. These regulations are in place to ensure the safety of not only the team
members involved, but also of the organizers who will be testing and looking over vehicle
components and other competition participants as well as audience members. The health and safety
of all those directly and indirectly involved matters and is paramount to all else.
Following with health and safety regulations includes adding proper ventilation inside of
the vehicle so as to avoid heat exhaustion to the driver and adding a fully functional operator
presence control and emergency shut off switch. This will allow for the propulsion system to be
safely shut off to prevent fire or other hazardous events in case of an emergency situation or driver
incapacitation. It also entails ensuring that all wiring is correct and does not pose a fire hazard and
being properly equipped so that in case of an emergency one can contain the damage and eliminate
any harm to others. All regulations and design considerations were chosen and developed with
health and safety in mind. While there isn’t a 100% guarantee that an emergency will not occur,
one can take precautions and be prepared in the event of accidents, such as collisions, to ensure
that the driver and other participants are not in harm’s way. Examples of this are the readily
available fire extinguishers, emergency shut off mechanisms, quick release cockpit latch, and
more.
8.2 Assembly and Disassembly
The prototype vehicle includes a fiber glass shell that is attached to the aluminum chassis
in two halves. The bottom and top halves of the body are securely riveted and the chassis is
attached to the bottom half through the use of u-brackets. Lexan window are mounted to the top
half of the body, allowing the driver a 90 degree view on both sides. A hatch is also made on the
top half of the body to serve as an entry/exit way into the vehicle. This hatch will serve as access
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to the prototype interior. A go kart steering system is attached to the chassis allowing mechanical
movement of the two 20 inch tires mounted to the front of the chassis on the spindle axle with
locking nuts. The larger 26 inch tire is mounted to the back of the chassis in the bulkhead with the
motor components. Side view mirrors are mounted on the outside of the front of the fiber glass
body by bolts. Lastly, the battery and its BMS system are held in the bulkhead on top of a metal
plate to prevent the battery from burning through the body of the vehicle in the unlikely event of
a battery fire. All vehicle components are designed for easy access as well as the ability to easily
assemble and disassemble components in the event that repairs or maintenance is required.
8.3 Maintenance of the System
Maintenance is an important aspect of design considerations as it allows the car to perform
at its optimum level throughout its life span. In this section, maintenance of each component of
the vehicle will be addressed. The upkeep of the prototype will be similar to the maintenance
performed on standard automobiles. For the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon, all components of the
vehicle must be fully functional and safely maintained to ensure safe operating conditions. Any
hazardous or low efficiency components must be removed and replaced to keep the car’s
performance ideal for the competition. Each team member is assigned to check, maintain, and test
their components before the trial runs and competition.
Each system of the prototype is monitored individually. The steering system must be
checked before and after each trial to ensure the safety of the driver. Any loosening of the system
was monitored and fixed by a simple tightening of the bolts that held it together. The brake system
and battery management systems are two major components that will be described in their
respective subsection.
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8.3.1 Regular Maintenance
Regular maintenance in the prototype battery electric vehicle involves the tires, motor and
battery. The air pressures of the three tires are monitored and maintained at their recommended
levels to ensure the tires perform exceptionally throughout their life spans. Tires that are not
monitored can lose their ideal shapes and cause more drag and resistance to the prototype’s
movement. The motor must be tested before each run to ensure optimum performance. Any
irregularities found are addressed accordingly. Finally, the 48 V battery must always be charged,
checked and ready before each trial. The battery requires about six hours for it to fully charge from
zero charge; this time must be taken into account before each trial run of the car. As the main
power source, the battery cannot be missing any charge as it allows each trial to be done at the
vehicle’s highest potential. In addition, as the horn is attached to the accessory battery, the team
needs to check that this battery is in good condition and that it allows for the horn to reach the
required 75 decibels without issues.
8.3.2 Brake Maintenance
For the hydraulic bicycle disk brakes there are some aspects that must be addressed: the
fluid that will be used and how the wires will be adjusted. Mineral oil or DOT are two types of
fluids that can be used in hydraulic brakes and using the wrong kind can weaken the performance
of the brake system. Mineral oil is the proper fluid for the brakes chosen. If DOT was used instead,
the braking distance can be increased and the brake levers can be much harder to press. The fluid
level of each brake must be maintained and monitored to ensure the full potential and safety of the
braking system. Calibration is not needed for these hydraulic brakes because of the system being
sealed from any external disturbances that can cause them damage. However, after long periods of
use, the capacity of the hydraulic brakes should be checked to ensure they are still performing at
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their highest potential. In addition, any disk build up or dust that falls in between the disc and pads
should be cleaned off before any runs. The major maintenance of the brakes will be addressed in
the next subsection.
8.3.3 Major Maintenance
The controller and brake pads are considered the major maintenance features of the
prototype vehicle. The controller was custom made to control the variable speeds of the motor. To
