WHAT IS MUSIC THERAPY?

Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which the therapist uses music and all of
its facets-physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual-to help clients to
improve or maintain their health. In some instances, the client's needs are addressed
directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that
develop between the client and therapist.

WITH WHOM IS MUSIC THERAPY USED?

Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions,
including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical handicaps, sensory
impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse, communication disorders,
interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to: improve learning, build self-
esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-
related activities.

WHERE DO MUSIC THERAPISTS WORK?

Music therapists work in general hospitals, psychiatric facilities, schools, prisons,

community centers, training institutes, private practices, and universities.

WHAT DO THE CLIENTS DO IN MUSIC THERAPY?

What makes music therapy different from every other form of therapy is its reliance
on music. Thus, every session involves the client in a musical experience of some
kind. The main ones are improvising, re-creating, composing, and listening to music.

 In those sessions which involve improvising, the client makes up his or her own
music extemporaneously, singing or playing whatever arises in the moment.
The client may improvise freely, responding spontaneously to the sounds as
they emerge, or the client may improvise according to the specific musical
directions given by the therapist. Often the client is asked to improvise sound
portraits of feelings, events, persons, or situations that are being explored in
therapy. The client may improvise with the therapist, with other clients, or
alone, depending on the therapeutic objective.
  In those sessions which involve re-creating music, the client sings or plays
precomposed music. This kind of music experience may include: learning how
to produce vocal or instrumental sounds, imitating musical phrases, learning to
sing by rote, using musical notation, participating in sing-alongs, practicing,
taking music lessons, performing a piece from memory, working out the
musical interpretation of a composition, participating in a musical show or
drama, and so forth.
 In those sessions which involve composing, the therapist helps the client to
write songs, lyrics, or instrumental pieces, or to create any kind of musical
product, such as music videos or audiotape programs. Usually the therapist
simplifies the process by engaging the client in easier aspects of the task (e.g.,
generating a melody, or writing the lyrics of a song), and by taking
responsibility for more technical aspects (e.g., harmonization, notation).
 In those sessions which involve listening, the client takes in and reacts to live
or recorded music. The listening experience may focus on physical, emotional,
intellectual, aesthetic, or spiritual aspects of the music, and the client may
respond through activities such as: relaxation or meditation, structured or free
movement, perceptual tasks, free-association, story-telling, imaging,
reminiscing, drawing, and so forth. The music used for such experiences may
be live or recorded improvisations, performances or compositions by the client
or therapist, or commercial recordings of music literature in various styles (e.g.,
classical, popular, rock, jazz, country, spiritual, new age).
 In addition to these musical types of experiences, music therapists often engage
clients in verbal discussions. Clients may be encouraged to talk about the
music, their reactions to it, or any thoughts, images, or feelings that were
evoked during the experience. Clients may also be encouraged to express
themselves through the other arts, such as drawing, painting, dance, drama or
poetry. Music therapy sessions for children often include various games or play
activities which involve music.

DO THE CLIENTS HAVE TO BE MUSICIANS?

No, clients do not have to be musicians to participate in or benefit from music

therapy. In fact, because most clients have not had previous musical training, music
therapy sessions are always designed to take advantage of the innate tendencies of all
human beings to make and appreciate music at their own developmental levels.

 Music therapists believe that all individuals, regardless of age or musical

background, have a basic capacity for musical expression and appreciation.
 This basic capacity does not require the special talents or extensive training that
highly accomplished musicians have, but rather stems from general learnings
and achievements that occur during the normal process of human development.
Put another way, the process of human development prepares everyone to be a
music-maker and music-lover–at a basic, but not necessarily professional, level.
This basic or normal capacity for music includes the potential for learning to:
sing, play simple instruments, move to music, react to the elements of music,
perceive relationships between sounds, remember music, image to music, and
ascribe meaning to musical experience.
 Of course, in clinical situations, music therapists often encounter clients who
have physical or mental impairments that interfere with these basic musical
potentials. In fact, much can be learned about the nature of the client's
impairment by assessing which of the basic musical potentials are missing or
inadequately developed. For example, a client with a communication disorder
may be unable to: sing, articulate lyrics, reproduce rhythms or melodies, order
sound sequences, or participate in a musical ensemble–depending upon the
specific nature of the disorder.
 Care is always taken to adapt music therapy experiences to the capabilities of
the client and to avoid anything that might cause harm or unnecessary pain of
any kind. Music therapists also screen clients who may have adverse
psychological or psychophysiological reactions to musical participation.
Another important concern is the client's preferences with regard to types of
musical activities, style of music, and medium of expression.

