Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Marel Katsivela *
I. – INTRODUCTION
The concept of force majeure (superior force) 1 has its origins in Roman law.
Under the name “vis major” or “vis divina”, Roman law designated
2 One of the Latin maxims that reflects this concept is the following: “Fortuitos casus
nullum humanum concilium providere potest nec cui prœviso potest resisti”. Robert TASCHEREAU,
Théorie de Cas Fortuit et de la Force Majeure dans les Obligations 1-2 (1901) (Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Laval – Faculty of Law of Montréal) (on file with the University of Montréal Law
Faculty Library).
3 Caslav PEJOVIC, Civil Law and Common Law: Two Different Paths Leading to the Same
Goal, <http://www.upf.pf/recherche/IRIDIP/RJP/RJP7/16Pejovic.doc> (visited 5 Jan. 2007).
4 TASCHEREAU, supra note 2.
5 Other articles of the French Civil Code that refer to the force majeure concept are Arts.
1348, 1631, 1730, 1733, 1754, 1755, 1784, 1929, 1934 and 1954. Many of these articles also make
reference to “fortuitous events”.
6 Arts. 876, 1210, 1308, 1693, 1701, 1727, 2029, 2034, 2037, 2038 and 2072 of the Québec
Civil Code are some examples of articles that refer to the force majeure concept. The last five articles
deal with carrier liability and force majeure in the case of carriage of goods and passengers.
7 Greek court decisions have associated this article with the concept of force majeure in
resolving mainly landlord tenant disputes: Piraeus Court of Appeals, 2005, No. 858/2005 (386929)
Nomos, Athens Court of Appeals, 2002, No. 1022/2002 (320622) Nomos. Greek Civil Code Art.
656 refers to force majeure (ανωτερα βια) in employment contracts.
8 Philippe LE TOURNEAU, Droit de la responsabilité et des contrats, Dalloz, 6th ed. (2006-
2007), 482-483.
9 Id.
10 France: François TERRE / Philippe SIMLER / Yves LEQUETTE, Droit civil – les obligations,
Dalloz, 9th ed. (2005), 568-569. Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, Les obligations, Éditions Yvon Blais,
6th ed. (2005), 938.
11 LE TOURNEAU, supra note 8.
12 France: Christian LARROUMET, Droit civil – les obligations – le contrat, Economica, 5th
ed. (2003), 830 (“Irresistible, insurmountable, inevitable are deemed synonymous terms”).
Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10. Greece: Supreme Court (2003), No. 67/2003 (320126)
Nomos. However, the analysis that follows proves the relativity of the concept based on these
three elements.
13 France: TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10; Cass. Com. (6 Mar. 2001), No. 98-
21009 Legifrance. Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 941; Jean PINEAU, Le contrat de
transport terrestre, maritime et aérien, Les Éditions Thémis (1986), 53-54. Québec: Métal Recyclé
(FNF) Inc. v. Transnat Express Inc. [2005] J.Q. no 17323 (QCSC) Quicklaw; Crédit Commercial de
France v. Montréal (Ville) [2001] J.Q. no 2562 (QCCA) Quicklaw. In Greece, courts refer to an
“unforeseeable external (εξωτερικο) event which cannot be avoided even by taking measures of
utter diligence and prudence”: Supreme Court (2003), No. 67/2003 (320126) Nomos.
14 Québec: PINEAU, supra note 13, 206. France: TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10,
573.
15 France:TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 569 and Cass. 3e civ. (2 Apr. 2003), No.
01-17724 Legifrance. Québec cases treat force majeure and inherent defect as separate concepts:
Poissons Frais des Îles Inc. v. Christian Larocque Services [2003] J.Q. no 12681 (QCCt) Quicklaw,
CGU; Compagnie d’Assurances du Canada v. Guindon Desjardins [2006] J.Q. no 453 (QCSC)
Quicklaw.