test the component, the rear of the vehicle must be lifted in order to test for the variation in speeds.
As the car is held in place, different speed levels need to be chosen to check the controller’s
performance and precision. Any inaccuracies found are then fixed before any test runs. In addition,
as the emergency shut down switches are wired to the controller, the team needs to constantly
ensure that these devices are fully functional without interference. It is vital that any errors are
caught and addressed to ensure the safe performance of the vehicle.
In the braking system, the rotor and calipers of the brakes should always be checked. After
continuous use these components may wear over time, causing a decrease in their performance.
Any wear can cause the disk brake to underperform. In addition, the brake pads may need to be
changed. Checking for these issues avoids any issues during future use.
8.4 Environmental Impact and Sustainability
The 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon battery electric prototype vehicle is specifically designed to
be eco-friendly. Running on electricity, the vehicle creates no pollution or carbon footprint; which
helps promote the manufacturing of more electric vehicles. More research in these types of
vehicles will help promote a healthier and better future. The Shell Eco-Marathon was created to
promote research in energy efficient vehicles and to promote the use of alternative energy
resources. Gasoline creates carbon dioxide fumes that cause climate change due to the
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overabundance of it in the atmosphere. By reducing the use of gasoline, the negative impact that
the transportation sector has on the environment can be reduced.
Moreover, the design of the vehicle also makes for a more energy efficient vehicle. In
choosing an aluminum chassis and fiber glass aerodynamic body, the vehicle is light weight and
does not create much drag which is caused by an increase in turbulent flow. This allows for greater
efficiency of the motor which will use less energy to put the car into motion. The less energy used
the farther the car can go with one full charge of the 48 V battery. The lithium ion battery chosen
is an environmentally friendly choice, which is emphasized by its continuous use in every day
electronics. Also, when compared to nickel, cobalt, and lead acid batteries, lithium batteries charge
more efficiently.
Lastly, the hydraulic braking system chosen for the vehicle helps promote the environment
by replacing rubber brakes. Rubber pads grind rubber excess onto roads which harms the
environment because of their chemical properties. For the hydraulic brakes, a fine sand is grinded
off and onto the roads. This sand’s chemical properties are not as harmful to the environment or
anyone’s health. Another factor is that the hydraulic brakes stop the vehicle more efficiently than
rubber brakes. This fact allows less energy to be used and less wear on the vehicle itself.
8.5 Risk Assessment
Incomplete maintenance can be disastrous for the vehicle and even the safety of the driver
and crew. Every component of the system needs to be checked, maintained and tested to ensure
performance at optimum levels. One component breaking or malfunctioning can cost the team the
whole competition, as well as put the driver and spectators at risk of harm. Maintenance of each
part of the vehicle is also crucial as all items were purchased using limited financial resources; if
one were to fail, the financial resources may not be readily available and time required to purchase
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a new part may be insufficient. In addition, not maintaining the components will not allow the
vehicle to run utilizing its highest capabilities. A risk assessment can help target key components
that require the most attention in order to increase the vehicles life span and performance during
the competition.
Every engineer must be able to solve a problem, while taking into account the risks that
can occur during any situation. For the Shell Eco-Marathon, the bulkhead of the vehicle must be
separated from the driver by a fire retardant wall unit. If any failure were to occur, the driver will
be able to have enough time to safely exit the vehicle with no injuries. Failures that cause fires
may include overheating of the battery or motor, and short circuiting. In addition, any buckling or
fractures at the points where the load is sustained can cause the vehicle to become unusable and
disqualified during the competition. Assessing the strength of the chassis prevents this issue, as
well as maintains the safety of the driver throughout the runs. Brake failure can also occur from
overheating and vibrations from each run. All of these risks must be taken into account during the
maintenance of the prototype vehicle to prevent any hazardous or inefficient performance of the
car.
9. Design Experience
9.1 Overview
The design experience for the team revolves around software and instruments used as aids
during the design and analysis of the parts of the vehicle. Throughout the project the team created
designs for each part of the prototype battery electric vehicle and modeled some on SolidWorks.
Designing involves solving a problem using innovation and experience, which all engineers
encounter during the duration of their profession. In addition, aesthetics is a large component of
designing as each design should be functional, practical, and look good.
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This project is the third time FIU has participated in the Shell Eco-Marathon competition,
thus, the team was able to observe the design of past projects and optimize them to remove any
faults that may have occurred. Refining past designs and creating new and innovative strategies
allows FIU to improve each year in the competition, which hopefully leads to a winning vehicle
design. Also, observing part vehicles removes many trial and error situations which revolves
around starting from scratch. Obstacles occur consistently throughout the project, but creating
solutions with innovative thought and software modeling allows the team to surpass the
expectations of failure and manufacture a vehicle that can hold its own during the Shell Eco-
Marathon. No matter the issue, the team always participated in collaborative solution design.
9.2 Standards Used in Project
