Planning and Design Handbook On Precast Building Structures

Planning and design handbook
on precast building structures
May 1994
Contents
..................................
Acknowledgements ........................ ...................... :6 5.2 Types of frames
Introduction.................................... ....................... 7
1 Suitability of precast construction ....................... 8

....................... 8 .................
1.3.2 Optimum use of materials .......
1.3.6 Building services............................ 5.5 Elements .........

5.5.2 Columns .................. ................................. .66
....................
2.3.1 General ..........

5.6.5 Beam-to-beam connections ..............
2.3.3 Bearing walls .... 5.6.6 Beam-to-column-to-floor connections.. ...
2.3.4 Facades ..............
6 Precast floor .................... .......................... 74
..............................
...............................
3 Examples of precast buildings .. ...................... 15
3.1 General ................................... ...................... 15
3.2 Housing .................................. ...................... 15 6.2.2 Totally precast floors
....................... 78
...................... 16 6.3 Stairs ........... ..........................
...................... 16 .........................
...................... 16
...................... 16
...................... 21
...................... 28
...................... 33
3.7 Sport arenas ........................... ...................... 37
concentrated loads ..........................
principles ...........................
..................................
and overall stability ..
6.6.2 Floor-plates ...............................
6.6.3 Beam-block
in precast buildings ....................... 6.7 Connections ......................
4.2.3 Stabilizing systems ....................... 6.7.1 General ....................................
4.2.4 Arrangement of the stabilizing sys 6.7.2 Support connections ................
4.3 Structural integrity .................................
4.4 Connections .......... ................ 6.7.4 Connections at lateral joints ................................ 90
6.8 Openings and cut-outs ....................... .................. .92
7 Bearing walls ...... ..................................

7.1 Types of beari ............................ .94
7.1.1 General ........................... ...................... .94
7.1.2 Load bearing cross-walls .........
4.5.3 Dual structures ............ 7.1.3 Spine wall system ...............................
4.5.4 Diaphragm action of fl 7.1.4 Mixed systems ....... .......................
under seismic actions .... ...................... 57 7.1.5 Elevator and stair well shafts ............................... 95
7.1.6 Special arrangements at ground levels ................96
FIP Handbook on precast building structures 3

7.2 Modulation ........................................................... 8.3.1 Stability provided by restraint of the facade
7.2.1 Location of the walls ........................................... 96 elements to the foundation ................................. .
7.2.2 Positioning of cores and stair wells ..................... 96
7.2.3 Implantation of the cells ...................................... 96
7.3 Design for cantilever and shear wall action ................. 96 elements composed of facade tubes
7.3.1 Horizontal stability .............................................. 96 and facade shear wall ..................................... 114
7.3.2 Structural integrity ............................................... 98 8.4 Principles of calculation of members ......................... 114
7.4 Elements ....................................................................... 99 8.4.1 General considerations ....................................... 114
7.4.1 Elements for load bearing interior walls ............. 99 8.4.2 Loadings during the different
7.4.2 Elements for cavity walls .................................... 99 construction phases ............................................ 115
7.4.3 Special wall elements .......................................... 99 8.4.3 Deformations ..................................................... 115
7.4.4 Elements for exterior. walls . ................................ 100 8.5 Shape of the units and dimensions ............................. 116
7.4.5 Founda taining walls .......................... 100 8.5.1 Shape in relation to moulds ............................... 116
7.5 Connections ............................................... 100 8.5.2 Preferred dimensions ......................................... 117
7.5.1 Wall-to ections ................................... 101 8.5.3 Modulation and flexibility ................................. 120
7.5.2 Wall-to-floor connection ............................. 101 . . in the exterior facade ............................... 131
8.5.4 Joints
8.6 Superficial appearance ................................................ 131
8 Architectural concrete facades 8.6.1 Texture ............................................................... 132
8.1 Introduction .. 8.6.2 Colour ................................................................ 132
. . panels ....................................................... 122
8.6.3 Faced
8.7 Panel fixings ............................................................... 122
8.7.1 Types of connections and applications .............. 132
8.7.2 Durability .......................... 122
8.2.1 Load bearing f 8.7.3 Fire protection 124
8.2.2 Non-load beari 8.7.4 Execution crite 134
8.8 Physical building prope 126
8.8.1 Thermal insulation 137
8.8.2 Acoustic insulation 127
8.2.6 Interna1 structural elements ................................ 1 13 8.8.3 Weatherproof jo 137
8.2.7 Guidelines for the choice 8.8.4 Changes in appe 131
of the structural system ...................................... 1 14
8.3 Stability principles for load bearing facade panels .... 114 References and literature .................................................. 135
4 FIP Hmrihook oti preccist hirilditig strirctirres

Foreword
The main task of the FIP Commission on Prefabrication is to promote research,

development and investigation on precast concrete construction. More than twenty
Technical Reports, Cuides to Good Practice and Design Recommendations have already
been published on various interesting items.
The present Hcziicihook is a synthesis of the knowledge gathered by the Commission
about the design of precast building structures. It has been written to help Architects and
Engineers to achieve a full understanding of precast concrete building structures and their
specific design philosophy. Ideally, our purpose is to provide Architects and Engineers,
who never designed a project in precast concrete, with enough information in this
H t r i i d h o k to make a correct initial design for a project. It is also hoped that Professors
and Students from Universities and Technical Institutes will find useful basic information
about precast concrete construction in this Haiidbook.
The present document has been produced and reviewed by the whole Commission
during the past two years under the leadership of the Commission Chairman, who also
carried out the final editorial. The FIP Commission on Prefabrication hopes that the
Pltiiiiiiiig a i i d Desigii Hctiicibook o i i Precast Biiildiiig Striictures will contribute in an
important way to the better understanding and spread of precast concrete structures. The
Commission is also grateful for the financia1 support from Precast Concrete Federations,
inanufacturers and other industries. through which the publication of this handsomely
illustrated document was made possible.
Arnold Van Acker

Chairman
FIP Commission on Prefabrication
5
Acknowledgements
The publication of this Handbook has been sponsored by the following organisations:
Oberndorfer Beton - und Fertigteilwerk, Austria