16 France: CA Toulouse, 1e ch. civ. (18 June 2001), No. 2000/00864 Legifrance. Québec:
Rose v. Société de Transport de la Communauté Urbaine de Montréal [1996] A.Q. no 688 (QCSC)
Quicklaw; Goupil v. Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec [2001] J.Q. no 3343 (QCSC)
Quicklaw.
17 France: LARROUMET, supra note 12, 830. Québec:BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 938.
18 France: Cass. soc. (11 Jan. 2000), No. 97-18215 Legifrance, Cass. soc. (7 Apr 1999), No.
97-40446 Legifrance. Québec: Atlantic Paper Stock Ltd. v. St. Anne-Nackawic Pulp and Paper Co.
[1975] A.C.S. no 46 (SCC) Quicklaw, where it is stated that a strike may constitute force majeure if
it is not due to the person who claims it and is irresistible and unforeseeable. In BAUDOUIN / JODIN,
supra note 10, 938, the author notes that the same reasoning has been applied to sickness and
unemployment. Under Greek law a strike or any interruption of employment may constitute a
force majeure event if it is due to a natural cause or other unforeseeable event which affects the
relationship between the employer and the employee, is irresistible by measures of utter diligence
and prudence and is not attributed to the employer: Supreme Court (2004), No. 1303/2004
(364445) Nomos.
19 France: LE TOURNEAU, supra note 8, 485; Maurice TANCELIN, Des obligations: actes et
responsabilités, 6th ed. (1997), 408, defines force majeure as an unforeseeable and irresistible
event. Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 942. The author admits, however, that if the
force majeure event is not external to the debtor it will be more difficult to convince the court that
it was unforeseeable and irresistible.
20 France:TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 569-572. Québec: Halpin v. Lauzon
[2000] J.Q. no 1316 (QCCt) Quicklaw.
21 France: TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 570, Cass. crim. (8 Sep. 1998), No. 97-
85884 Legifrance. Québec: Meubles Napert Ltée v. Ste-Marie de Beauce (Ville de), [2006] J.Q. no
1771 (QCSC) Quicklaw stated that if all events were foreseeable, the force majeure concept would
be voided of its very substance.
22 Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 943-944. In this way, the author notes that
the extraordinary 1998 ice storm in Québec was deemed to be a force majeure event. Also, see
Harrison v. Cuirs Sal-Tan Inc [2000] J.Q. no 1640 (QCSC) Quicklaw. France: French case Cass. 1e
civ. (29 May 1974), No. 73-10527 Legifrance stated that military service may constitute a force
majeure event if all elements of the force majeure concept are present. On theft, see infra note 26.
23 TERRE / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 769.
24 France: Cass. 2e civ. (24 May 2006), No. 04-20550 Legifrance. Québec: Meubles
Napert Ltée v. Ste-Marie de Beauce (Ville de), supra note 21. In Métal Recyclé (FNF) Inc. v.
Transnat Express Inc., supra note 13, the criterion adopted to assess unforeseeability was that of an
average person. In Greece, the Piraeus Court of Appeals (Maritime Section) (2004), No. 682/2004
(396202) Nomos held that the weather conditions in a vessel collision case were foreseeable
because they were not unusual for the period of time when the facts took place.
25 France: Cass. 1e civ. (3 July 2002), No. 99-20217 Legifrance. Québec: in Métal Recyclé
(FNF) Inc. v. Transnat Express Inc., supra note 13, the court held that theft of goods transported by
The third element of the force majeure concept, the irresistibility of the
harm causing event, refers to an event that renders performance under the
contract impossible and not merely onerous or burdensome.26 Greek law
moves in the same direction and in the 1991 case No. 614/1991 (38674), the
Piraeus trial court concluded that war constitutes a force majeure event when
it renders performance of an employment contract impossible and not merely
burdensome. Further, impossibility to perform must be permanent and not
temporary.27 Finally, unlike common law jurisdictions, if performance is
rendered impracticable or if there is hardship, French courts refuse relief.28
Under French and Québec law, the irresistibility element of the force
majeure concept requires the debtor to take measures that a reasonable
person (objective standard) would have taken against the event.29 Greek case
law, however, consistently refers to “incidents which cannot be avoided by
acts of utter diligence and prudence” of the debtor.30 “Utter diligence and
the carrier is not a force majeure event except in extraordinary circumstances. Greece: Athens
Court of Appeals (1987), No. 1432/1987 (64296) Nomos.