The standards used throughout the project include the industry standards provided by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)4 for battery electric vehicles and the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)5 for Aluminum 6061-T6. In addition, the
standards set by the competition in the Shell Eco-Marathon 2016 Official Rules1 were followed
religiously. The battery electric vehicle standards provided by ISO were used for safety
specifications of the on-board rechargeable energy storage system, protection against electrical
shock, vehicle operational safety, and post-crash electrical safety. The Aluminum 6061-T6
standards provided by ASME were used for the tensile limits of this material that was chosen for
the chassis, the critical structure of the prototype vehicle. These specifications were used to
optimize the safety of the vehicle. More information on these standards were provided previously
in section 1.4.
4
"Standards Catalogue: ICS 43.120: Electric Road Vehicles." International Organization for Standardization. ISO, 2016.
5
"Standard Specification for Aluminum-Alloy 6061-T6 Standard Structural Profiles." USAEC-RDT Standards, ASTM, 2010.
1
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The regulation details provided by the competition in the Shell Eco-Marathon 2016 Official
Rules can be found in section 2.3 and 2.4. These rules need to be followed at all aspects of the
design of the prototype battery electric vehicle to be able to qualify to participate during the 2016
Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition. Before the competition, the vehicle must pass ten
technical inspections that include testing the strength of the driver’s seat belt, testing the strength
of the brakes, checking the visibility of the driver, checking the dimensions of the vehicle, etc.
Each inspection is done to ensure that the safety and precision of the vehicle was enough to
compete during the competition.
9.3 Contemporary Issues
The US consumes millions of gasoline barrels daily which creates large emissions of
carbon dioxide that becomes trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere. The carbon dioxide is known as a
greenhouse gas as it traps heat from the sun and makes the Earth warmer throughout the years. Car
emissions is a large contributor to the greenhouse gas emissions which is why alternative energy
sources are sought after. The Shell Eco-Marathon was made to motivate innovation of vehicles
that use less or alternative energy. The less gas used is better for the environment. However, an
alternative energy source is better for the environment. This is the motivation of the team to pursue
the creation of a prototype battery electric vehicle which is the newest category in the Shell Eco-
Marathon. Electric vehicles have become more popular throughout the years as they promote a
greener future with technology that makes it just as good as vehicles that use gasoline. By
optimizing on existing concepts, the team aims to create a design that can be incorporated in
making automobiles even better.
As fossil fuels deplete, replacing internal combustion engines with battery electric can help
the environment and the economy flourish. Creating a prototype battery electric vehicle will help
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motivate the development of future battery electric vehicles. Pursuing this direction leads to a
better tomorrow.
9.4 Impact of Design in a Global and Societal Context
Engineering aims to create things that are more efficient and effective for the world
globally and individually. Today, oil is the main source of energy for the automotive industry,
however, it creates damaging emissions for the atmosphere. Alternative energy sources are being
researched daily to combat the large emissions and battery electric is one of them. The team has
chosen to improve upon the battery electric concept with the belief that it is the energy source of
the future. Recharging stations are now being created throughout the US and in several other parts
of the world for battery electric vehicles. Some are free to use depending on the company you have
purchased the vehicle from. More and more stations are being built throughout the year, showing
an increase in interest of the battery electric cars.
The design of the prototype vehicle is a combination of ideas from everyday cars and
bicycles. It was created with the intention of making an energy efficient vehicle that goes the
longest distance using the least amount of energy. The moral intentions of the Shell Eco-Marathon
was to motivate innovation and technology for a better tomorrow. It brings students together to
share their designs and concepts, and help other teams improve on their designs for the next
competition. As a competitor, it is essential for FIU to continually enhance the vehicle designs
each consecutive year to keep up with the innovations that are occurring in the automobile industry
globally. For example, the aerodynamic design of the body helps the vehicle create less drag as it
moves forward. The less drag on the car means that the motor can work less for the same amount
of distance. Every small improvement helps the vehicle become more efficient and effective.
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9.5 Professional and Ethical Responsibility
To be a professional engineer there are certain codes that all engineers must follow. These
codes are addressed and detailed in the ASME Code of Ethics. It is the engineer’s responsibility
to produce solutions to problems that are morally sound and safe for the public. As a team
consisting of mechanical engineers, it is the team’s responsibility to follow the code of ethics while
creating the prototype battery electric vehicle. Ethical and professional responsibilities help keep
the integrity of the team members making them more trustworthy and honest to the public and
each other. In addition, a high integrity and work ethic improves the motivation and dedication of
the team, which can be seen throughout the creation of the prototype vehicle. Following the codes
allows the team to gain recognition by other engineers in present and future situations when the
project is revisited and our report is used to describe all of the hard work that went into creating
an innovative design.
Fairness is a large part in being a team as each member needs to be treated equally
throughout the project. This entitles that each member must work diligently and at the same pace
