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nsumer Behavior Models in TourismAnalysis Study Muhannad M.A Abdallat,
Ph.D.#Assistant ProfessorHesham El � Sayed El - Emam, Ph.D.#Assistant Professor
Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Tourism and Archeology #King Saud
UniversityABSTRACTThe theories of consumer decision-making process assume that the
consumer � s purchase decision process consists of steps through which the buyer
passes in purchasing a product or service. However, this might not be the case.
Not every consumer passed through all these stages when making a decision to
purchase and in fact, some of the stages can be skipped depending on the type of
purchases. The reasons for the study of consumer � s helps firms and organizations
improve their marketing strategies by understanding issues such as:The psychology
of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different alternatives
(e.g., brands, products); The psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his
or her environment (e.g., culture, family, signs, media); The behavior of consumers
while shopping or making other marketing decisions; Limitations in consumer
knowledge or information processing abilities influence decisions and marketing
outcome; How consumers � motivation and decision strategies differ between
products, that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for
the consumer; and How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and
marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer. Consumer BehaviorThe
study of consumer behavior focuses on how individuals make decisions to spend their
available resources (time, money, effort) on consumption-related items (Schiffman
and Kanuk, 1997). The field of consumer behavior covers a lot of ground.
According to Solomon (1996), consumer behavior is a study of the processes involved
when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services,
ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and desires. The official definition of
consumer behavior given by Belch (1998) is � the process and activities people
engage in when searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating, and
disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires � .
Behavior occurs either for the individual, or in the context of a group, or an
organization. Consumer behavior involves the use and disposal of products as well
as the study of how they are purchased. Product use is often of great interest to
the marketer, because this may influence how a product is best positioned or how we
can encourage increased consumption. Andreason (1965) proposed one of the earliest
models of consumer behavior. This model is shown in Figure 2.1.The model recognizes
the importance of information in the consumer decision-making process. It also
emphasizes the importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider
attitudes in relation to repeat purchase behavior.
#
###################################################################################
####Information
A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for a new product, was
proposed by Nicosia (1976). This model is shown in Figure 2.2. The model
concentrates on the firm's attempts to communicate with the consumer, and the
consumers' predisposition to act in a certain way. These two features are referred
to as Field One. The second stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation
process, which is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as Field Two.
The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the post-purchase
feedback process is referred to as Field Four. This model was criticized by
commentators because it was not empirically tested (Zaltman, Pinson and Angelman,
1973), and because of the fact that many of the variables were not defined (Lunn,
1974).Perhaps, the most frequently quoted of all consumer behavior models is the
Howard-Sheth model of buyer behavior, which was developed in 1969. This model is
shown in Figure 2.3. The model is important because it highlights the importance
of inputs to the consumer buying process and suggests ways in which the consumer
orders these inputs before making a final decision. The Howard-Sheth model is not
perfect as it does not explain all buyer behavior. It is however, a comprehensive
theory of buyer behavior that has been developed as a result of empirical research
(Horton, 1984).Schiffman and Kanuk (1997) mentioned that many early theories
concerning consumer behavior were based on economic theory, on the notion that
individuals act rationally to maximize their benefits (satisfactions) in the
purchase of goods and services. A consumer is generally thought of as a person who
identifies a need or desire, makes a purchase, and then disposes of the product
during the three stages in the consumption process in Figure2.2 (Solomon, 1996)
2.2.1 NICOSIA MODELThis model focuses on the relationship between the firm and its
potential consumers. The firm communicates with consumers through its marketing
messages (advertising), and the consumers react to these messages by purchasing
response. Looking to the model we will find that the firm and the consumer are
connected with each other, the firm tries to influence the consumer and the
consumer is influencing the firm by his decision. Field 1###
####
Attitude ###
Field 2: Search And
evaluation ## Of
mean/end(s) Experience
relation(s) (Preaction field)
#
Motivation# Field 4:
Feedback##
Field 3: Act of#
Purchase
Purchasing ## BehaviorFigure2#2. Nicosia Model
of Consumer Decision Processe Source: Nicosia, (1976).The Nicosia model is divided
into four major fields:Field 1: The consumer attitude based on the firms � messages.
The first field is divided into two subfields. The first subfield deals with the
firm � s marketing environment and communication efforts that affect consumer
attitudes, the competitive environment, and characteristics of target market.