26 France: There is no force majeure if performance of the contract is not impossible.
TERRÉ / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 571-572 ; LE TOURNEAU, supra note 8, 483. Québec:
BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 940; in Métal Recyclé (FNF) Inc. v. Transnat Express Inc., supra
note 13, the Québec Supreme Court held that in the presence of force majeure, performance must
be rendered absolutely impossible, not relatively impossible like in the case of a simple difficulty
to perform; see also Meubles Napert Ltée v. Ste-Marie de Beauce (Ville de), supra note 21.
27 France: LARROUMET, supra note 12, 830 and Cass. soc. (3 Nov. 1977), No. 76-40747
Legifrance. Québec: Productions Claude Fortier Inc. v. Productions SDA Ltée [1997] AQ no. 506
(QCCt), Quicklaw, and BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 940-941. The author further notes that
temporary impossibility may qualify as force majeure only in the case where the moment of the
performance was deemed of essence to the contract.
28 Joseph PERILLO, “Force Majeure and Hardship under the UNIDROIT Principles of Interna-
tional Commercial Contracts”, 5 Tulane Journal of International & Comparative Law (1997), 5, 7.
29 France: The debtor should act like a “bon père de famille“ or “un homme
diligent“.TERRÉ / SIMLER / LEQUETTE, supra note 10, 571, Cass. 2e civ. (24 May 2006), No. 04-20550
Legifrance. Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 939; Québec Métal Recyclé (FNF) Inc. v.
Transnat Express Inc., supra note 13, where the criterion adopted to assess impossibility was that
of an average person; Crédit Commercial de France v. Montréal (Ville), supra note 13; St Timothée
v. Hydro-Québec [1999] J.E. 99-1804 (Qué.S.C.) Quicklaw.
30 Supreme Court (2006), No. 908/2006 (397823) Nomos ; Supreme Court (2005), No.
61/2005 (383500) Nomos; Supreme Court (2004), No. 937/2004 (361078) Nomos; Supreme Court
(2003), No. 67/2003 (320126) Nomos; Piraeus Court of Appeals (2005), No. 289/2005 (382874)
Nomos; Piraeus Court of Appeals (Maritime Section) (2004), No. 682/2004 (396202) Nomos. In the
latter case, the court referred to incidents that cannot be avoided by “measures of extraordinary
diligence and prudence”.
31 In Piraeus Court of Appeals (Maritime Section) (2004), No. 682/2004 (396202) Nomos,
the court referred, in this regard, to the standard of an “average prudent person”.
32 Québec: on debtor’s fault: Royal & Sunalliance du Canada v. Cam-Nord St-Félix Inc.
[2006] J.Q. no 5258 (QCCt) Quicklaw; Québec Métal Recyclé (FNF) Inc. v. Transnat Express Inc.,
supra note 13. France: CA Paris, 21 Mar. 2002, No. 2000/05210 Legifrance. Greece: Supreme
Court (2002), No. 904/2002 (314002) Nomos, and Piraeus Court of Appeals (Maritime Section)
(2004), No. 682/2004 (396202) Nomos.
33 France: LE TOURNEAU, supra note 8, 485, BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 938. See
also Boucherville (Ville de) v. Samuel Bélisle et autres (1977) CA 91, 94 (Q.C.A.).