as the others. In addition, it entitles that each member must participate in the same amount of work
as the others, and that not one member is forced to do more work than they should. Regardless of
the level of experience of each member, everyone’s ideas and opinions are useful and should not
be disregarded. Each member must demonstrate a level of professionalism throughout the building
and design of the prototype vehicle.
9.5.1 ASME Code of Ethics
Our obligations for this project include the following:
2.1 (Code of Ethics for Engineers): Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and
welfare of the public. Because risk of fire is always a present issue when operating a battery electric
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or other type of vehicle, the driver will have to be separated from the battery and motor
compartment by a bulkhead and will wear a flame retardant suit. Furthermore, a fire extinguisher
will be present inside of the vehicle and the proper equipment will be used to handle any incident.
3.6 (Code of Ethics for Engineers): Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or
advancement or Professional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other
improper or questionable methods.
3.9 (Code of Ethics for Engineers): Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to
those to whom credit is due, and will recognize the proprietary interests of others. All students
who participate in this endeavor will be recognized for their work.
9.6 Life-Long Learning Experience
Life-long learning is a concept of engineering that FIU focuses on. It involves the idea that
learning never stops, it is continuous and will occur at every aspect of an engineer’s career. FIU
motivates students to be open minded to all aspects, and allow themselves to learn what they can
as much as they can. The more knowledge one has, the more effective they are as an engineer for
any company and industry. Senior projects hold this concept diligently as it involves the teams
researching and gaining real life experience throughout the creation of their product prototypes.
The projects reenact a real life engineering issue that needs a solution. With this, the future
engineers can put all the knowledge they have gained to use. For the prototype battery electric
vehicle, the team needed to research the automotive component and the energy component. Each
member gained knowledge on each component of the car as they designed and manufactures every
part from scratch, while the energy component helped the team gain knowledge on energy
efficiency. With this competition, engineering students improve on their current skills and gain
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new ones while developing their own understanding of engineering concepts. These skills help
each member develop as an engineer and as an individual.
9.7 Discussion
The Shell Eco-Marathon teaches the team many things that can help them individually and
professionally in the future. It motivates each team member to learn new concepts while improving
on their current knowledge and skills. It also helps the students see the importance of standards
and codes that each engineer must follow to be successful as professional engineers in the
engineering industry. Throughout the project the biggest engineering concept was design
alternatives. As the team manufactures the vehicle, issues become apparent and quick solutions
need to be created. Designing quickly yet innovatively is a skill that is highly sought after in
engineers. Also, the team worked collaboratively to fix each issue that arises which motivates team
work and integrity between each individual. These skills are required for a successful profession
in the engineering industry, and this project is the perfect learning platform.
The goal was to create a prototype vehicle that used the least amount of energy to move
the longest distance. As the design improved and was manufactured, the true aspects of the senior
design came forth. It was not only a project, but a learning experience for each future engineer.
All engineering concepts were addressed and each member played a key role in the creation of the
prototype. FIU is an institution that motivates life-long learning and professional improvement of
their engineering students to help lead the community to a brighter future.
10. Conclusion
10.1 Conclusion and Discussion
Any project can be a new experience for students in the engineering degrees, however, the
experience from this project alone is memorable. The purpose of this project was to create a
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prototype battery electric vehicle that can go the longest distance while using the least amount of
energy. This vehicle will be entered in the 2016 Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition in
Detroit, MI on April 22, 2016. The design of the vehicle was following the ideals of making a light
weight, feasible, cost effective and energy efficient vehicle that will be able to compete in the
marathon. The FIU Shell Eco-Marathon team consist of six undergraduate mechanical engineering
students that each hold an ambition to innovate and optimize existing concepts. With this ambition,
the team chose to compete in the battery electric section, with limited prior knowledge in electrical
engineering. The three students working on this report were tasked with the body design, the
electric motor components and the steering and handling of the vehicle.
Through thorough analyses using SolidWorks and collaborative brainstorming, the vehicle
design described in section 6 was chosen and manufactured into a rigid and durable battery electric
vehicle that has surpassed the expectations of mentors and advisors. All testing has pointed to a
design that will not fail during normal operations and a design that will qualify to participate during
the Shell Eco-Marathon. The successful completion of the prototype during a limited timeline was
an ambitious goal, but obtainable. Now, the true results of all the hard work will be displayed
during the competition. Even if the prototype vehicle does not place, the vehicle will be left for
the Eco Engineering Club at FIU for future generations of determined engineering students to
optimize on the design and aim for better and more efficient designs.
10.2 Evaluation of Intangible Experiences
Engineering a vehicle of this magnitude from scratch is quite an endeavor. In the process