WHAT DETERMINES HOW THE MUSIC WILL BE USED?

Music therapy sessions are designed with several factors in mind. First and foremost,
the therapist has to select the types of music experience to be used according to the
goals of therapy and the needs of the client. Each of the music experiences described
above requires something different from the client, and has a potentially different
effect. For example, improvising and composing are both creative, but one is done
extemporaneously and the other is not. Moreover, the improviser produces his/her
own music, while the composer relies upon a performer. Continuing in this
comparison, creating one's own music is quite different from re-creating or
performing music already composed by someone else. A performer has to faithfully
convey the musical ideas of another person, while an improviser or composer deals
only with his or her own ideas. Finally, listening is quite different from the other types
of music experience because it involves taking in and receiving the music, without
being actively involved in its creation or production. The listener is active in a
different way from the improviser, composer, and performer.

 The therapeutic implications of these differences are myriad. For example,

improvisation is most appropriate for clients who need to develop spontaneity,
creativity, freedom of expression, communication, and interpersonal skills–as
these are the basic requirements of improvising. Many different clients
manifest these needs, from emotionally disturbed children to acting out
adolescents, and from developmentally delayed children to adults with
psychiatric disorders. Improvising enables these clients to communicate and
share feelings with others, while also helping them to organize their thoughts
and ideas in a meaningful way.
 Re-creative experiences are most appropriate for clients who need to: develop
sensorimotor skills, learn adaptive behaviors, maintain reality orientation,
master different role behaviors, identify with the feelings and ideas of others, or
work cooperatively towards common goals–as these are basic requirements of
singing or playing pre-composed music. For example, individual singing
lessons can help individuals who have speech impairments to help improve
their articulation or fluency. In contrast, group singing can build reality
orientation in elderly individuals, or help mentally retarded people develop
adaptive behavior, or build cohesiveness in a dysfunctional family or group.
 Playing instruments can help physically disabled clients to develop gross and
fine motor coordination. When combined with reading notation, playing
instruments can help learning disabled children to develop auditory-motor or
visual-motor integration. With emotionally disturbed children, instrumental
ensembles can be used to overcome behavior problems and to control
impulsivity. Instruments can also help mentally retarded individuals to better
understand the world of objects.
 Activities involving composing music are used with clients who need to learn
how to make decisions and commitments, and to find ways of working
economically and within certain limitations. Often the idea expressed in a
composition is a thought or feeling which is important to the person's life.
Perhaps the best example is song-writing. With hospitalized children, writing
songs can be a means of expressing and understanding their fears, and then
leaving them there on the paper! Song-writing can also provide adults dying of
cancer with a container for expressing their feelings–about life and death–while
also serving as a parting gift to loved ones. Clients with drug or alcohol
addictions often find group song-writing to be an excellent vehicle for
examining irrational beliefs and fears, and for documenting their intention to
change.
  Music listening experiences are used with clients who need to be activated or
soothed physically, emotionally, intellectually or spiritually–as these are the
kinds of responses that music listening elicits. For example, hospitalized
patients find music listening helpful in relaxing, reducing stress, managing
pain, and regulating body functions such as heart rate, breathing. It can also be
arousing, energizing, and reassuring. With psychiatric patients, listening to
songs invariably accesses ideas and thoughts that need to be examined and
discussed, while also bringing to the surface feelings that need to be expressed
and shared. With individuals in psychotherapy, music listening can be used to
stimulate images, fantasies, associations, and memories, all of which contribute
immeasurably to the process. And with elderly individuals, listening to music
can facilitate structured reminiscence or a review of their lives.
 With learning disabled and mentally retarded children, perceptual listening
tasks can be used to build auditory processing skills. Listening to songs and
following the lyrics can also help these children to learn and memorize colors,
numbers, vocabulary, behavior sequences and a host of other academic
subjects. Finally, with all client populations music listening is of inimitable
value in bringing about spiritual highs or peak experiences. Such experiences
instill hope and courage, while reaffirming the beauty of life.
 The subtle and wonderful thing about music therapy is that, in actuality, every
musical experience can be adapted to meet a broad spectrum of client needs.
For example consider how: improvising can be adapted to explore experiences
of structure as well as freedom: re-creating music can be adapted to encourage
free self-expression as well as compliance with the score; composing can be
adapted to require spontaneity as well as planned decision-making; and
listening can be adapted to be active as well as passive, or physical as well as
intellectual.