34 France: LE TOURNEAU, supra note 8, 485, referring to case Cass Com. (28 Apr. 1998), D.
1999, 469, Bull.Civ. IV, no. 141, where the court held that force majeure existed in the presence of
an irresistible but foreseeable event. See also LARROUMET, supra note 12. Québec: BAUDOUIN /
JODIN, supra note 10, 938, where the author notes that whereas, in principle, force majeure
elements are cumulative, there are cases where courts qualify an event as force majeure on the
basis of one of the three elements; see also Boucherville (Ville de) v. Samuel Bélisle et autres,
supra note 33. Greece: in Piraeus Court of Appeals (Maritime Section) (2004), No. 682/2004
(396202) Nomos, the court noted that foreseeable bad weather conditions cannot be irresistible.
35 Supra notes 33, 34 and accompanying text.
36 BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 938, 942.
37 Meubles Napert Ltée v. Sté-Marie de Beauce (Ville de), supra note 21.
38 BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 943 on the lack of clarity.
majeure elements in the different civil law jurisdictions add to the lack of
coherence present at the domestic level.39
In practice, parties can contractually define force majeure events through
the use of force majeure clauses. Such clauses may deviate from the legal
requirements of the force majeure concept.40 We will examine force majeure
clauses later on.41 It should be noted, however, that due to their contractual
nature, force majeure clauses may be wider in scope and/or different than the
more rigid civil law force majeure concept or clauses incorporating the latter
into a contract.42 Consequently, the debtor may be able to be excused of
performance more easily under a force majeure clause than under the civil
law force majeure concept.
Today, common law uses the term “force majeure” but ignores the concept of
force majeure as perceived in civil law jurisdictions.43 In reality, there is a
common law force majeure doctrine which has developed over the years,
starting off in the 19th century as a contractual synonym of the common law
doctrine of legal impossibility and moving, with time, in the direction of
impracticability.44 In England and the United States impossibility and imprac-
ticability are associated with the doctrine of frustration. A contract is deemed
frustrated when a supervening event renders its performance impossible or at
least so different from that contemplated that it would not be reasonable to
39 See, e.g., supra note 30 and accompanying text on Greek law and the requirement of
“utter diligence and prudence” with respect to the irresistibility element of the force majeure concept.
40 Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 938-939. France: Philippe MALAURIE /
Laurent AYNES, Droit civil les obligations, 2nd ed. (2005), 500-501. The author notes, in this respect,
that the force majeure concept is not “d’ordre public” (of a public policy character). It can,
therefore, be contracted out of.
41 Infra under IV: “Force Majeure Clauses”.
42 Québec: BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 938-939; Entreprises Rioux & Nadeau Inc. v.
Société de Récupération [2000] J.Q. no 1545 (QCCA) Quicklaw. France: MALAURIE / AYNES, supra
note 40, 500-501; G.H. TREITEL, Frustration and Force Majeure, Sweet & Maxwell ed. (1994), 434
on French law.
43 Statement made with respect to English law. Michel POURCELET, Le transport maritime
sous connaissement (1972), 131.
44 P.J.M. DECLERQ, “Modern Analysis of the Legal Effects of Force Majeure Clauses in
Situations of Commercial Impracticability” 15 Journal of Law& Commerce (1995), 213, 214. The
authority English cases on impossibility and impracticability are Taylor v. Caldwell, 32 LJQB 164
(1836) and Krell v. Henry 2 K.B. 740 (1903), respectively.
A force majeure (superior force) clause allows a party to terminate its obli-
gations under a contract because of the occurrence of an event described in
the clause.52 Force majeure clauses that excuse a breaching party from
53 Id. at 135.
54 Id.
55 2 K.B. 714 (1920) for the former and 1 K.B. 681 [1915] for the latter.
56 US: Brian A. BLUM, Contracts, Aspen Law and Business, 2nd ed. (2001), 443. England:
TREITEL, supra note 42, 415. For common law in general see O’CONNOR, supra note 1. Québec:
BAUDOUIN / JODIN, supra note 10, 945, C.Civ. Art. 1693.
57 TREITEL, supra note 42, 415, O’CONNOR, supra note 1, Québec case Entreprises Rioux &
Nadeau Inc. v. Société de Récupération, supra note 42.
58 154 F. Supp. 2nd 969 (S.D. Tex. 2000).