Subfield two specifies the consumer characteristics e.g., experience, personality,
and how he perceives the promotional idea toward the product in this stage the
consumer forms his attitude toward the firm � s product based on his interpretation
of the message. Field 2: search and evaluation The consumer will start to search
for other firm � s brand and evaluate the firm � s brand in comparison with alternate
brands. In this case the firm motivates the consumer to purchase its brands.Field
3: The act of the purchaseThe result of motivation will arise by convincing the
consumer to purchase the firm products from a specific retailer.Field 4: Feed back
This model analyses the feedback of both the firm and the consumer after purchasing
the product. The firm will benefit from its sales data as a feedback, and the
consumer will use his experience with the product affects the individuals attitude
and predisposition � s concerning future messages from the firm.The Nicosia model
offers no detail explanation of the internal factors, which may affect the
personality of the consumer, and how the consumer develops his attitude toward the
product. For example, the consumer may find the firm � s message very interesting,
but virtually he cannot buy the firm � s brand because it contains something
prohibited according to his beliefs. Apparently it is very essential to include
such factors in the model, which give more interpretation about the attributes
affecting the decision process. 2.2.2 HOWARD-SHETH MODELThis model suggests
three levels of decision making:1. The first level describes the extensive problem
solving. At this level the consumer does not have any basic information or
knowledge about the brand and he does not have any preferences for any product. In
this situation, the consumer will seek information about all the different brands
in the market before purchasing. 2. The second level is limited problem solving.
This situation exists for consumers who have little knowledge about the market, or
partial knowledge about what they want to purchase. In order to arrive at a brand
preference some comparative brand information is sought. 3. The third level is a
habitual response behavior. In this level the consumer knows very well about the
different brands and he can differentiate between the different characteristics of
each product, and he already decides to purchase a particular product. According to
the Howard-Sheth model there are four major sets of variables; namely:Inputs.These
input variables consist of three distinct types of stimuli (information sources) in
the consumer � s environment. The marketer in the form of product or brand
information furnishes physical brand characteristics (significative stimuli) and
verbal or visual product characteristics (symbolic stimuli). The third type is
provided by the consumer � s social environment (family, reference group, and social
class). All three types of stimuli provide inputs concerning the product class or
specific brands to the specific consumer.Inputs Perceptual Constructs
Learning Constructs Outputs ## Stimuli display####################
##################Figure 2-3 A Simplified Description of the Theory of Buyer
BehaviorSource: Howard, and Sheth,Pp32 (1969) Perceptual and Learning Constructs,
The central part of the model deals with the psychological variables involved when
the consumer is contemplating a decision. Some of the variables are perceptual in
nature, and are concerned with how the consumer receives and understands the
information from the input stimuli and other parts of the model. For example,
stimulus ambiguity happened when the consumer does not understand the message from
the environment. Perceptual bias occurs if the consumer distorts the information
received so that it fits his or her established needs or experience. Learning
constructs category, consumers � goals, information about brands, criteria for
evaluation alternatives, preferences and buying intentions are all included. The
proposed interaction In between the different variables in the perceptual and
learning constructs and other sets give the model its distinctive advantage.Outputs
The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning variables and how the
consumers will response to these variables (attention, brand comprehension,
attitudes, and intention).Exogenous(External) variablesExogenous variables are not
directly part of the decision-making process. However, some relevant exogenous
variables include the importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits,
religion, and time pressure. The decision-making process, which Howard-Sheth Model
tries to explain, takes place at three Inputs stages: Significance, Symbolic and
Social stimuli. In both significative and symbolic stimuli, the model emphasizes on
material aspects such as price and quality. These stimuli are not applicable in
every society. While in social stimuli the model does not mention the basis of
decision-making in this stimulus, such as what influence the family decision? This
may differ from one society to another. Finally, no
direct relation was drawn on the role of religion in influencing the consumer � s
decision-making processes. Religion was considered as external factor with no real
influence on consumer, which give the model obvious weakness in anticipation the
consumer decision. 2.2.3 ENGEL-KOLLAT-BLACKWELL MODELThis model was created to
describe the increasing, fast-growing body of knowledge concerning consumer
behavior. This model, like in other models, has gone through many revisions to
improve its descriptive ability of the basic relationships between components and
sub-components, this model consists also of four stages;First stage: decision-
process stagesThe central focus of the model is on five basic decision-process
stages: Problem recognition, search for alternatives, alternate evaluation (during
which beliefs may lead to the formation of attitudes, which in turn may result in a
purchase intention) purchase, and outcomes. But it is not necessary for every
consumer to go through all these stages; it depends on whether it is an extended or
a routine problem-solving behavior.#Figure 2-4.The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell Model of
Consumer Behavior.Source: Engel , Blackwell, and
Miniard,(1995) page No 95Second stage: Information inputAt this stage the consumer
gets information from marketing and non-marketing sources, which also influence the
problem recognition stage of the decision-making process. If the consumer still
does not arrive to a specific decision, the search for external information will be
activated in order to arrive to a choice or in some cases if the consumer
experience dissonance because the selected alternative is less satisfactory than
expected. Third stage: information processingThis stage consists of the consumer � s
exposure, attention, perception, acceptance, and retention of incoming information.