Fédération de 1’Industrie Cimentiere, Belgium
Belgian Precast Concrete Federation FéBé, Belgium
Echo, Belgium
International Prestressed Hollow Core Association (IPHA), Belgium
Partek Concrete International, Belgium
Partek Ergon, Belgium
Partek Concrete Engineering, Finland
Cimbeton, France
Precast Concrete Federation (FDB), Germany
Federation of Prüfungsingeniore (BBUV), Germany
Spaencom Betonfertigteile, Germany
Breton Roecrete, Ireland
Organisation for the Study of Precast Concrete (Stupre), The Netherlands
Organization for the study of Prestressed Concrete (Stuvo), The Netherlands
Assobeton, Italy
Precompressi Centro Nord, Italy
Vibrocemento Perugia, Italy
Norwegian Precast Concrete Federation
ATEP. Spain
Strangbetong, Sweden
Bison Concrete Products, United Kingdom
6 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

Introduction
Prefabrication is an industrialized process with a large potential information in this Hundbook which may be needed during their
for the future. It constitutes one of the possible answers to education.
questions and statements such as: The first chapter of the Hurzdhook considers the possibility of
using precast concrete for a project from the viewpoint of the
Construction becomes uneconomical choice of the construction inethod. Most buildings are suitable
There will be no volunteers for hard site work for precasting, either in whole or in part. depending on the
architectural and / or structural requirements.
Construction activity should be automated. In the second chapter, information is given concerning the
procedure to be followed in the initial design of a building.
In addition. prefabrication is completely in line with modern followed by some guidelines about the application of the most
trends towards faster and environmentally friendlier common basic structural systems in precast buildings.
construction, higher quality. energy savings and subsequent The purpose of the third chapter is to give the reader a general
service at design and execution. idea as to the appearance of the most common types of precast
The construction industry requires a wide choice in the concrete buildings, the different possible applications and which
selection of building components. In the next decade it is forecast types of precast units are commonly used. There are no details
that the increasing deniand on the performance of these or large descnptions but a lot of drawings and pictures. helping
components will overtake existing technology. Organizations the uninitiated designer to become familiar with precasting.
will be left with no other choice than to extrapolate existing Chapter 4 discusses the basic design principles from both the
knowledge to meet this demand. The cal1 for higher theoretical and practica1 standpoints. The stabilizing systems
specifications for comercial. industrial. civic and domestic which are specific to precast construction are discussed with
buildings has led to a major rethink in construction strategy. The reference to the location of the actual stabilizing components.
precast concrete industry is ideally placed to accommodate these Structural integrity is very iniportant in the design of precast
higher demands because the degree of prefabrication, using structures and the design philosophy on how to achieve this
skilled labour in quality controlled conditions, is set to increase coherence is considered. Finally. principles and design criteria
dramatically. are given to clarify the philosophy behind the types of
Prefabrication of concrete structures is often considered by connections used in the different types of precast structures.
uninitiated designers as a variation on cast in-situ construction Chapters 5 to 8 address the four most commonly used systems
techniques. In this approach. prefabrication means only that parts or subsystems of precast concrete in building construction.
of the structure are precast in specialized plants to be assembled
namely:
afterwards on site in such a way that the initial concept of cast
in-situ structures is obtained as closely as possible.
This view point is false. Every construction system has its own frame and skeletal structures
characteristics which to a greater or lesser extent influence the precast floors and roofs
lay-out, storey height. stability, statical system. etc. For the best bearing wall structures
results a design should. from the very outset. respect the specific
and particular demands of the intended structure. architectural concrete facades.
To get optimum benefits. it is very important that the design
for a precast concrete structure should be conceived according Practica1 information on each of the above is given so that the
to specific rules from the very outset. The problem has been that architect and engineer may prepare a first draft scheme on any
there is a wealth of general and detailed information on design one or a combination of the above. This may be submitted to the
guides for definite projects, but surprisingly little to help specialist prefabricator for detailed discussion. The optimum use
engineers and architects to achieve a full understanding of the of each method is discussed with regard to building coordination,
specific design philosophy of precast concrete building component sizes and location, and load transfer systems for
structures to start a project. gravity and horizontal loads. A wide range of connections with
This Haridlmk is intended to fill this gap by providing a their serviceability performance are shown.
detailed review of the subject and thereby promoting a greater The Handbook is written for predominantly non-seismic
awareness and understanding of precast concrete buildings. It structures. Brief information on how to design precast concrete
gives at the same time a synthesis of the work done by the FIP under seismic loading is given in different chapters.
Commission o n Prefabrication over the past twenty years in the Al1 the data given in the present Haiidhook are evidence of
domain of precast concrete. It has been written particularly for normal practice. The user should always bear in mind that, owing
those less familiar with this form of construction, but will also to the flexibility of the precast concrete industry, special designs
be of interest to al1 engineers. architects and others concerned can be accomodated in order to meet specitic requirements.
with the design and erection of buildings. Students of Techica1 The Handhook concludes with a list of references to good
Universities and High Schools will also find valuable literature on precast concrete construction.
i
FIP Hundbook o11precast building structures 7
1 Suitability of precast concrete construction
1.1 General Irregular ground lay-outs are on rnany occasions equally

In the initial design of a building the first requirement should suitable for precasting. if not totally. then certainly partially. It
consist of identifying whether the project or parts of it are suitable i s a complete misconception that precast concrete lacks
for construction in precast concrete, and any specitic advantages tlexibility. Modern precast concrete buildings can be designed
and inconveniences compared to other building systems. safely and economically. with a variety o f plans and with
It is commonly thought that the main advantages of precast considerable variation in the treatment of the elevations to
concrete are speed of erection. a stable indoor working heights of up to twenty tloors and more. With the introduction
environment. and economy. However, there are also a lot ot of high strength concrete. already currently used in the precasting
misunderstandings. for example concerning the lack of industry, the sizes of load belving columns can be reduced to less
flexibility. the multiplicity of precast building systems and the than half of the section needed in conventional concrete
long lead-in times to allow for the complete study. etc. structures.
Precast concrete has inany more assets than the above and Precast concrete offers considerable scope for improving
excessive repetition of products or long study times certainly no structural efficiency. Longer spans and shallower construction
longer correspond with daily practice. On the contrary. thanks depths can be obtained by using prestre ed concrete for beams
to the modern production techniques and computer aided design and tloors. For industrial and comnierc I halls, roof spans can
and manufacture, tlexibility combined with short delivery times be up to 40 m and even more. For parking garages. precast
has become a major commercial advantage of prefabrication. concrete enables occupiers to put more cars o n the same
Because of its advantages. precasting can no longer be ignored construction space because of the large span possibilities and
in the initial design of buildings. either for al1 or part of the slender column sections. In office buildings. the adcantage i s not
structure. taken sufficiently into account to create. with precast units. large
This chapter gives information concerning the possibilities open spaces which can be split with partitions. I t offers not only
of precast concrete, its advantages and limitations, and the flexibility in the building. but extends its life time because of the
principles of quality assurance and plant certification. easier adaptability. In this way the building retains its
commercial value over a longer period.
1.2 When to use precast concrete