many experiences are of great value. This project enabled its members to evaluate their own
technical skills and target areas that needed improvement. The ability to learn and teach new skills
that will continue to be useful post-graduation is a valuable experience. The Eco Engineering Club
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was started to gauge student interest and get more students involved in hands on engineering
applications such as the manufacturing of this vehicle. With over 20 active members it is
astounding to see the number of people that show up to help with manufacturing, assembly, and
testing of the vehicle. This project was more than a learning experience for the senior design team
members. It involved teaching others new skills that they can use in their future projects and
reaching out to younger students in the community. Through the Eco Engineering Club, seven (7)
Engineers on Wheels visits were successfully completed. The process that went into designing and
developing this vehicle was explained local middle and high school students. Some were interested
in STEM already, others had never considered a future in STEM. The ability to be able to reach
out to a future generation of engineers and show them the endless possibilities that exist in
engineering is priceless.
10.3 Future Work
The battery electric car developed will be left for the use of the members of the Eco
Engineering Club at FIU. The vehicle can be optimized further for future competitions or other
endeavors. Optimizations can include an electrical steering system, regenerative braking, and
addition of solar panels as a secondary source of alternative energy. Other changes can be made to
the vehicle such as converting the energy system from battery electric to hydrogen fuel cell.
Whatever route is chosen one thing is certain, the vehicle generated from this endeavor can be
passed on to others for further engineering and learning.
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11. References
1. Eco-Marathon, Shell. “2016 Official Rules Chapter I.” Shell Eco-Marathon 2016 Official
Rules. Shell Global, 2016. Web. 15 Nov. 2015.
2. Lucena, Samuel E. De. "A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Technology." Electric Vehicles: The Benefits and Barriers. N.p., 2011. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
3. Christian, Hanke. "Socio-Economic Aspects of Electric Vehicles: A Literature Review."
Evolutionary Paths towards the Mobility Patterns of the Future Lecture Notes in Mobility.
N.p., 2013. Web. 20 Dec. 2015
4. "Standards Catalogue: ICS 43.120: Electric Road Vehicles." International Organization for
Standardization. ISO, 2016. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
5. "Standard Specification for Aluminum-Alloy 6061-T6 Standard Structural Profiles."
USAEC-RDT Standards. ASTM, 2010. Web. 20 Dec. 2015.
6. "How Relays Work - Relay Diagrams and Relay Definitions." How Relays Work. N.p., n.d.
Web. 15 Nov. 2015.
7. "Lexan 9030 Product Datasheet." Theplasticshop.co.uk. GE, n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
8. "Factor of Safety FOS Review." FOS Review. Engineers Edge, n.d. Web. 12 Apr. 2016.
9. "A36 Steel." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.
10. "Regenerative Brake." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
11. "NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers." Code of Ethics. NSPE, n.d. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
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12. Appendices
12.1 Appendix A – Engineering Drawings
Midsection of Body
Rear of Body
Front of Body
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Overall Dimensions of Body
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12.2 Appendix B – User’s Manual
12.2.1 User’s Manual in English
General Information
The body of the vehicle was made utilizing fiber glass. This carbon composite was used
due to its low cost and favorable material specifications. This material allowed for a lightweight
vehicle that would securely encompass all components to include the aluminum chassis. Although
carbon fiber would have been another feasible alternative, fiber glass was chosen instead due to
its low cost when compared to carbon fiber. The chassis was developed utilizing 6061 aluminum
capable of withstanding at least 700 N of force while still being able to maintain a lightweight yet
secure design.
Vehicle Description
The first priority is driver safety. All components were designed with this in mind. As such,
the vehicle was equipped with hydraulic front and rear brakes. The vehicle was capable of stopping
utilizing either braking system or both at the same time. The vehicle design consists of a 3 wheel
design; 2 wheels for the front and 1 for the rear. The vehicle is equipped with a mechanical steering
system similar to that which can be found in go karts. The general dimensions of the vehicle and
other specifications are as follows:
Length: 104 inches
Width: 39.25 inches
Height: 37 inches
Front Tire size: 20 inches
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Rear Tire Size: 26 inches
Motor and Specs:
DC Brushless Electric Bike Motor
Power: 1000 W
Voltage: 48 V
Battery and Specs:
Lithium Ion Battery
Voltage: 48 V
Current: 20 Amps
Vehicle Design
The body of the vehicle was designed utilizing SolidWorks. All of the rules and regulations
given by Shell were adhered to in designing a competition ready vehicle that would not be
disqualified. The vehicle body was designed large enough to be able to comfortably and safely
hold 1 person as well as all of the other vehicle components while still staying within the
competition design constraints. Vehicle components include: aluminum chassis, 5 point safety
harness, LiPo battery, rear and front wheels, seat, horns, steering system, and microcontroller. In
addition, windows were added to the vehicle body so that the driver would have visibility of 180
degrees. These windows are made of a polycarbonate (Lexan) material due to its ability to
withstand loads and not break into sharp shards when damaged.
Body Manufacturing
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The vehicle body was manufactured by first making a Styrofoam mold. This mold was
created utilizing a hot wire technique that involves cutting layers of Styrofoam with a heated
nichrome wire. These layers are then put together with epoxy and sanded down so that it resembles