The consumer must first be exposed to the message, allocate space for this
information, interpret the stimuli, and retain the message by transferring the
input to long-term memory.Fourth stage: variables influencing the decision process
This stage consists of individual and environmental influences that affect all five
stages of the decision process. Individual characteristics include motives, values,
lifestyle, and personality; the social influences are culture, reference groups,
and family. Situational influences, such as a consumer � s financial condition, also
influence the decision process.This model incorporates many items, which influence
consumer decision-making such as values, lifestyle, personality and culture. The
model did not show what factors shape these items, and why different types of
personality can produce different decision-making? How will we apply these values
to cope with different personalities? Religion can explain some behavioral
characteristics of the consumer, and this will lead to better understanding of the
model and will give more comprehensive view on decision-making.Bettman � s
Information Processing Model of Consumer ChoiceBettman (1979) in his model
describes the consumer as possessing a limited capacity for processing information.
He implicate that the consumers rarely analyze the complex alternatives in decision
making and apply very simple strategy.In this model there are seven major stages.
Stage No. 1: Processing capacityIn this step he assumes that the consumer has
limited capacity for processing information, consumers are not interested in
complex computations and extensive information processing. To deal with this
problem, consumers are likely to select choice strategies that make product
selection an easy process.Stage No. 2: Motivation Motivation is located in the
center of Bettman model, which influence both the direction and the intensity of
consumer choice for more information in deciding #Figure 2.5 the Bettman
Information-Processing Model of Consumer ChoiceSource: Bettman. (1979). Pp 402
Between the alternatives Motivation is provided with hierarchy of goals � mechanism
that provides a series of different sub-goals to simplify the choice selection.
This mechanism suggests that the consumers own experience in a specific area of
market and he doesn � t need to go through the same hierarchy every time to arrive at
a decision, which make this mechanism serves as an organizer for consumer efforts
in making a choice. No concern was given on religious motives, and how religion may
motivate the consumer in his decision. Most of the general theories of motivation
such as Maslow � s hierarchy of needs (1970) emphasizes self-achievement, the need
for power, and the need for affiliation. Stage No. 3: Attention and perceptual
encoding.The component of this step is quite related to the consumer's goal
hierarchy. There are two types of attention; the first type is voluntary attention,
which is a conscious allocation of processing capacity to current goals. The second
is involuntary attention, which is automatic response to disruptive events (e.g.,
newly acquired complex information). Both different types of attention influence
how individuals proceed in reaching goals and making choices. The perceptual
encoding accounts for the different steps that the consumer needs to perceive the
stimuli and whether he needs more information.Stage No. 4: Information acquisition
and evaluationIf the consumer feels that the present information is inadequate, he
will start to look for more information from external sources. Newly acquired
information is evaluated and its suitability or usefulness is assessed. The
consumer continues to acquire additional information until all relevant information
has been secured, or until he finds that acquiring additional information is more
costly in terms of time and money.Stage No. 5: MemoryIn this component the consumer
keeps all the information he collects, and it will be the first place to search
when he need to make a choice. If this informations is not sufficient, no doubt he
will start looking again for external sources.Stage No. 6: Decision ProcessThis
step in Bettman � s model indicates that different types of choices are normally made
associated with other factors, which may occur during the decision process.
Specifically, this component deals with the application of heuristics or rules of
thumb, which are applied in the selection and evaluation of specific brand. These
specific heuristics a consumer uses are influenced by both individual factors
(e.g., personality differences) and situational factors (e.g., urgency of the
decision); thus it is unlikely that the same decision by the same consumer will
apply in different situation or other consumer in the same situation. Stage No. 7:
Consumption and Learning ProcessIn this stage, the model discusses the future
results after the purchase is done. The consumer in this step will gain experience
after evaluating the alternative. This experience provides the consumer with
information to be applied to future choice situation. Bettman in his model
emphasize on the information processing and the capacity of the consumer to analyze
this information for decision making, but no explanation was given about the
criteria by which the consumer accepts or refuses to process some specific
information. Sheth-Newman Gross Model of Consumption Values #According to this
model, there are five consumption values influencing consumer choice behavior.