59 Supra note 42 and accompanying text.
60 England: TREITEL, supra note 42, 415. US: Demrie L. WILKINSON, “In the Wake of a
Hurricane. The Lessons of a Force Majeure Clause – Oh When the Saints …“,
governing these civil law and common law concepts, the need for contractual
force majeure clauses is evident.
In common law contracts, most force majeure clauses contain a list of
events and a general catchall provision.61 At present, there is no uniform set
of events that constitutes force majeure.62 However, common events of force
majeure include “acts of God”, which cover floods, fire, earthquakes,
tornadoes, hurricanes, severe winds and other acts not attributable to man in
general, and acts of government, which include war, both civil and overseas,
insurrection, and acts preventing one side or both sides from performing
under their contract, such as embargoes.63 Civil law contracts are, in
principle, more succinct since the tendency is not to clarify or embellish
established concepts such as force majeure.64
Language often included in force majeure clauses is that these cannot be
invoked when the events they describe are “reasonably within the control of
either party” 65 or, inversely, they can be invoked when the events they
describe are “beyond the control of the party affected…”.66 These phrases set
a due diligence standard of care that mandates taking objectively reasonable
steps to prevent the force majeure event.67 This reminds us of the irresistibility
element of the civil law force majeure concept which is assessed in a similar
way by civil law courts. Contrary to the civil law force majeure concept,
68 US: DECLERQ, supra note 44, 241-243. England: TREITEL, supra note 42, 266. Québec:
Canada Starch Co. v. Gill & Dufus (Canada) Ltd., supra note 64. For the civil law force majeure
concept and impracticability see supra under II.
69 River Terminals Corp. v. U.S., 121 F. Supp. 98 (E.D.La 1954), where the force majeure
clause excused non performance in case of “loss or damage arising from inherent defect, quality
or vice of the cargo”; Allen N. Spooner & Son, Inc. v. Connecticut Fire Ins. Co., 314 F.2d 753 (2nd
Cir. 1963) on marine insurance policies. On inherent defect and civil law see supra under II.
70 US: DECLERQ, supra note 44, 236. Québec: Canada Starch Co. v. Gill & Dufus (Canada)
Ltd., supra note 64.
71 US: DECLERQ, supra note 44, 236. Québec: Hydro-Québec v. Churchill Falls (Labrador)
Corp.[1985] A.Q. no 43 (QCCA) Quicklaw.
72 See supra under II.
73 DECLERQ, supra note 44, 237, 248 (1995). In the US case Phibro Energy, Inc. v. Empresa
de Polimeros de Sines Sarl, 720 F. Supp. 312 (S.D.N.Y. (1989)), the force majeure clause did not
provide whether or not the events therein contained should be unforeseeable. The court
researched parties intent and found that parties agreed that force majeure clause events needed to
be unforeseeable.
74 UK: TREITEL, supra note 42, 436s. France: Cass. comm. (22 Mar. 1994), No. 92-10452,
Legifrance.
75 US: DECLERQ, supra note 44, 239. UK: TREITEL, supra note 42, 436s. Québec: Hydro-
Québec v. Churchill Falls (Labrador) Corp., supra note 71.
76 DECLERQ, supra note 44, 248.
84 Such as the ICC model force majeure clause 1985. See ICC Publication No. 650, supra
note 82.
85 Id.
86 Id.
87 Id.
88 Id.
For the rest, the ICC model clause provides that the party invoking the
force majeure clause will be excused of performing under the contract
provided that it notified the other party promptly of the force majeure event.89
Where the force majeure impediment has a temporary effect, contractual
obligations will only be suspended during the time of the impediment and the
party invoking the clause has to notify the other party “as soon as the
impediment or listed event ceases to impede performance.” 90
The term “impediment” used in the ICC model clause does not mean
inconvenience, more costly performance or difficulty to perform.91 Due to the
fact that: (a) a force majeure clause generally does not recognise changes in
circumstances that result in mere hardship 92 and (b) the unwillingness of
courts and legislatures in many countries to assist parties in modifying their
contracts to fit fundamentally changed circumstances,93 the parties may
expand a clause to include events that make performance not impossible, but
unduly costly. Such a clause is referred to as a hardship clause.