Most buildings are suitable for construction in precast concrete. 1.3 Advantages and limitations
Buildings with an orthogonal plan are. of course. ideal for
precasting because they exhibit a degree of regularity and 1.3.1 Speed of construction
repetition in their structural grid, spans. member size. etc. Speed of construction is a niajor consideration in iiiost building
Whenever designing a building. one should always strive for projects and it is here that precast construction excels. The reason
standardization and repetition in the context of economical is not only in fast erection. but also in the fact that whilst the
construction, not only in precast concrete alone. but in any foundation works are carried out o n site. the precast iinits are
design. manufactured at the plant at the sanie time. In addition. precast
8 strirctirrrs
concrete construction can increase the overall speed of
construction by allowing parts of the structure to be released at
an early stage to following trades whilst work continues on
erecting the upper storeys of the building. It is worthwhile
calculating the savings on intervening interests for the total
investment in a building which is complete 6 months earlier than
if it were constructed in a more traditional way.
1.3.2 Optimum use of materials

One of the reasons why prefabrication of reinforced and
prestressed concrete units has much greater potential for
economy, structural performance and durability than cast in-situ
concrete lies in the higher performances and the optimal use of
the materials. This is possible thanks to modern manufacturing
equipment and carefully studied working procedures.
Concrete
Most precasting works use computer controlled batching and
mixing equipment, leading to a reduction in the standard
deviation of the characteristics such as workability, ultimate
strength, etc. Additives and admixtures are used in the mix ( a )Heat exchange between iientilation air and hollow-core
design to obtain the specific mechanical performances needed floor units
for each product. Casting and compaction of the concrete is
performed in indoor working conditions with optimum
equipment. The water content can be reduced to a minimum, and
compaction and curing are done in controlled circumstances.
The result is that the grade of concrete used can be exactly
suited to the requirements of each type of component in order to
expedite the use of more expensive and exhaustible materials.
In addition the mix efficiency is better than cast in-situ concrete.
High strength concrete grades of 1 O0 N/mm' cylinder strength
are already used daily in some precasting plants.
Variation in concrete surfaces and concrete colour can only be
achieved when the concrete casting procedure is controlled
under factory conditions (see section 1.3.3). A wide variety of
concrete colours can be used when special cement qualities, e.g.
white cement. specific additives or sophisticated production
methods are used. This is of outstanding importance for the
manufacture of concrete facade elements, but many examples
using pigmented structural concrete have also been built.
Concrete is also used when assembling precast elements into
a complete structure. In this Haiidbook the joint concrete is called
mortar, joint fill. joint mortar. padding material, fine concrete,
cast in-situ concrete, injection grout, concrete filling or grout.
Depending on the purpose and the design of the joint, the joint ( b )Ventilatiori pipes for central ofice building heating built
concrete has to fulfil additional requirements under certain irito double ceiling
conditions, e.g. shrinkage free, etc.
Recuperation and recycling of waste concrete is already done
in several precasting plants and will be accelerated by growing Fig. 1.2 E.xample.7 qf built-in building s e n k e s
environmental consciousness. However such solutions demand
signifícant research and investment efforts. but will result in
environmental friendlier construction. 1.3.3 Appearance and finishes
Precast concrete components can be produced with a wide
Reirflorcing steel variety of finishes. These range from carefully moulded surfaces
The total quantity of reinforcement can be optimized to give the to high quality visual concrete. Considerable architectural
most benefit in prefabricated concrete. High tensile ribbed bar is freedom and range of expression can be obtained by using beams
used in the majority of cases, including shear links, where the and columns with special shapes and with high quality finishes.
increased tensile strength outweighs the additional cost. The designer can inspect and accept the units before they are
Prestressing is often applied in precasting because of the transported to the site and fixed in place.
possibility of using prestressing beds and tendons anchored by Precast architectural concrete offers a wide range of top quality
bond. The latter technique gives not only al1 the constructional finishes in a panoply of colours and textures such as limestones
advantages of prestressed concrete, but also economy in or granite, complex brickwork detailing and masonry profiles
manufacture because of low labour input and the absence of reproduced in reconstructed stone or simulated stone - al1
anchorage devices. features which would be prohibitively expensive if carried out
on site by conventional methods.
Fibre concrete
The use of fibre reinforcement has progressed more in precast 1.3.4 Tolerances
construction than in cast in-situ concrete. Steel, glass and There will inevitably be differences between the specified
synthetic fibres are already commonly used in several precast dimensions and the actual dimensions of the components and
products. e.g. facade cladding. The advantage lies in the final building. These deviations must be recognized and allowed
reduction of labour input at manufacture, thinner concrete for. Precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively
members, more complex shapes, etc. small deviations but designers should take a realistic view of
FIP Haridhook o i i precast building structures 9