These are functional, social, conditional, emotional, and epistemic values. Any or
all of the five consumption values may influence the decision. Various disciplines
(including economics, sociology, several branches of psychology, marketing and
consumer behavior) have contributed theories and research findings relevant to
these values, (Sheth et al. 1991). Each consumption value in the theory is
consistent with various components of models advanced by Maslow (1970), Katona
(1971), Katz (1960), and Hanna (1980). Five consumption values form the core of the
model:Figure 2-6: The five values influencing Consumer Choice BehaviorSource:
Sheth, Newman, and Gross (1991) Pp159-170The first value: Functional valueTo Sheth
et al. (1991) the functional value of an alternative is defined as:"The perceived
utility acquired from an alternative for functional, utilitarian, or physical
performance. An alternative acquires functional value through the possession of
salient functional, utilitarian, or physical attributes. Functional value is
measured on a profile of choice attributes."Traditionally, functional value is
presumed to be the primary driver of consumer choice. This assumption underlies
economic utility theory advanced by Marshall (1890) and Stigler (1950) and
popularly expressed in terms of "rational economic man." An alternative � s
functional value may be derived from its characteristics or attributes, (Ferber,
1973) such as reliability, durability, and price. For example, the decision to
purchase a particular automobile may be based on fuel economy and maintenance
record.By identifying the dominant function of a product (i.e., what benefits it
provides), marketers can emphasize these benefits in their communication and
packaging. Advertisements relevant to the function prompt more favorable thoughts
about what is being marketed and can result in a heightened preferences for both
the ads and the product, (Solomon 1996;160).Katz (1960) developed the functional
theory of attitudes. He identifies four attitudes based on the functional values:
1) Utilitarian function. The utilitarian function is related to the basic
principles of reward and punishment. We develop some of our attitude toward
products simply based on whether these products provide pleasure or pain.2) Value-
expressive function. Attitude that performs a value-expressive function expresses
the consumers � central values or self#concept. A person forms a product attitude
not because of its objective benefits, but because of what the product says about
him or her as a person.3) Ego-defensive function. Attitude formed to protect the
person, either from external threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive
function. Example of this function is deodorant campaigns that stress the dire,
embarrassing consequences of being caught with underarm odor in public.4) Knowledge
function. Some attitude is formed as a result of a need for order, structure, or
meaning. This need is often present when a person is in an ambiguous situation or
is confronted with a new product.The second value: Social valueSheth et al.
(1991;161) defined social value of an alternative as:"The perceived utility
acquired from an alternative association with one or more specific social groups.
An alternative acquires social value through association with positively or
negatively stereotyped demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural-ethnic groups.
Social value is measured on a profile choice imagery."Social imagery refers to all
relevant primary and secondary reference groups likely to be supportive of the
product consumption. Consumers
acquire positive or negative stereotypes based on their association with varied
demographic (age, sex, religion), socioeconomic (income, occupation),
cultural/ethnic (race, lifestyle), or political, ideological segments of society.
Choices involving highly visible products (e.g., clothing, jewelry) and good
service to be shared with others (e.g., gifts, products used in entertaining) are
often driven by social values. For example, a particular make of automobile is
being chosen more for the social image evoked than for its functional performance.
Even products generally thought to be functional or utilitarian, are frequently
selected based on their social values.The third value: Emotional valueSheth et al.
(1991; 161) defined emotional value of an alternative as:"The perceived utility
acquired from an alternative � s capacity to arouse feelings or affective states. An
alternative acquires emotional value when associated with specific feelings or when
precipitating those feelings. Emotional values are measured on a profile of
feelings associated with the alternative." Consumption emotion refers to the set of
emotional responses elicited specifically during product usage or consumption
experience, as described either by the distinctive categories of emotional
experience and expression (e.g., joy, anger, and fear) or by the structural
dimensions underlying emotional categories such as pleasantness/ unpleasantness,
relaxation/action, or calmness/excitement. Goods and services are frequently
associated with emotional responses (e.g. the fear aroused while viewing horror
movie). Emotional value is often associated with aesthetic alternatives (e.g.