the desired shape based on the SolidWorks design. After the Styrofoam mold is ready it is covered
in release film where the fiberglass cloths will be laid upon. The fiberglass cloth is cut to size based
on the size of the mold. The first layer is placed on top of the mold and mixed epoxy resin with
hardener is applied to the first layer till the fiberglass material is completely covered. This process
is repeated a second and even third or fourth time to produce a stable outer body structure. Once
the final layer has been finished a layer of release film is placed over the entirety of the mold which
is now covered with fiberglass. The fiberglass was left to cure using a vacuum bagging technique.
The entire mold is placed inside of a vacuum bag. A hose is tightly fit to the bag and attached to a
vacuum line. The mold is left under vacuum overnight. The following day the fiberglass layers
have cured and the structure can be removed from the mold. This process was repeated to achieve
the top and bottom halves of the vehicle body. Once the mold has been removed the sanding
process begins. The sanding process involves starting with a coarse grit and moving up to a finer
grit. This process produces a smooth outer surface that can be painted. Any
Holes that were produced due to excessive sanding were patched with any leftover
fiberglass cloths on the inside of the structure. Once sanding was complete the window openings
as well as the hatch utilized for motor and driver access to the vehicle were cut. Cutting holes into
the fiberglass body caused the structure to weaken. As such, the structure was reinforced by
utilizing aluminum flat bar. The windows were permanently installed using epoxy and the driver
and motor hatch of the vehicle were secured in place by use of aluminum flat bar and velcro.
Battery Electric Motor
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The battery electric motor was an ongoing project in itself. It consisted of purchasing an
adequate microcontroller to program and run the electric bike motor with. This involved coding
the microcontroller. The programming language used was C. As the microcontroller was coded
the motor was tested to ensure that it was operating as intended.
12.2.2 User’s Manual in Spanish
Información General
El cuerpo de el vehículo fue hecho utilizando fibra de vidrio. Este compuesto de carbono
fue utilizado debido a sus características favorables y costo reducido. Éste material permite obtener
un vehículo ligero que puede cubrir seguramente todos los componentes del vehículo, incluyendo
el chasis de aluminio. Aunque la fibra de carbono también hubiese sido una buena alternativa, la
fibra de vidrio fue elegida por su costo reducido en comparación a la fibra de carbono. El chasis
fue hecho utilizando aluminio 6061 con la capacidad de aguantar por lo menos 700 N de fuerza
aún mantienendo un diseño seguro y ligero.
Descripción de el Vehículo
La primera prioridad es el bienestar del chofer. Todos los componentes del vehículo fueron
diseñado con esto en mente. Como tal, el vehículo fue equipado con frenos hidráulicos para la
parte delantera y la parte trasera. El vehículo es capaz de parar utilizando los frenos de alante o los
de atrás y también utilizando ambos juntos. El vehículo consiste de un diseño de 3 ruedas; 2 ruedas
delanteras y una rueda trasera. El vehículo está equipado con un sistema de dirección mecánica
como las que se encuentran en los carros tipo "go kart". Las dimensiones generales del vehículos
y otras especificaciones son las siguientes:
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Longitud: 104 pulgadas
Anchura: 39.25 pulgadas
Altura: 37 pulgadas
Tamaño de Gomas Delanteras: 20 pulgadas
Tamaño de Goma Trasera: 26 pulgadas
Motor y Especificaciones:
Motor de Bicicleta Eléctrica (DC) sin Escobillas
Poder: 1000 vatios
Voltaje: 48 voltios
Batería y Especificaciones:
Batería de Iones de Litio
Voltaje: 48 voltios
Corriente: 20 amperios
Diseño de el Vehículo
El cuerpo de el vehículo fue diseñado utilizando SolidWorks. Todas las reglas y
regulaciones que fueron dadas por Shell fueron cumplidas en el proceso de diseñar un vehículo
que estuviera listo para competir sin riesgo de ser descalificado. El cuerpo de el vehículo fue
diseñado lo suficientemente grande para que todos los componentes cupieran y que una persona
pudiera conducir seguro(a) y cómodamente. Los componentes de el vehículo incluyen: chasis de
aluminio, cinturón de seguridad de 5 puntos, batería, asiento, sistema de conducir, y un
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microcontrolador. En adición, las ventanas fueron agregadas al cuerpo de el vehículo para que el
chofer tuviera una visibilidad de 180 grados. Estas ventanas fueron elegidas de un material
conocido como policarbonato (Lexan) por su habilidad de resistir carga y cuando se rompe no se
rompe en pedazos agudos.
Fabricación de el Cuerpo
El cuerpo de el vehículo fue fabricado primero haciendo un molde de espuma de
poliestireno. El molde fue creado utilizando una técnica de alambre caliente. Esta técnica involucra
cortar piezas de el poliestireno con un alambre de nicromo caliente. Las piezas después se unen
con epoxy y se le da lija para darle la forma adecuada al molde basado en el diseño de SolidWorks.
Después que el molde esté listo se cubre con un plástico ensima del cual se le aplica las fibras de
vidrio. La fibra de vidrio se corta al tamaño adecuado basado en el tamaño de el molde. Se le pone
la primera capa al molde y la resina mezclada se le aplica hasta que el material esté completamente
cubierto. Éste proceso se repite de dos a tres veces más, aún hasta cuatro veces si es necesario,
para producir una estructura estable para el cuerpo de el vehículo. Cuando la última capa se haya
terminado se le aplica una capa de plástico que cubre el molde completo. El molde con las capas
de fibra de vidrio se deja bajo aspiración hasta que endurezca. Para lograr esto el molde completo
se pone dentro de una bolsa de plástico a la cual se le adhiere una manguera que va conectada a la
aspiradora. El molde se deja bajo aspiración hasta el siguiente día. Al siguiente día las capas de
fibra de vidrio han endurecido y la estructura se puede quitar de el molde. Este procesó fue repetido
para adquirir la parte de arriba y de abajo de el Cuerpo de el vehículo. Cuando la estructura se
quita de el molde se le puede empezar a dar lija. Se le empieza a dar lija con lija de papel gruesa y