dimensional variability. It is essential to consider this from the plant certification with quality control supervised by an
very outset and to discuss tolerances as early as possible with independent body.
the precaster.
Certification of precast concrete production plants means that
1.3.5 Transport and site erection the capability to produce quaiity products and the good functioning
Transportation is normally done by trucks. The maximum of the in-house control system is confirmed by an independent
economical distances for transport by trucks vary between 150 inspection body.
and 350 km, depending on the type of products, traffic Confirmed capability means that a plant is well equipped and
infrastructure, density of population, etc. Transport is sometimes the people who operate it are competent to produce quality
done by train or ship. In these cases the maximum economic products. They do this through inspection of their production
transport distance is much higher, even up to lo00 km operations, materials, equipment, personnel and products for
The erection procedure can affect the maximum weight of the conformance to the Plant Certification Program. This means that
units depending on the accessibility of the site and the capacity the producer has the capability by virtue of personnel, facilities,
of the lifting crane. This should be discussed at the start of the experience and an active quality assurance program to produce
final design work. quality products. Plant certification evaluates a plant’s overall
ability to maintain sound production procedures and to maintain
1.3.6 Building services an effective in-house quality assurance program.
The installation of building services can be integrated into the Quality control requires much more than merely achieving
building system. There are certain advantages and also some concrete strength. Many other factors also enter into the control
specific problems. A major advantage is that the precast stnicture of quality of precast concrete products. Some of the most
can be designed according to the specific needs of the building important are:
equipment. Elements can be provided with a variety of holes,
fixings can be cast in the units, and a lot of additional means are completeness of work orders and product drawings
available on site after erection of the precast building. testing and inspection of the materials selected for use
The major difference with cast in-situ concrete probably lies
in the fact that everything which has to be cast into the units, has accurate manufacturing equipment
to be planned at an earlier stage. Both the architect and services proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete
engineer must be ready to define their requirements in time for handling, placing and consolidation of concrete
the precaster to prepare his drawings. Henceforth, the final study
of the building services has to be made earlier than usual, but this cunng
could equally well be seen as an advantage. control of dimensions and tolerances
Precasting also offers certain advantages with respect to
building services. For example, the thermal mass of concrete has handling, storing, transportation and erection of members.
been used satisfactorily to store thermal energy in hollow core
floors, leading to substantial savings in heating costs. Another The procedures to be followed for the quality control are
example concerns the possibility of casting in ducts, boxes or normally based on ISO 9001 or EN 29001 standards. Specific
chases for electrical fitting. Interna1 rainwater pipes are quality assurance and certification programmes produced by
sometimes cast in columns or facade units. Large prefabricated Precast Concrete Federations and Institutes also exist. The
conduits for ventilation and other pipes can be installed inside PrecastPrestressed Concrete Institute, USA, has published
double ceilings or along projecting spandrel facade units during quality control manuals for plants and production of precast and
the erection of the precast units. prestressed concrete products. The FIP Commission on
Prefabrication has published a Cuide to good practice on QualiQ
1.3.7 Quality assurance and product certification assurance of hollow core slab Joors.
Quality assurance and plant certification are important items in
prefabrication. This results from an ever increasing demand from 1.3.8 Design by testing
the market place for quality of products and services. Many of the available precast concrete units and systems have
Quality assurance and quality control of precast concrete been tested, both in the laboratory and in service. to obtain the
members are based on two levels: maximum structural efficiency, fire resistance. acoustic
insulation, etc. It is always possible t o make mock-ups at the
in-house quality assurance programme with continuous factory or at the site yard to check the general outlook and
in-house control specific details of a project.

2 Preliminary design considerations
2.1 Approaches to design First step - general layout of the floor plan and vertical
There are a number of routes to the design development’of and horizontal circulation. In the chosen example, the office
building projects. In the traditional route used for in-situ spaces are along the facades, with a corridor beside the
reinforced concrete structures. the architect and consulting central line of columns.
engineer are responsible for the design and detailing of the Second step - selection of the precast structural system.
construction. The work can be fully described/specified/ Information and guidelines are given in Section 2.3 and
quantified and competitively tendered. The contractor is chosen further in the whole Handbook. A skeletal system with
on the basis of tendering results and is totally responsible for the architectural concrete cladding is chosen in the example.
construction. under supervision of the designers, and is not
normally required to contribute to the design. Third step - choice of the column grid and floor span. In
the example the column grid is modulated on a 7.2 m x 7.2 m
In precast concrete construction. the architect and consulting and 7.2 m x 9.6 m axis distance. Guidelines are given in
engineer remain the lead persons in the design and detailing of a
project, but assistance from the precasting engineer is Sections 4.6, 5.3 and 6.4.
recommended in order to get the maximum advantage from Fourth step - choice and positioning of the stabilizing
specialist design and factory production. Another reason for this components. In the example, horizontal stability is ob-
collaboration lies in the fact that the precasting industry is tained by a lift shaft and a shear wall. The latter is needed
continuously improving and adapting its construction because of the eccentric location of the stabilizing core.
techniques to market demands and competition. This should be Detailed guidelines are given in Chapter 4.
beneficia1 to the client. Fifth step - choice and preliminary dimensioning of the
At the initial design stage. there are severa1 posible routes. precast beam and floor units. Here the column cross-sec-
depending on the requirements of the job and the client. For tions are 300 mm x 400 mm, the beams are inverted
simple projects, the architect can himself develop the initial T-beams to reduce the overall construction depth of the
design on the basis of the guidelines given in this Handbook. It floor and the floors are prestressed hollow core units
is always recommended that the advice of a precasting engineer 265 mm thick. Information about the preliminary design
be requested. For more complex projects. the most appropriate of precast components with regard to load and span is
route is to establish a design team in which the precasting available in the catalogues and technical brochures of the
engineer collaborates. precasters.
At the final design stage the precast structural design is often
finalized and detailed by the manufacturer or in close Sixth step - choice of the facade cladding.
co-operation with him. It is not appropriate for the consultant to
undertake or to be responsible for the complete design of 2.3 Selection of structural precast system
important precast projects, but he must be satisfied that the
design input by the precaster has been properly executed and that 2.3.1 General
it integrates with the overall design of the project. In the precast concrete industry, the notion of ‘structural system’
is often considered to be part of the business competitiveness.
2.2 Schematic design at the initial stage Each manufacturer claims to have his own specific systems
As smn as the requirements of the project are fixed and a general offering the largest benefits to the clients.
idea of the building has been shaped. the following stages in the This is often a matter of confusion and distrust for designers
development of the schematic design are recommended. A simple who are not familiar with precast concrete and consider it an
office building. as illustrated in Fig. 2.1, is given as an example. insurmountable handicap to precast design. However, the reality
shear
wall -
core ,
-+--. 7.20 7.20 ~ + 7.20
T
t
Fig. 2.1 E.rample offloor layout f o r un ofSice building

is in most cases perfectly simple. When considenng only the
building market, there are a large number of commercial
solutions for more or less complete precast buildings, but they
al1 belong to a limited number of basic structural systems for
which the design principles are al1 identical.
Consequently, the designer need not be familiar with al1 the
existing commercial systems to design a project in precast
concrete, but only the basic pnnciples of the structural systems.
The required information is given in this Handbook. There
remain details which should not be a matter for concem at the
initial design stage. In the finalisation of the project, assistance
will be given by the precasting engineer to overcome these
problems.
The most common basic precast concrete structural systems
are:
frame and skeletal systems
bearing wall systems
facades
floors and roofs
cell systems.
Several of the systems can be combined in the same precast Fig. 2.2 Outline of large open skeletal structure
building. Some general guidelines are given in the following in combination with load-bearing facade walls and
sections with respect to the choice of the system. More detailed precast jloors
information about the various systems is given in the different
chapters of this Handbook.
2.3.2 Frame and skeletal systems