religion, causes). However, more tangible and seemingly utilitarian products also
have emotional values. For example, some foods arouse feeling of comfort through
their association with childhood experiences, and consumers are sometimes said to
have "love affairs" with their cars.A number of different attempts have been made
to identify the various emotions that people experience. Izard (1977) develops the
taxonomy of affective experience approach that describes the basic emotion that
people feel. He measures emotions using ten fundamental categories: interest, joy,
surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. This approach
has been used extensively by consumer researchers, for example, Westbrook and
Oliver (1991). The fourth value: Epistemic valueSheth et al. (1991 ;162) defined
epistemic value as:"The perceived utility acquired from an alternatives capacity to
arouse curiosity, provide novelty, and/or satisfy a desire for knowledge. An
alternative acquires epistemic value by items referring to curiosity, novelty, and
knowledge."Epistemic issues refer to reasons that would justify the perceived
satisfaction of curiosity, knowledge, and exploratory needs offered by the product
as a change of pace (something new, different). Entirely new experience certainly
provides epistemic value. However, an alternative that provides a simple change of
pace can also be imbued with epistemic value. The alternative may be chosen because
the consumer is bored or satiated with his or her current brand (as in trying a new
type of food), is curious (as in visiting a new shopping complex), or has a desire
to learn (as in experiencing another culture).The concept of epistemic values has
been influenced by theory and by several important areas of research. Exploratory,
novelty seeking, and variety seeking motives have been suggested to active product
search, trial, and switching behavior, (Howard and Sheth 1969). One of the most
significant contributors to the study of the optimal stimulation and arousal has
been Berlyne (1970), who contends that individuals are driven to maintain an
optimal or intermediate level of stimulation. Finally, Hirschman (1980) has
advanced innovativeness, or a consumer � propensity to adopt new products.The Fifth
value: Conditional value Sheth et al. (1991;162) defined the conditional value as:
"The perceived utility acquired by an alternative is the result of the specific
situation or set of circumstances facing the choice maker. An alternative acquires
conditional value in the presence of antecedent physical or social contingencies
that enhance its functional or social value. Conditional value is measured on a
profile of choice contingencies."An alternative � s utility will often depend on the
situation. For example, some products only have seasonal value (e.g., greeting
cards), some are associated with once in a life events (e.g., wedding dress), and
some are used only in emergencies (e.g., hospital services). Several areas of
inquiry have also influenced conditional value. Based on the concept of stimulus
dynamism advanced by Hall (1963), Howard (1969) recognized the importance of
learning that takes place as a result of experience with a given situation. Howard
and Sheth (1969) then extended Howard � s earlier work by defining the construct
inhibitors as noninternalized forces that impede buyers � preferences. The concept
of inhibitors was more formally developed by Sheth (1974) in his model of attitude-
behavior relationship as anticipated situations and unexpected events. Recognizing
that behavior cannot be accurately predicted based on attitude or intention alone,
a number of researchers during the 1970s investigated the predictive ability of
situational factors (e.g., Sheth 1974).The five consumption values identified by
the theory make differential contributions in specific choice contexts. For
example, a consumer may decide to purchase coins as an inflation hedge (functional
value), and also realize a sense of security (emotional value) from the investment.
Social, epistemic, and conditional values have little influence. Of course, a
choice may be influenced positively by all five consumption values For example, to
a first-time home buyer, the purchase of a home might provide functional value (the
home contains more space than the present apartment), social values (friends are
also buying homes), emotional values (the consumer feels secure in owning a home),
epistemic value (the novelty of purchasing a home is enjoyable), and conditional
value (starting a family). 2.2.6 Solomon Model of comparison process #Figure
2.7 Model of comparison process Source: Solomon (1996) Pp33Figure 2.7 explains some
of the issus that are addressed during each stage of the consumption process. The
� exchange � , in which two or more organizations or people give and receive something
of value, is an integral part of marketing. He also suggested that consumer
behavior involves many different actors. The purchaser and user of a product might
not be the same person. People may also act as influences on the buying processes.