WHAT DO MUSIC THERAPISTS ACTUALLY DO?

Working as a music therapist essentially involves preparing, conducting, evaluating

and documenting sessions with clients. Working with a client usually begins before
the first session. The first step is to collect the necessary background information by
reviewing any written records or referrals that may be available. Then in the first
session, the music therapist usually conducts an assessment to determine the client's
strengths and therapeutic needs. In a music therapy assessment, information on how
the client makes, responds to, and relates to music is collected and analyzed, and then
related to other aspects of the client's life. Based on the assessment findings, the music
therapist formulates goals, sometimes with input from the client, the client's family,
other professionals, or an interdisciplinary team of clinicians. Care is taken that the
goals are realistic enough to be accomplished within the time frame set for therapy.
Once goals have been set, the music therapist makes a treatment plan outlining
possible strategies and music experiences that might be helpful in meeting the client's
needs. In institutional settings, a meeting is usually held to coordinate treatment
efforts and to formulate a program plan. As a result, the client is placed in individual,
family, or group sessions, and the treatment phase of music therapy begins. Then after
working with the client for a sufficient time, the music therapist conducts periodic
evaluations to determine whether the methods of treatment are effective and whether
the client is making any progress in reaching the prescribed goals, When necessary,
adjustments are made in the goals or methods. Finally, when the time comes for
ending therapy, the music therapist prepares the client for leaving and helps to bring
some kind of closure to the process.

In addition to these clinical procedures, music therapists may have other

responsibilities, depending upon the work setting, the client populations, and the
therapist's job requirements. In hospital settings, music therapists may develop
listening programs to meet various patient needs, produce shows or various kinds of
musical events involving patients, arrange for patients to attend concerts in the
community, or direct various kinds of recreational or therapeutic activities. In schools,
music therapists may consult with classroom teachers or develop group music
programs for special students. In the community, music therapists may consult with
psychologists or psychiatrists, or provide musical instruction to special children.
Music therapists working in institutions also have other duties such as ordering
necessary equipment and supplies, and maintaining them. As will be discussed later,
music therapists may also have positions which require administration, supervision,
consultation, or teaching.

WHAT QUALITIES SHOULD A MUSIC THERAPIST HAVE?

Individuals who go into music therapy are typically musicians who have a sincere
desire to use their love and talents for music to help others. Often there is an equal
interest in music and psychology or medicine.

 Musicianship is an essential quality. Being a music therapist requires an in-

depth understanding of the power of music, and the ability to reach others
through singing and playing instruments. Music therapy students can major in
any performance medium, however most training programs place additional
emphasis on piano, guitar and voice, as these media are used most frequently in
 the clinical setting. Music therapists also have to have a breadth of musical
knowledge and ability. They are frequently called upon to know about or
perform classical music as well as country, rock, jazz and popular styles.
 The successful music therapist is in good physical and mental health and has
the motivation, stamina, and maturity necessary for working with exceptional
individuals in a therapeutic way. It goes without saying that a therapist has to
be a sensitive and caring person who can accept differences in others. Just as
important, a therapist should also have the self-awareness and emotional
stability needed to enter a helping relationship with individuals who have
problems. The best therapists are those who have healed themselves! This is
why therapy is often recommended as an essential experience for therapists,
both during training and at various times during their clinical career. Music
therapists should receive music therapy themselves!

HOW DO I BECOME A MUSIC THERAPIST?

To become a music therapist, one has to complete an undergraduate degree in music

therapy (or it equivalence) at an accredited college or university, do an approved
internship of approximately 1040 supervised clinical hours, and then obtain
certification by passing a national examination given by the Certification Board for
Music Therapist (CBMT).