Skeletal structural systems are very suitable for buildings which
need a high degree of flexibility. This is mainly because of the
possibility of using large spans and achieving open spaces
without interfering walls. This is very important in industrial
buildings, shopping halls, parking structures, sporting facilities
and also in large office buildings. Even in residential buildings
it is increasingly considered to be of value. The skeletai structural
concept gives greater freedom in planning and disposition of
floor areas, unconstrained by load-bearing walls.
Since the load-bearing system of skeletal stnictures is
normally independent of the complementary sub-systems of the
building, e.g. mechanical, electrical, ducting, partition walls,
etc., the buildings are easy to adapt to changes in use, new
functions and technicai innovations.
The skeletal concept also gives a large degree of freedom to
the architect in the choice of the facade cladding. The individual
structuralunits are well suited to rational production and erection
processes.
Detailed information about frame and skeleton systems is
given in Chapter 5.
Fig. 2.3 Outline of apartment building with load-bearing
2.3.3 Bearing walls cross-walls
Precast bearing walls c& appear as cross-walls, walls in shafts
and cores and load-bearing facades. Precast cross-wall systems
are mostly used in domestic construction, both for individual standard concrete grey and can be designed as load-bearing or
housing and for apartments. The solution has been derived from simple cladding units.
classical buildings with brick or block masonry walls. Precast Load-bearing facades have a dual function in being both
walls offer the advantage of speed of construction,ready-to-paint decorative and structural. They support the vertical loads from
surface finishing, acoustic insulation and fire resistance. the floors and the structure above. The system with load-bearing
Modem systems belong to the so-called 'open construction facades constitutes an economic solution since it dispenses with
technique,' which means that the architect is free to design the the need for extemal columns, beams and shear walls. Another
project according to the requirements of the client. The trend is advantage with load-bearing facades is that indoor conditions are
to build free open spaces between the load-bearing walls and to achieved at an early stage on the building site.
use light partition walls for the internal layout. It offers the The facades are often used in combination with skeleton
opportunity to later change the interior layout without major structures. The internal structure is composed of columns and
costs. beams (see Fig. 2.1). The modem trend in Scandinavian
Detailed information about load-bearing wail systems is given countries is to build offices without internal columns.
in Chapter 7. The hollow-core floor units span from one facade to the other
over a length of 16 - 18 m.
Non-loid bearing facade panels perform a decorative and
2.3.4 Facades enclosing function only. They are fixed to the building structure
Precast facades are suitable for any type of building. They can which can be either in precast concrete, cast in-situ concrete or
easily be produced in a wide variety of colours other than steel.

ble 2A Review of precast concrete structural systems
rypes of buildings Precast stri :turalsvstem

Skeletal Bearing walls
lustrial & commercial Large open spaces
buildings
Office buildings Large open spaces
Flexibility Flexibility
Free choice of facade Indoor conditions at the
cladding site achieved quickly
I flpartment buildings Performance Speed of construction
Economy
Hotels Performance
Economy
Housing Performance
Economy
Schools Large open spaces Large open spaces
cladding. site achieved quickly
Hospitals Large open spaces Large open spaces
Cultural buildings Large open spaces Large open spaces
I Flexibility Fiexibility
’arkinggarages Large open spaces Garage boxes
Speed
Ease
2.3.5 Cell systems 2.4 Mixed construction

Cell u nits are mainly used for parts of a building, e.g. bathrooms The term ‘mixed’ is used to describe a type of construction where
’ andkitchens, and occasionally for complete housing, hotels, precast concrete is used in combination with other building
prisorIS, etc. The advantage of the system lies in the speed of products such as cast in-situ concrete, steel, masonry or timber.
consovction and industrialization of the manufacture since the The term must not be confused with ‘composite’ construction,
finishing and equipping of the cells is completely done at the which also uses both precast concrete and another material, but
preca:rting plant. where structural performance relies on the interaction between
Talble 2A gives an overview of the most relevant features of the two. Precast concrete systems are compatible with most other
each construction system with respect to their posible forms of construction such as in-situ concrete frames, masonry
applic:ations. walls, steel roofs, facade cladding in other materials, etc.
F ‘ig. 2.4 Outline of building with load-bearing facades Fig. 2.5 Outline of facade with non load-bearing precast
and large floor spans concrete cladding
FIP fiandbook on precast building structures 13

Fig. 2.6 Extemal and intemal views of precast concrete sanitary cell
Precast floors, roofs and facades are often combined with cast problem. Apari from considerations of stability, it is the design
in-situ concrete or steel frames. Structural masonry can be and construction of the joints that requires the greatest attention.
combined with precast floors and roofs, but it is seldom Joining precast to in-situ concrete demands particular
combined with a precast concrete frame because the frame is accuracy in the in-situ work because of smaller tolerances in
normally erected too quickly for the load-bearing masonry to the precast units. There is more latitude in joining in-situ to
keep pace. Masonry is however sometimes used to provide infill precast concrete because inaccuracies can be taken up in the
walls. in-situ concrete work.
It is common for in-situ concrete to be used solely for the Although this Handbook is primarily concemed with precast
foundations and substructure,e.g. underground car parks, access concrete, the details provided may be found useful when
ramps and retaining walls. Structural compatibility is seldom a combining precast with in-situ concrete.