progresando a una lija de papel mas fina. Este proceso produce una superficie exterior ideal para
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pintar. Cualquier hueco que se haya producido por causa de lijar demasiado un área se tapó con un
parche de fibra de vidrio en la parte de adentro de la estructura. Cuando se terminó de dar lija se
le cortaron las aperturas para las ventanas, para acceso al motor, y para acceso de entrada y salida
del chofer. Haberle cortado huecos causó que la estructura de el vehículo se debilitara. Como tal,
piezas de aluminio fueron utilizadas para reforzar la estructura. Las ventanas fueron instaladas
permanentemente utilizando epoxy y las puertas de acceso al vehículo y al motor fueron
aseguradas utilizando aluminio y velcro.
Motor de Batería Eléctrico
El motor de batería eléctrico por si solo fue un projecto constante. Consistió de comprar un
microcontrolador adecuado para programarlo y poder correr el motor electrico con el. Esto
involucró tener que codificar el microcontrolador. Este se programó utilizando el lenguaje C.
Cuando se terminaba de programar el microcontrolador se probaba el motor para asegurarse que
este funccionando como es debido.
12.2.3 User’s Manual in Dutch
Gebruikers Aanwijzingen
Algemene informatie
De carrosserie van het voertuig was gemaakt uit glasvezel. Deze koolstof composiet werd
gebruikt vanwege de lage kosten en gunstige materiaalspecificaties. Dit materiaal resulteerde
in een lichtgewicht voertuig die veilig alle componenten zou omvatten, waaronder het aluminium
chassis. Hoewel koolstofvezel een bruikbaar alternatief zou zijn geweest, was glasvezel in plaats
gekozen vanwege de lage kosten in vergelijking met koolstofvezel. Het chassis is ontwikkeld met
125
behulp van 6061 aluminium die in staat is om een lichtgewicht maar toch veilig ontwerp te
behouden onder ten minste 700 N van geweld.
Omschrijving van het voertuig
De eerste prioriteit is veiligheid van de bestuurder. Alle componenten zijn ontworpen met
dit in gedachten. Daarom is het voertuig uitgerust met hydraulische voor en achter remmen. Het
voertuig kon tot stilstand komen door gebruik te maken van de remmen in het individueel of beiden
tegelijkertijd. Het ontwerp bestaat uit een 3-wiel ontwerp; 2 wielen vooraan en 1 voor de
achterzijde. Het voertuig is uitgerust met een mechanische besturing systeem vergelijkbaar met
die van go karts. De algemene afmetingen van het voertuig en andere specificaties zijn als volgt:
Lengte: 104 duim
Breedte: 39.25 duim
Hoogte: 37 duim
Maat voorbanden: 20 duim
Bandenmaat achter: 26 duim
Motor en Specificaties:
DC borstelloze elektrische fiets Motor
Vermogen: 1000 W
Voltage: 48 V
Accu en specificaties:
Lithium Ion batterij
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Voltage: 48 V
Ampèrage: 20 Ampère
Voertuig Ontwerp
De carrosserie van het voertuig is ontworpen met behulp van SolidWorks. Alle regels en
voorschriften van Shell werden nageleefd in het ontwerpen van een wedstrijd klaar voertuig die
niet zou worden gediskwalificeerd. De carrosserie is ontworpen om groot genoeg te zijn om 1
persoon en alle andere componenten te omvatten, rekening houdend met de voorschriften voor het
ontwerp. Voertuigonderdelen omvat: aluminium chassis, 5 punt veiligheidsgordel, LiPo batterij,
achter- en voorwielen, stoel, tuuter, stuurinrichting, en microcontroller. Daarnaast werden ramen
toegevoegd aan het voertuiglichaam, zodat de bestuurder zicht van 180 graden heeft. Deze ramen
zijn gemaakt uit een polycarbonaat (Lexaan) materiaal vanwege het vermogen om ladingen te
weerstaan en niet te breken in scherpe scherven bij beschadiging.
Carrosserie Fabricage
De carrosserie is vervaardigd door eerst een piepschuim mal te vormen. Deze vorm werd
gemaakt met behulp van een hete draad techniek waar lagen piepschuim worden gesneden met een
verwarmde nichroom draad. Deze lagen worden vervolgens in elkaar gezet met epoxy en
geschuurd zodat het de gewenste vorm op de SolidWorks ontwerp lijkt. Na de piepschuim mal
klaar is, wordt het bedekt met film waarop de glasvezel doeken zullen worden gelegd. De
glasvezeldoek wordt op maat gesneden op basis van de grootte van de mal. De eerste laag wordt
bovenop de mal geplaatst en gemengd met epoxyhars wordt toegepast op de eerste laag tot de
glasvezelmateriaal geheel is bedekt. Dit proces wordt een tweede of zelfs derde of vierde keer
herhaald om een stabiele omhulsel te creëren. Zodra de laatste laag is afgewerkt, wordt een
127
afgiftelaag over het geheel van de mal geplaatst die nu bedekt is met glasvezel. De glasvezel werd
verhard met een vacuümtechniek. De gehele mal wordt geplaatst in een vacuümzak. Een slang
wordt strak aangesloten aan de zak en verbonden met een vacuümleiding. De mal wordt voor een
avond gelaten onder vacuüm. De volgende dag is de glasvezel uitgehard en de structuur kan
worden verwijderd. Deze werkwijze werd herhaald om de bovenste en onderste helften van de
voertuigcarrosserie te realiseren. Zodra de mal is verwijderd kan het schuurproces beginnen. Het
schuurproces begint met grove zandpapier en wekt naar een steeds fijner zandpapier toe. Dit proces
levert een glad buitenoppervlak waarop kan worden geverfd.
Gaten die zijn geproduceerd door overmatig schuren werden opgelapt met overgebleven
glasvezel doeken aan de binnenzijde van het structuur. Zodra schuren was voltooid werden de
raamopeningen en het luik, gebruikt voor motor en bestuurder toegang, gesneden. Snijden van
gaten in het glasvezel lichaam veroorzaakt een verzwakking van het structuur. Als zodanig werd
het structuur versterkt door het gebruik van aluminium platen. De ramen waren permanent
geïnstalleerd met behulp van epoxy en de bestuurder en de motor luik van het voertuig werden in
plaats gehouden door het gebruik van aluminium platen en klittenband.
Elektrische Motor
De motor was een lopend project op zich. Het bestond uit de aankoop van een adequate
microcontroller om te programmeren en de motor mee te draaien. Dit omvat het coderen van de
microcontroller. De programmeertaal was C. Terwijl de microcontroller gecodeerd werd, werd de
motor getest om te verzekeren dat het werkte zoals gepland.
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12.3 Appendix D – Detailed Raw Calculations and Analysis
Figure 65: Force of Motor vs. Required Force
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12.4 Appendix E – Project Photo Album
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Cover Page