The ICC has elaborated a model hardship clause 2003 which can be
incorporated by reference into a contract.94 This clause obligates parties to
negotiate “alternative contractual terms” and, therefore, resort to contract
renegotiation in the event that continued performance of the contract
becomes “excessively onerous” because of an event beyond the reasonable
control of the parties, which could not reasonably have been foreseen at the
time of the conclusion of the contract, and which could not reasonably have
been avoided or overcome.95 It also provides that if parties are unable to
negotiate alternative contractual terms, the party invoking the hardship clause
may terminate the contract.96
The parties may provide a list of circumstances that result in hardship in
order to avoid uncertainty.97 However, it is advised that caution should be
exercised in this regard since any such listing will be incomplete by necessity
89 Id.
90 Id.
91 DIMATTEO / DHOOGE, supra note 52, 137.
92 Id. and supra under II.
93 Joern RIMKE, “Force majeure and hardship: Application in international trade practice
with specific regard to the CISG and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial
Contracts”, <http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/biblio/rimke.html> (visited 24 Apr. 2007).
94 ICC Publication No. 650, supra note 82.
95 Id. for the exact wording. See also DIMATTEO / DHOOGE, supra note 52, 137.
96 Id.
97 ICC Publication No. 650, supra note 82.
98 Id.
99 Id.
100 Id. Hardship clauses will not be examined in detail in the present paper.
101 RIMKE, supra note 93.
102 About UNIDROIT <http://www.UNIDROIT.org/english/presentation/main.htm> (visited
27 Apr. 2007).
103 ICC Publication No. 650, supra note 82.
104 M. Joachim BONELL, An International Restatement of Contract Law, Transnational
Publishers, 3rd ed. (2005); RIMKE, supra note 93.
105 DIMATTEO / DHOOGE, supra note 52, 235-236.
106 Id. at 236.
107 Specifically on this point, cf. Eckart BRÖDERMANN, “The Growing Importance of the
UNIDROIT Principles in Europe – A Review in Light of Market Needs, the Role of Law and the 2005
Rome I Proposal”, Unif. L. Rev. / Rev. dr. unif. (2006), 749. Generally, RIMKE, supra note 93.
108 DIMATTEO / DHOOGE, supra note 52, 236.
109 Joern Rimke, RIMKE, supra note 93.
110 Governments and International Organizations with Claims Arising out of Iraqi Invasion
of Kuwait, Recommendation S/AC.26, United Nations Compensation Commission, Panel of
Commissioners (1997) <www.unilex.info>.
111 On the ICC model clause 2003 provisions, see supra under V.
112 Id..
113 Id.
114 Centro de Arbitraje de México (2006), <www.unilex.info>.
It is interesting to note that the Arbitral Tribunal reasoned that if “El Niño”
had been unforeseeable, then the complete destruction of the defendant’s
installations it occasioned would have qualified this event as a “force
majeure” event since it would have been impossible for the defendant to
perform under the contract. This observation clearly demonstrates that the
expression “could not reasonably have avoided or overcome the effects” in
Article 7.1.7(1) is a cumulative and not an alternative condition of the force
majeure concept under this article. As a result, the conjunction “or” used
before this expression in the first paragraph of the UNIDROIT Principles” Article
7.1.7 should be read as “and”, since the latter clearly indicates that all three
abovementioned elements [(a)(b)(c)] of the force majeure concept should be
read together as in the case of the ICC model force majeure clause 2003.115
VI. – CONCLUSION
JJJ
international et la Clause modèle ICC de force majeure 2003, sont examinés comme
bases en vue de la rédaction de telles clauses dans les contrats internationaux.
Sont traitées successivement : la force majeure en droit civil, la force majeure en
common law, les clauses de force majeure, la force majeure et les contrats
internationaux.
JJJ