3 :Examples of precast buildings
3.1 1General sports arenas

The €urpose of this Chapter is to give the reader a general idea A combination of different structural systems is of course
how 1precast buildings are conceived, the different applications
and the types of precast units commonly used. For practical possible as well as specific systems which are available in
reasons, the buildings are sub-divided according to their use. individual countries. This Chapter will however concentrate on
Each type of building normally has a structural system which the above mentioned main systems.
is se1lected with regard to the given requirements such as
load-1bearing, fire resistance, protection against noise, heat 3.2 Housing
insukition, etc. Modem precast low nse housing is normally designed as
Thle following classification of main building types is thus envelope or so-called 'Casco' systems, see Fig. 3.1. The term
consildered appropnate: 'Casco' onginates from the yacht industry and means the shell
of the yacht without any finishing or equipment. The system
housing comprises the structural envelope of the building, namely floors,
apartment buildings intemal load bearing walls and, if needed, inner facade walls.
utility buildings The extemal facade leafs are either in brick masonry or in
precast architectural concrete. The floors are in hollow core,
b large free space buildings, e.g. industrial buildings beam-block or precast composite floor-plate systems. Stairs can
car parks also be prefabricated.
Fig. 3.1 Examples of 'Casco' housing system
Handbook on precast building structures 15

Plate 1. Completely precast family house, Finland
Plate 2. Family house, Germany
3.3 Apartment buildings 3.3.2 Load bearine facades

Apartment buildings are usually designed as bearing wall Load bearing facades are commonly designed in architectural
structures. Precast walls offer the advantage of speed of concrete. The floors are supported by the facade units. The
consmction, ready to paint surface finishing, acoustic insulation facades are often composed of sandwich elements with interna1
and fire resistance. In apartment buildings, precast bearing insulation.
walls can appear as cross-walls, walls in shafts and cores and A different solution consists of precast load-bearing cavity
load-bearing facades. The principal different wall arrangements walls clad with other materials such as brick masonry, natural
are outlined in the following sections. stone, curtain walls, etc.
3.3.1 Load bearing interna1 walls 3.3.3 Mixed bearing wall system
The bearing wall system has been derived from classical The combination of the two above systems together with special
buildings with brick or block masonry walls. The cross-wall elements for oriels, etc. gives the architect a great degree of
structures are especially suited for serial housing construction freedom to create a building which excellently fulfils the
and large apartment buildings. Additional precast products are functional and aesthetic requirements.
shown in Fig. 3.5.

m
I
floor
height
thickness = outer concrete 50 - 80mm+

insulation depending on climate
inner concrete 80 - 200mm
Facade elements /
:Y
Beam-block floors
Load-bearing walls
0.15 - 0.3m
Hollow core floor elements

Stairs
Fig. 3.5 Precast components used in apartment buildings

Plate 4. Apartment buildings during erection, Louvain- La Neuve, Belgium
Plate 5. Apartment buildings, as above, finished with brick masonry facades
3
I
Plate 6. Apartment building facades, Helsinki, Finland
'P Handbook on precast building structures 19

Plate 7. Apartment building BES system Finland
Plate 8. Apartment building, Brussels, Belgium
Plate 9. Apartment building, Norway

Fig. 3.6 Precast solutions f o r utiliíy building frames Fig. 3.7 Examples of column, beam and facade solutions
#.4Utility buildings A column-beam solution is normally preferred when an

rtiliv buildings normally require a h g h dexe of flexibiliv. interior vertical load-bearing structure is needed. Staircases and
itenor load-bearing walls are therefore avoided. Many precast shafts are normally made with bearing walls. Additional Precast
dutions for the frame work exist. (see .Fig. 3.6) products are shown in Fig. 3.7.
'IP Handbook on precast building structures 21

n Sandwich panels and spandrel units
Inner wall units
0.2 -
U
0.4m
Fioor and roof beams
Rectangular or
circular columns
i 0.3 - 0.6m
Stairs
Fioor elements
Fig. 3.8 Precast components used in utility buildings

‘1
Plate 10. Utility building with central core, floors, columns, beams and load bearing facade, Sweden
Plate 11. Office centre, Birmingham, UK
“u
Plate 12. Office building, Trondheim, Norway
‘landbook on precast building structures 23

Plate 13. Office building, Woluwe, Belgium
Plate 14. Office building, Gothenburg, Sweden
Plate 15. Ofice building, San Donato, Italy

Plate 16. Office building, Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
4iiii-
Plate 17. Cultural centre, Mikkelin, Finland
Plate 18. Opera, Helsinki, Finland

l
Plate 19. St. Patricks Church, Napier, New Zealand, interna1 view
Plate 20. Prison, Spoleto, Italy
Plate 21. University, Helsinki, Finland

a
f
o
h)
P
rA
Lr
c
LCI
9.
3
o?
s
c:
3
o
o?
r,
a “5
2 W
o c.
-
r4 ?2.
P c
J 3
O
3
c,
..o
W
o-
E.
E
3
3.5 Large free space buildings When large column-free areas are needed, the building is
This type of building is used for: normally designed with precast frame systems or load-bearing
facade walls.
industrial buildings Intermediate floors may be installed in the whole building or
parts of it. Staircases and shafts are normally formed using
warehouses bearing walls. Additional precast products are shown in Fig.
3.10.
department stores, etc.
Straight
,J:. & ...
Saddle roof beams

-;. _ I
Saddle roof elements

Fig. 3.9 Outline of large free spuce buildings
28 FIP Hundbook on precast building structures

r‘
Overview of differcnt elemcnts
Columns and
fuundations socket
Roof bcams
Fig. 3.10 Pncasr componcnts uscd in largc frcr s p c c buildings
29
FIP Handhwk on prccast building structurcs
saddle shaped
element
straight single or
double T- element
0.3 - 0.6m
Fioor andor roof elements
5 - 12m
P-
Load-bearing Non load-bearing

Facade elements facade elements
Fig. 3.10 (Continued)Precast components used in large free space buildings

Plate 25. Building with ribbed facade units
__ , . n
Plate 26. Warehouse with 25 m x 25 m column grid
Plate 27. Industrial building With light roof sheeting

I
Plate 28. Industrial building with intermediate floor
Plate 29. Industrial building
Plate 30. Commercial centre, Wavre, Belgium

3.6 Car parks
Precast f r m e and skeletai systems with double -Tor hollow core
elements for the floors are used to obtain large open spaces for
parking. The following figures show various structural
solutions. The main precast elements used in car parks are
illustrated in Fig. 3.11.
A A
L. A
Fig. 3.11 Examples of precast parking garages

Columns Beams
0.3 - 0.8m $
0.5 - 1.6m
!
! Floor
height
0.5 - 0.8m $
Floor elements
0.3 - 0.4m
Spandrel units
Fig. 3.12 Precast components used in parking garages