 Approximately 70 colleges and universities in the USA offer bachelor's degrees

and equivalency programs in music therapy. The bachelor's degree usually
requires about 130 semester hours or credits plus the internship. This usually
takes 4 1/2 years to complete. The curriculum is divided into three main
subjects: 1) Music (Theory, History, Performance, Composition, Conducting,
Ensembles, and Functional Piano, Guitar and Voice); 2) Music Therapy
(Foundations, Methods and Materials, Practicum, Research, etc.); and 3)
General Studies (English, Math, Languages, Psychology, Physical Sciences,
Humanities, Arts, etc.). In the internship, the student works in a clinical agency
under the direct supervision of music therapists, and learns to assume the full
range of responsibilities of a professional.
 Equivalency programs are for students who already have a bachelor's degree in
an area other than music therapy. These programs usually require the student to
take all core music therapy courses at the undergraduate level and to make up
any deficiencies the student may have in supportive areas such as anatomy,
psychology, music, etc. Essentially, equivalency students have to complete all
courses required in the undergraduate music therapy degree program which
 they have not already taken. Those who already have a degree in music
performance or music education can usually complete an equivalency program
and the internship in about two years; students who do not have a music degree
may take significantly longer. Many students work on a master's degree while
completing equivalency requirements.
 Several colleges and universities offer a master's degree in music therapy. It
usually requires 30 semester hours or credits beyond the undergraduate or
equivalency program. The curriculum consists of advanced courses in music
therapy, music, and supportive areas. A thesis or final project and a
comprehensive examination are also required. Typically, a master's degree
takes two years to complete.
 A few universities offer doctoral degrees in music therapy. Typically, these are
housed in the music or music education department.

HOW DO I SELECT A COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY?

Many factors enter into deciding where to study music therapy. Certainly, the school's
reputation, facilities, geographical location, and faculty are important to consider,
along with financial matters and many other personal circumstances and preferences.
In addition, there are some important professional matters that warrant consideration.

 First, students should make sure that the college or university is approved by
the American Music Therapy Association, otherwise they may not be eligible
to apply for certification in the field.
 Second, students should select the college or university which will best meet
their particular interests and needs. It is essential to talk to the faculty, to
students currently enrolled, and when possible, to graduates of the program.
Inquire about the requirements and the quality of training. Also find out about
how the internship experience is scheduled, structured and supervised, as there
are many different ways of designing this culminating part of the training.

HOW SHOULD I PREPARE FOR ADMISSION TO A PROGRAM?

Three things will help the most: 1) Practice for the audition on your major instrument.
2) Study the books on how to take the SAT or GRE examinations so that you get your
best score. 3) Start taking piano or guitar lessons if you do not know how to play
either.
 WHAT ARE CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS?

Certification in music therapy is granted by the Certification Board for Music

Therapists: upon completion of a degree or equivalency program in music therapy at a
college or university approved by the American Music Therapy Association, and upon
satisfactory completion of a nationally standardized examination on music therapy.
Once certified, every music therapist is also required to maintain and update their
knowledge and skills through continuing education.

WHAT ARE THE CAREER POSSIBILITIES?

Music therapists have many career options. They may be employed as a practitioner
or clinician, a consultant, an administrator, a supervisor, or a college professor. Each
option involves different places of employment and different qualification
requirements.

 Clinicians spend the majority of their time doing therapy with clients. They
may work in private or governmental agencies, including hospitals, institutions,
schools, clinics, residential treatment centers, group homes, day-care centers,
nursing homes, halfway houses, partial hospitalization programs, community
centers, institutes, etc. Many states have established job titles for music
therapists and career ladders for advancement, while other states use a variety
of other positions and titles to employ music therapists. Local school districts
may also hire music therapists, some under the title of therapist and others
under the title of teacher.
 Not all clinicians are employed full-time by one agency. Many music therapists
have begun to establish private practices of their own, or develop positions as
clinical consultants with several agencies. Music therapists who develop their
own practices usually have clients who know about music therapy or who are
referred by other health professionals. Music therapists who serve as
consultants work in an agency part-time, either providing diagnostic or
treatment services to certain clients or developing programs which can be
implemented by other staff members at the agency.
 To be a clinician or consultant in an agency or private practice, the individual
must be certified at the bachelor's level. When the job market is poor, there is a
tendency for employers to also ask for the master's degree as a minimum
qualification. A state license is not currently required to practice music therapy,
however many states require certified music therapists to take an examination
 before becoming eligible for employment in any state-operated institution.
School districts may also require an applicant to be certified as a teacher as well
as a music therapist.
 An administrator or supervisor directs clinical staff in a public or private
agency. When the agency has a large music therapy program, the individual
may be in charge of only music therapy; however, in many instances the music
therapy program is part of a larger department which also includes other arts
therapists, activity therapists, or recreation therapists. Administrators and
supervisors have various responsibilities, including ordering and maintaining
equipment, developing and managing budgets, hiring and dismissing staff,
supervising and evaluating staff, etc. In most larger governmental agencies, at
least two years work experience and a master's degree are required to become
an administrator or supervisor. In smaller private institutions however, there
may be no additional requirements.
 Another career option is to become a college professor who trains others to
become music therapists. In addition to teaching classes, professors supervise
students in the clinic, evaluate students for admission and retention, attend
meetings, and perform a variety of academic and administrative
responsibilities. College professors are also expected to do research and to
write articles and books. Some professors also continue to work part-time doing
clinical work. To be a college professor, an individual should have at least a
master's degree and three years of clinical experience. To be promoted in a
college or university, music therapists are usually required to earn a doctorate.