Organizations can also be involved in the buying process. Much of marketing
activity, they suggest, concentrates on adapting product offerings to particular
circumstances of target segment needs and wants. It is also common to stimulate an
already existing want through advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating
wants. The definitions and models, which have been presented so far, have been from
general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a service rather than a
product, which may have a considerable effect on consumer behavior.2.2.7 Stimulus-
Response Model of Buyer BehaviorMiddleton (1994) presented an adapted model of
consumer behavior tourism, which was termed the stimulus-response model of buyer
behavior. The model is shown in Figure 2.8. This model is based on the four
interactive components with the central component identified as 'buyer
characteristics and decision process'.#####################Figure 2.8 a Stimulus-
Response Model of Buyer BehaviorSource: Middleton (1994) Pp 104-112 � The model
separates out motivators and determinants in consumer buying behavior and also
emphasizes the important effects that an organization can have on the consumer
buying process by the use of communication channels. Schmoll (1977) quoted in
Cooper et al. (1993), developed a model which hypothesized that consumer decisions
were a result of four elements as follows:travel stimuli, including guide books,
reports from other travelers and advertising and promotionpersonal and social
determinants of travel behaviour including motivators, desires and expectations
external variables, including destination images, confidence in travel trade
intermediaries and constraints such as cost and timeCharacteristics and features of
the service destination such as the perceived link between cost and value and the
range of attractions and amenities offered.2.2.8 Model of Travel-Buying Behavior
Mathieson and WallMathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model of
travel buying behaviour, which is shown in Figure 2.9.#########Figure 2.9 Model of
Travel-Buying Behavior Source: Mathieson and Wall (1982) p95Model of Consumer
Decision-Making Framework Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-
making in which is shown in Figure 2.10 This model suggests that there are two
levels of factors that have an effect on the consumer. The first level of
influences is close to the person and includes psychological influence such as
perception and learning. The second level of influences includes those, which have
been developed during the socialization process and include reference groups and
family influences. All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer some
into the consumer behavior process involved during the purchase post-purchase
decision stages.#Figure 2.10 Consumer Decision-Making Framework Source: Gilbert,
(1991) In Cooper (Ed.). Pp.78-1052.2.10 Integrated Model of Self-Congruity and
Functional Congruity in Explaining and
Predicting Travel BehaviourA more encompassing approach to the understanding of
CS/D can be found in Sirgy's evaluative congruity models of consumer behavior
(Sirgy 1983; Sirgy and Tyagi 1986). Sirgy explains the theoretical position
associated with CS/D in terms of discrepancies between perceived and normative
outcome levels. According to his theory, satisfaction is a function of evaluative
congruity, which is a cognitive matching process in which a perception is compared
to evoke referent cognition for the purpose of evaluating a stimulus object/action.
The result of the cognitive process is postulated to produce either a motivational
or an emotional state. CS/D is viewed as an emotional state because it prompts the
consumer to evaluate alternative courses of action to reduce an existing
dissatisfaction state and/or to obtain future satisfaction state (Sirgy 1983; 1984;
Sirgy and Tyagi 1986). Further, CS/D is viewed as a function of one or more
congruities between perceptual (perceived value) and evoked referent (evoked value)
states. Problem recognition (dissatisfaction) is the function of a directional
discrepancy between the valence level of the perceived performance of a
good/service and the valence level of a referent (standard of comparison or
performance expectation). The "negative incongruity" condition (a state of negative
performance perception and positive referent state) is hypothesized to produce the
second highest dissatisfaction or problem recognition, followed by "negative
congruity" (a state of negative performance perception and negative performance
expectation), "positive congruity" (a state of positive performance perception and
positive expectation) and "positive incongruity" (a state of positive performance
perception and negative performance expectation), respectively.The theory of self
concept was supported in empirical studies involving consumer evaluation of the
automobile, typewriter, a bachelor's degree, and a house (Sirgy 1984; 1987). Sirgy
(1982b) further argues that product images should be classified as being
"functional" and "symbolic." The functional images of a product include the
physical benefits associated with the product, whereas the symbolic images refer to
the stereotypic personality images consumers have of a specific product often
expressed in terms of the typical user image.Relatedly, Sirgy (1982b) argues that
CS/D is not only an evaluative function of the consumer's expectation and
performance evaluation, but it is also an evaluative function of the consumer's
self-image and product image congruity. That is, the consumer's self-concept
should be understood in order to truly understand the individual's satisfaction or
dissatisfaction. Self-concept, defined as "the totality of the individual's
thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an object," has been construed
from a multi-dimensional perspective (Rosenberg 1979).The satisfaction level would
be the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the
maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives. Based on the
review of literature on CS/D as related to the evaluative congruity models and
self-concept, a logical interpolation can be drawn with respect to CS/D in tourism
as related to the role of the tourist's perception of destination images. That is,
CS/D in tourism is a function of both (1) the evaluative congruity of a tourist's
expectation of destination and his/her perceived outcome of the destination
experience; and (2) the evaluative congruity of a tourist's self-image and his/her
perception of the destination's value-expressive image. Deference to him as an
object," has been construed from a multi-dimensional perspective (Rosenberg 1979).
For instance, the term "actual self" refers to how a person perceives one's self,
and "ideal self" refers to how a person presents one's self to others (Rosenberg
1979). The self-image/product image congruity model in essence describes the effect
of the cognitive matching process between value-expressive attributes of a given
product and the consumer self-concept on consumer decisions such as product
preference, purchase intentions, purchase behavior, product
satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and product loyalty (Sirgy 1982b).The theory explains
the effect of self-image congruence on consumer attitude through the mediating
effects of two self-concept motives: self-esteem and self-consistency. According
to the self-image/product-image congruity model, a consumer's specific value-laden
self-image belief interacts with a corresponding value-laden product-image
perception in terms of the typical user image in a product purchase. The result of
such an interaction occurs in the form of the following four congruity conditions.