Plate 31 Parking garage, Zoetermeer, 'i'he Ketherlands
- 'U
-/
Plate 32. Parking garage, hlünchen, Germany
Plate 33. Parking garage Germany

c
Plate 34. Parking garage, Bologna, Italy
Plate 35. Parking garage with precast brick-faced facade panels, Volkswagen, Belgium

expressions. The solutions of the load-bearing structures are
:d more or less individually for each building.
creat<
v¿
ring beams
double-T-elements
hollow-core units
seating components
stairs
architectural paneis
special elements.
dlowing examples show the possibilities using precast
:te. For smaller arenas the systems can be built up in the
vay as for industrial buildings. Fig. 3.13 Outline of grandstand frame in precast concrete
Plate 36. Grandstand, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Plate 37. Grandstand S Nicola, Bari, Italy
lbook on precast building structures 37

Plate 38. Grandstand, Newcastle, UK
Plate 39. Grandstand, Trieste, Italy
Plate 40. Grandstand, Canada

Plate 41. Skating rink, Groningen, The Netherlands Plate 42. Skating rink, Herenveen, The Netherlands
5
3
I c
Plate 43. Grandstand, sports centre, Turkku, Finland

4 General design principles
4.1 Introduction 4.2.2 Bas.: structural systems used in precast buildings

Every construction system has its own characteristics which, to The various systems are briefly presented in the following
a greater or lesser extent, influence the lay-out, storey height, paragraphs. More detailed information is given in the specific
stability, statical system, etc. For best results a design of a precast chapters of the Handhook.
building should, from the very outset, respect the specific and
particular demands of the intended structure.
Designen should consider the possibilities, restrictions and
advantages of precast concrete, its detailing, manufacture,
transport and erection and serviceability before completing a
design in precast concrete. Good organisation of the project
team and design routines is very important.
It is recommended that precast concrete organisations should
distribute design manuals to the client, architect, consulting
engineer, services engineers and al1 other disciplines to give
unified guidance to the entire design team. This should ensure
that al1 parties are aware of the particular methods adopted in al1
phases of the project, leading to maximum efficiency and benefit.
This is particularly true with the manufacturing and erection
stages as many consulting engineers may not be familiar with
some of the methods used.
A good design in precast concrete should use details that are
as simple as possible since the advantages of precast concrete r- T- ---- \ O -
are inherent in the simplicity of the details. Details that are too \ \
\
\
\
\
elaborate or vulnerable should be avoided. \ \ \
\ \
Theoretically al1 joints between the precast units could be \ 2 K t
made in such a way that the completed precast structure has the \ \
\ \
same monolithic nature as one cast in-situ. However, this is the I \
wrong approach and one which is very labour intensive, time \
c
consuming and costly. If the full advantages of precast concrete \3
are to be realised, the structure should be conceived according I
to a specific design philosophy particular to the structural system
used.
Speed of construction is a major consideration in most building
projects and it is here that the design of precast structures should
be carefully considered. This advantage is maximised if the ( h ) Continuous fr-amework
lay-out and details are not too complex.
4.2 Structural systems and overall stability

4.2.1 Introduction
In section 2.3, a first overview was given about the main fields . .
< &
of application of the basic structural precast building systems.

This section gives some more technical information about the
basic systems and the theoretical design rnodels normally used
for the various systems.
Stability and safety are necessary structural considerations at
al1 times in prefabrication. In cast in-situ buildings, up to a certain
height, the stability is usually assured without applying special
provisions. In precast construction the structural elements will
not form a structural system before the activation of the
connections. Therefore the stability and safety of a precast
structure should always be considered, regardless of the height
of the structure.
The need for horizontal stability requires systems that
transfer wind and other horizontal loadings to the foundations.
Various ways to achieve horizontal stability by introducing
stabilizing components in the precast structure are described ( c )Actual cantilevering column structure
in the following sections. The section concludes with some
general considerations conceming the location of stabilizing
components. Fig. 4.1 Unhraced frame structures
40 FIP Handhook on precast building structures

t c t Assumed
pin joint
at cnds of
heama
üeílcctcd
shape
Continuous
column
Pinncd
hahc
Fig. 4.2 Bruced skelerul systems
7rume systems
+ame systems are composed of linear elements, i.e. beams and
:olumns.There are two principally different options. In the first
:ase, stability is provided by cantilever action of the columns,
estrained into the foundations by moment resisting connections.
!he beam-column connection is pinned and acts as a hinge (Fig.
l.1 .a). In the second case, stability is provided by flexura1 and
hear continuity in the frame members (Fig. 4.1 h). The base
:onnection can be moment resisting or not as required. (See
Ihapter 5 for details.)
traced skeletal systems
haced skeletal systems are composed of the same elements as
ibove, but stability is provided by shear cores, shear walls or
imilar bracing (Fig. 4.2). The base connection can be pinned or
noment resisting. Chapter 5 also gives details.
Intermediate systems may appear where the beam-column
:onnections can transfer bending moments, even if they are not
Ully rigid. In the following al1 beam-column systems will be
reated as one group called frame and skeletal systems. Fig. 4.3 Exumple of u hearing wall stiwcture
?eur.ingwalls
%earingwalls appear as interior walls, i.e. cross walls or spine
valls, walls in shafts and cores, cavity walls and load-bearing
acades. The bearing walls support horizontal structures and
ransfer load to the foundation.
Bearing walls can be designed to carry in-plane horizontal
oading as one structural unit and transfer the load to the
oundation. The interaction between the wall units is secured by
:onnectionsand tying systems that transfer the necessary shear,
ensile and compressive forces.
'acades
:acade cladding can be load-bearing oí non load-bearing.
,oad-bearing facades support the floors and the above facade
inits, and also fulfil a horizontal stabilizing function in some
:ases (Fig. 4.5.a)
Elcvdtion
Non load-bearing precast architectural claddings are fixed to
he building structure (Fig. 4.5.b). They are designed to
withstand stresses appropriate to cladding panels, but not Fig. 4.4 In-plane action of precast walls
ntended to play any further role in the structure of the building.
letailed information is given in Chapter 8. concentrated load acting on one element will then be distributed
3recast,f700r.yand ro@ over several adjacent units.
rhe main function of floors and roofs is to carry load in the span Precast floors or roofs are also often designed to carry in-plane
ind to transfer it to the bearing structures. Floor and roof horizontal loads, in a similar manner to a deep beam (see section
:lements are normally designed and arranged to be simply 4.2.3). The in-plane action is obtained by means of connections
:upported. Systems appear where full or partial continuity between the units and overall tying systems. Floor systems are
Rtween adjacent spans is achieved by specially designed dealt with in detail in Chapter 6.
noment transferring connections at the support.
Adjacent floor units in a span are normally connected in such Cell systems
L way that they interact in carrying vertical loading. A Cell systems are composed of boxes and/or U-, T- and L- units.
:IP Handhook on pr-ecast building structures 41