HOW IS THE JOB MARKET?

Many institutions and agencies maintain permanent full-time positions for music
therapists. These positions are usually advertised when they become vacant. In
addition, because music therapy is a relatively new profession, and because music
therapists work with diverse populations, there are always opportunities to create new
job openings. Often, music therapists create their own positions by introducing
themselves to administrators, demonstrating to the clinical staff what music therapy
can do, and then consulting with the agency until a program can be initiated. Although
this takes time and energy, such promotional efforts are a necessary and important
aspect of being a music therapist. Because music therapy has many young
professionals working their way up the career ladder, and because the career ladder
often involves extending one's expertise into related fields, jobs in music therapy tend
to turn over frequently.
As in other health and education professions, employment opportunities in music
therapy are influenced by the economy and the amount of governmental funding given
to health care and education programs. Though employment opportunities vary from
place to place, and from time to time, music therapists who are committed and
effective clinicians tend to be successful in the job market.

HOW MUCH DO MUSIC THERAPISTS EARN?

Music therapy salaries depend upon the individual's educational and work experience,
the employer institution, and the specific job position. Average yearly salaries for
clinicians range from $46,000 to $53,000 depending upon the setting. Salary scales in
governmental agencies and schools tend to be higher than those in the private sector.
Administrators and supervisors can expect to earn more than clinicians, depending
upon background and experience and the size of the program or staff under their
direction. College professors can also expect to earn a higher salary, especially those
who have doctorates.

WHAT ORGANIZATIONS REPRESENT MUSIC THERAPY?

There are two organizations in the USA representing the profession and professionals
of music therapy:

The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA)

8455 Colesville Rd, .Suite 930
Silver Spring MD 20910
Tel: 301-589-3300
Fax: 301-589-5175

The Certification Board for Music Therapist (CBMT)

506 East Lancaster Avenue, Suite 102
Downingtown, PA 19335
Tel: 800-765-CBMT (2268) or 610-269-8900
Fax: 610-269-9232

AMTA membership numbers approximately 4,000 professionals and students.

Working in tandem, these associations serve the profession and healthy community at-
large by (1) establishing standards for professional competence, ethical conduct,
clinical services, and education and training: (2) implementing these standards
through individual certification and institutional approval functions; (3) promoting
and disseminating research through publications; (4) familiarizing the health,
education, and legislative communities with the applications of music therapy; and (5)
developing employment opportunities.

DOES MUSIC THERAPY EXIST IN OTHER COUNTRIES?

Yes, one can find music therapists and music therapy organizations in many other
countries. In fact, there is a world federation of music therapy associations and world
congresses are held every three years. To find out more, write to the AMTA for an
international directory.

HOW DO I LEARN MORE ABOUT MUSIC THERAPY?

First, go to the library and read! There are hundreds of books and articles on music
therapy and its myriad applications, and most public and university libraries have a
basic collection on the topic. There are also three professional journals in the USA.
Their titles are: the Journal of Music Therapy, Music Therapy Perspectives,
and Music Therapy: Journal of the American Association for Music Therapy,. Once
you have an overview of the field, contact the AMTA, and find out if there are any
agencies near you that employ music therapists, and ask for a list of colleges and
universities that offer music therapy programs. If possible, try to observe a music
therapist at work, or visit a music therapy class at a nearby college, or attend one of
the association conferences. These experiences will deepen your understanding of the
field significantly.

WHAT BOOKS SHOULD I READ FIRST?