EML 4905 Senior Design Project

2016 SHELL ECO-MARATHON

Advisor: Dr. Andres Tremante

April 17th, 2016

Evelyn Mojica Kaira Sanchez Santiago Norena

Dr. Andres Tremante

The Shell Eco-Marathon Americas competition was an opportunity seized to be able to

capable of performing above expectations up to and including winning racing competitions.

1.1 Problem Statement

fossil fuel dependent era.

student engineers to innovate and compete makes for a rewarding journey.

1.3 Literature Survey

1.3.1 Rules and Regulations

using the following options:

(a) Internal Combustion

ii. Shell FuelSave Diesel (Europe)/Shell Diesel (Asia and US)

iii. Ethanol E100 (100% Ethanol)

iv. Shell Gas to Liquid (100% GtL)

v. CNG (Pure Methane)

(b) Electric Mobility

ii. Battery Electric1

efficiency, simplicity is key.

1.3.3 Internal Combustion Engine

An internal combustion engine is a mechanism that uses heat in order to produce

Figure 1: Thermodynamic Representation of an Internal Combustion Engine

expensive to design or purchase depending on how good the engine is.

with internal combustion engines of any shape or size.

From an environmental standpoint, combustion engines release carbon dioxide gases

1.3.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Figure 2: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Schematic

Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive, so the tank needs to be pressurized.

that only allows the protons to pass through.

separate the hydrogen from the oxygen.

replace gasoline. There is no existing infrastructure in place to accommodate hydrogen as a fuel

source for the average motorist.

alternative energy source.

1.3.5 Battery Electric

Mobility Patterns of the Future Lecture Notes in Mobility. 2013.

is converted into electricity that recharges the battery.

take up room needed for other things.

cars could go more than 300 miles on a single charge.

for the motor.

1.4 Survey of Related Standards

the team participants and others involved.

1.4.1 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles

to address any issues or concerns as they may arise.

1.4.2 Standards for Battery Electric Vehicles

vehicle chassis, which is Aluminum 6061-T6. Aluminum 6061-T6 is standardized by the

displayed in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Tensile Property Limits of Aluminum 6061-T6

Elongations in 50 mm applies to sheet-type specimens machined into materials of 12.5 mm

in thickness. Elongations in 4D [5D or ] applies to round test samples produced from

looked at to ensure admittance into the competition.

body (“shell”), wheels, braking, steering/handling, and engine components.

completed. Any corrections that may be needed are to be documented in detail.

2.3 Design Specification

only be safe, but also admissible in competition.

outlined, as applicable, in the sections that follow.

2.3.1 Steering Specifications

2.3.2 General Vehicle Specifications

with the track.

wheels of the vehicle.

the vehicle are forbidden.