First, a "positive self-image congruity, � occurs when there exists a state of
positive self-congruity (a low discrepancy between one's actual self-image and the
product image) and a state of positive ideal self-congruity (a low discrepancy
between one's ideal self-image and the product image). That is, a product image
matches up with one's actual self-image as well as with his/her ideal self-image.
Such a situation would result in high consumer satisfaction because, by purchasing
or identifying himself/herself with this product, the consumer would reach an
emotional state that enhances his/her self-esteem motive and reinforces his/her
self-consistency motive. Second, a "positive self-image incongruity" condition
occurs when there exists a state of negative self-congruity (a high discrepancy
between one's actual self-image and the product image), but a state of positive
ideal self-congruity (low discrepancy between one's ideal self-image and the
product image). In this situation the individual might be motivated to purchase the
product but his/her satisfaction level would be moderate. This occurs because,
while the purchase would enhance one's self-esteem motive, the self-esteem motive
would conflict with his/her self-consistency motive.Third, a "negative self-image
incongruity" condition is the opposite of the "positive self-image incongruity"
condition. That is, there is a state of positive self-congruity (low discrepancy
between one's actual self-image and the product image,) but a state of negative
ideal self-congruity (high discrepancy between one's ideal self-image and the
product image). The situation again would result in a moderate satisfaction level
because the individual's self-consistency motive would conflict with his/her self-
esteem motive. Finally, "negative self-image congruity" occurs when there exists
negative self-congruity (high discrepancy between one � s actual self-image and the
product image,) as well as negative ideal congruity (high discrepancy between
his/her ideal self-image and the product image.) The satisfaction level would be
the lowest because the purchase of the product serves no function to the
maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives.Model of self-
congruity and travel behavior is depicted in Figure2.11 the model posits that
various aspects of the destination and its atmosphere are related to the
destination visitor image. The destination visitor image is then evaluated in
light of specific dimensions of the tourist � s self-concept to determine the degree
of self-congruity which is systematically related to travel behavior. ############
#######Figure 2.11 an Integrated Model of Self-Congruity and Functional Congruity
in Explaining and Predicting Travel BehaviourSource Sigry and Grewal (1997) Pp 229-
241.Desiccation Different models of consumer behavior describe satisfaction as the
final output of the decision process or incorporate it in the feedback mechanism
linking completed experiences to future behavior. For example; Nicosia (1976)
attributes the state of CS/D to the dominant interest in the "final act" of
consumers that is the purchase of product. Further, the concept of CS/D is given
greater emphasis in the works of McNeal (1973), Engel and Blackwell (1982), and
Howard and Sheth (1967, 1969, and 1973). In their consumer behavior models,
satisfaction is shown as the final output in the framework of purchase decisions.
These buyer behavior models postulate that if the actual outcome of a product is
judged to be better than or equal to the expected, the buyer will feel satisfied.
If, on the other hand, actual outcome is judged not to be better than expected, the
buyer will be dissatisfied. This disconfirmation paradigm of CS/D can be also found
in the works of Suprenant (1977); Hunt (1977); and Oliver (1977, 1980).The theory
of self-concept advances the notion that every self-image has a value association,
which determines the degree of positive, or negative effect felt when that self-
image is activated. This value component associated with a particular self-image
replaces the traditional constructs of ideal self-image, ideal social-image, etc.
Correspondingly, every product image has also a value component reflective of the
affective intensity associated with attribute. A specific value-laden self-image
interacts with a corresponding value-laden product image and the result occurs in
the form of positive self-congruity (match between a positive product image and a
positive self-image), positive self-incongruity (match between a positive product
image and negative self-image), negative self-incongruity (match between a negative
product image and a positive self-image), or negative self-congruity (match between
a negative product image and negative self-image). Sirgy et.al (2000) added on
further by stating that tourists � perception of the destination (type and quality
of resorts, prices, hotel ambiance, atmosphere, etc) is likely to influence the
formation and change of the destination
visitor image. Given that self-concept is multidimensional in nature (actual,
ideal, social, ideal social self), at issue is the particular dimension of the
self-concept evoked in the psychological process of self-congruity � the matching
of the tourist � s self-concept with the destination visitor image. In addition to
evaluating a destination by focusing on the symbolic (person-like) attributes of
the destination, tourists may also evaluate destinations based on the destination � s
functional or utilitarian attributes. The match between the destination � s level of
a utilitarian attribute and the tourist � s expectation of the attribute is referred
to as functional congruity � may also affect destination travel and may be related
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Pinson, C.A .And Agelman, R. (1973) ethodology and Consumer Research. Holt Rinehart
and Winston, New York#####PAGE ##PAGE #3##PAGE ##PAGE #37#Figure 2.1
Andreason, A.R (1965 Attitudes and Consumer Behavior: A Decision Model in New
Research in Marketing (ed. l. Preston). Institute of Business and Economic
Research, University of California, Berkeley, pp.1-61ConstraintsNoYes Ownership Key
Direct Flows FeedbacksIncome, budget piorities, physical capacity, household
capacityNo actionSearch Select Attitudes towards product, substitutes, complement
Perceived beliefs, Norms, Values of significant others.Other customer Decision-
makersDisposition Wants Want strengthDirect experienceBeliefs Personality Feelings
Other purchase decisionsHold Attitudes towards sourcesFiltrationIntrinsic
attributesExtrinsic attributesPrice availabilityInformation storageIndependent
personal sourcesAdvocate personal sourcesIndependent impersonal sourcesAdvocate
impersonal sources
Message Exposure
Subfield 2ConsumersAttributes(EspeciallyPredispositionSubfield 1FirmsAttribute
Searchand evaluationConsumptionDecision(Action)PurchaseSignificativea. Qualityb.