This depends upon what your particular interests are. For overviews of different
aspects of the field, any of the one listed on the next page would be helpful, but keep
in mind that there are many, many more! To obtain books and materials on music
therapy, contact:

Barcelona Publishers
4 White Brook Road - Lower Village
Gilsum NH 03448
Tel 800-345-6665
e-mail: pbs@top.monad.net

American Music Therapy Association (See above)

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON MUSIC THERAPY

Aigen, K. (1998). Paths of Development in Nordoff-Robbins Music Therapy. Gilsum

NH: Barcelona Publishers.

Aldridge, D. (1996). Music Therapy Research and Practice in Medicine. London:

Jessica Kingsley.

Bonny, H. & Savary, L. (1973). Music and Your Mind. New York: Harper-Row.

Borczon, R. (1997). Music Therapy: Group Vignettes. Gilsum NH: Barcelona

Publishers.

Boxill, E. (1985). Music Therapy for the Developmentally Disabled. Rockville MD:
Aspen Systems.

Boxill, E. (1997). The Miracle of Music Therapy. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.

Bruscia, K. (1987). Improvisational Models of Music Therapy. Springfield, IL:

Charles C. Thomas.

Bruscia, K. (1991). Case Studies in Music Therapy. Gilsum NH: Barcelona

Publishers.

Bruscia, K. (1998). Defining Music Therapy (Second Edition). Gilsum NH: Barcelona
Publishers.

Bruscia, K. (1998). The Dynamics of Music Psychotherapy. Gilsum NH: Barcelona

Publishers.

Bunt, L. (1994). Music Therapy: An Art Beyond Words. New York: Routledge.

Davis, W., Gfeller, K., & Thaut, M. An Introduction to Music Therapy: Theory and
Practice. Dubuque IA: William C. Brown.
Froehlich, M. (Ed.). (1996). Music Therapy with Hospitalized Children. Cherry Hill
NJ: Jeffrey Books.

Furman, C. (Ed.). (1996). Effectiveness of Music Therapy Procedures: Documentation

of Research and Clinical Practice. Silver Spring MD: AMTA.

Gaston, E. (1968). Music in Therapy. New York: MacMillan.

Hanser, S. (1987). Music Therapist's Handbook. St. Louis: Warren H. Green.

Heal, M., & Wigram, T. (1993). Music Therapy in Health and Education. London:
Jessica Kingsley.

Hibben, J. (1999). Inside Music Therapy: Client Experiences. Gilsum NH: Barcelona
Publishers.

Katsh, S., & Merle-Fishman, C. (1998). The Music Within You. Gilsum NH:
Barcelona Publishers.

Lee, C. (1996). Music at the Edge. New York: Routledge.

Levin, H., & Levin, G. (1998). Learning Through Music. Gilsum NH: Barcelona
Publishers.

Maranto, C. Dileo (1991). Applications of Music in Medicine. Silver Spring, MD:

AMTA.

Maranto, C. Dileo (1993). Music Therapy: International Perspectives. Pipersville,

PA: Jeffrey Books.

Munro, S. (1984). Music Therapy in Palliative/Hospice Care. St. Louis: MMB Music.

Nordoff, P. & Robbins, C. (1977). Creative Music Therapy. New York: John Day.

Plach, T. (1980). The Creative Use of Music in Group Therapy. Springfield IL:
Charles C Thomas.

Prickett, C., & Standley, J. (Eds.) (1995). Research in Music Therapy: A Tradition of
Excellence. Silver Spring MD: AMTA.

Priestley, M. (1994). Essays on Analytical Music Therapy. Gilsum NH: Barcelona

Publishers.

Robbins, C., & Robbins, C. (1980). Music for the Hearing Impaired and Other
Special Groups. St. Louis MO: MMB Music

Ruud, E. (1998). Music Therapy: Improvisation, Communication and Culture: Gilsum

NH: Barcelona Pub.

Unkefer, R. (1990). Music Therapy in the Treatment of Adults with Mental

Disorders. New York: Schirmer.

Wheeler, B. (Ed.). (1995). Music Therapy Research: Quantitative and Qualitative

Perspectives. Gilsum NH: Barcelona Publishers.

Wigram, T., Saperston, B., & West, R. (Eds.) (1995). The Art and Science of Music
Therapy: A Handbook. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers.

Wilson, B. (1996). Models of Music Therapy Interventions in School Settings. Silver

Spring MD: AMTA.