Pricec. Distinctived. Servicee. AvailabilitySymbolic a. Qualityb. Pricec.
Distinctived. Servicee. AvailabilitySociala. Familyb. Reference groupsc. Social
class IntentionConfidenceIntentionOvertsearchAttitudeStimulusambiguityAttitudeBrand
Comprehen- sionBrandCompre-hensionChoiceCriteriaMotivesAttentionPercept-ual bias
AttentionStimuli:Marketer-Dominated,otherExposure External searchAttention
ComprehensionPerception Yielding/ Acceptance RetentionDissatisfaction
Satisfaction M E M O R YProblemRecognition SearchInternal
search Outcomes Purchase Alternative evaluationIndividualCharacteristics:
MotivesValuesLifestylePersonality Beliefs Attitude IntentionSocial
Influences :CultureReferencegroupFamilySituationalInfluencesInput Information
ProcessingDecision ProcessVariables
Influencing Precision Process Motivation Goal hierarchyProcessing
capacity AttentionInformationacquisitionandevaluation Decision
ProcessesConsumptionandlearningprocesses PerceptualencodingPerceptualScannerand
interruptmechanismsinterruptinterpretationandresponseMemorysearchExternalsearch
Scannerandinterruptmechanisms Interrupt interpretation and response
ScannerandinterruptmechanismsInterruptinterpretationandresponse Scanner
and interrupt mechanisms Interrupt interpretation and
responseConsumer Choice BehaviorFunctional ValueConditional ValueSocialValue
Emotional ValueEpistemicValueHow does a consumer decide that he/she needs a
product? What are the best sources of information to learn more about alternative
choices?How are consumer attitudes toward products formed and/or changed?What cues
do consumers use to infer which products are superior to others?CONSUMER'S
PERSPECTIVEMARKETER'S PERSPECTIVEIs acquiring a product a stressful or pleasant
experience? What does the purchase say about the consumer?How do situational
factors, such as time pressure or store displays, affect the consumer � s purchase
decision?Does the product provide pleasure or perform its intended function?How is
the product eventually disposed of, and what are the environmental consequences of
this act?What determines whether a consumer will be satisfied with a product and
whether he/she will buy it again?Does this person tell others about his/her
experiences with the product and affect their purchase decisions?PREPURCHASE ISSUES
PURCHASE ISSUESPOSTPURCHASE ISSUESCommunication channelsBuyer characteristics and
decision processPurchase outputs (response)Stimulus InputCommunication filters
MotivationAdvertisingSales promotionBrochuresPersonal sellingPRRange of competitive
produced and marketed by the tourist industryProductBrandPriceOutletFriendsFamily
ReferenceGroupPost-purchase and post-consumption feelingsDemographic economic and
social positionPsychographic characteristicNeedsWantsGoalsAttitudesExperience
LearningPerceptionExperienceTravel satisfaction outcome and evaluationTravel
preparation and travel experiencesInformation collection and evaluation imageFelt
need/ travel desireTravel decision (choice between alternatives)Consumer or
Decision-makerSocioeconomic influencesCultural influencesFamily influencesReference
group influencesMotivation or energizersPersonality/ attitudePerceptionLearning
Destination Visitor ImageSelf-CongruityDestination EnvironmentSelf-CongruityTourist
Self-ConceptFunctional-CongruityTourist Ideal Utilitarian Destination Attributes
Tourist Perceived Utilitarian Destination Attributes
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