, . *: . . .:, . , .. ,..... .. .....
... .. . . ....
.
.
.....
/
FdGidC
/
Section Section
( a ) Load-heai-ingjacades ( h )Non-heai-ing jucudes
Fig. 4.5 Precast facade systems - ai-i-angementand esamples
a
J
y-- J
( a ) Hollow coi-ejloor ( h )Rihhed sojfit jlooi.
Fig. 4.6 Precastjloors
42 FIP Handhook on precast hirilding structirres

4.2.2I Stabilizing systems
Gelle,ral
In orider to ensure stability against horizontal loads, the precast
struciture must be provided with stiff stabilizing components that
are alble to transfer horizontal loads to the foundations. The other
parts of the precast structure are supported in the horizontal
direction by the stabilizing components. The total concept for
horizontal stability is intended to transfer a horizontal load acting
at aniy location and leve1 to the stabilizing components and
furthler to the foundations.
A column that is fixed to the foundations by a moment resisting
Lullllection will act as a cantilever when subjected to horizontal
loading. The cantilever action of fixed-end columns can be used
for stabilization of low rise precast structures. Cantilever action
can also be achieved by staircase shafts and high slender walls
fixed to the foundations.
For larger walls the bending mode is less critica1 and shear
resistance in joints and at the base can be sufficient to provide Fig. 4.7 Pi.ecastfloors are able to distribute cmcentrated
in-nlane
r - - - - stiffness by so-called ‘shear wall action’. loads
A frame with moment resisting connections can also be used
as a stabilizing component where the in-plane stiffness is
obtaine:d by ‘frame action’.
In s!fstems built up from cell units, e.g. boxes etc., continuity
can ea:sily be obtained in the comers. This results in a stiff
structu re which can be used to stabilize a precast building.
The in-plane stiffness of floors and roofs can be used to transfer
horizorital loads from the facades to the stabilizing components.
This ac:tion of horizontal subsystems is known as ‘diaphragm
action ’. Such diaphragms should be considered as essential parts
of the stabilizing system. By the action of the diaphragm the
horizorital load will be distributed between the stabilizing
components to which the diaphragm is connected.
Wht:n a stabilizing component such as a wall, a frame ora floor
is comlJosed of several precast elements, the interaction between
them TIiust be secured by appropriate design of the intermediate
connections. The design of stabilizing components will be
described more in detail in the following chapters.
Cantilever action of columns and slender walls
Precast columns and wall units can be fixed into the foundations
with moment-resisting connections. This is easily achievable in
good ground or with pile foundations, but tends to be expensive
in reclaiimed ground where the sizes of the bases are much larger
compai-ed with bases in other stabilising systems, e.g. shear walls
or core:s. The basic solution for the connections are shown in
. .D. 4...1 O. In the case of pockets, Fig. 4.10 (a), grout or concrete is
Fiu Fig. 4.8 Horizontal load transfer
place:d in the annulus between the column and inside face of the
pock et. In the solution with protruding reinforcement, Fig.
4.10.(b), projecting bars from the foundation or from the column
are fi xed into grouted openings in the columns and also into the
founldation. In the bolted connection, Fig. 4. IO.(c), the
founcjations bolts are secured and protected with grout.
Cantilever action on (’ores
Latei-al stability of multi-storey buildings is often provided by
central cores. Central cores can be cast in-situ or precast. There
are several solutions for precast cores, either with individual
walki connected on site, with L-, T- or U-shaped units,
comt)inations of these, or with prefabricated boxes. (See Fig.
4.1 1. ) The main restriction for the latter may be in crane capacity
on si te or in transportation.
Franie action
Morrient and torsional continuity between frame elements may
be a chieved by designing precast frames from H-shaped
elements as shown in Fig. 4.12 or by using moment resisting
connections between members. The H-frame principle has been
used where there is a large degree of repetition. Moment-
resislting connections are seldom used because it is difficult to
achie:ve continuity within the connection. These types of
connections place important engineering responsibilities on site
work ers, and thus require very close quality inspection at the
site. Fig. 4.9 E,mmples of cell systems
FIP Handbook on precmt building structures 43

( a ) Pocket foundation ( h )Projecting hars (c) Base plate
B
3
( a ) Pocket &)undation ( h ) Projecting haix (c) Base plate
Fig. 4.10 Moment resisting foundations
Fig. 4.1 1 E,uamples of precast shear coi-es

Shear wall action
Concrete walls possess considerable in-plane stiffness. For this
reason they are commonly used both in precast and cast in-situ
concrete buildings to stabilize the structure against horizontal
actions.
Storey-high shear walls panels are connected in such a way
that the total wall can function as a cantilevering unit and they
are designed as deep beams. If necessary, tension reinforcement
is used to anchor the units to the foundation and to provide
continuity between successive storey-height-units if insufficient
vertical loading is available on the elements. (See Fig. 4.13) .
Boses
Entire prefabricated boxes, e.g. room cells, staircases, etc. may
be used to provide overall stability by relying on flexura1
continuity at the corners of the precast unit or by connecting U
or L-shaped units together. Flexura1 and shear continuity is
achieved at the corners of the precast unit, and shear transfer is
achieved elsewhere where the connections are made on site.
Diaphragm acrion in ,floors and roqfs
In precast buildings, horizontal loads from wind or earthquakes
are usually transmitted to moment resisting frames, shear walls,
cores, etc., by the roofs and floors acting as diaphragms.
By definition, diaphragms are flat horizontal structures of
which one of the principal functions is to transfer horizontal
forces acting on different places of the structure to the vertical
stabilizing components.
To resist these forces, diaphragm action of the entire floor is
achieved either through adequate connections between the floor
units, or with the aid of a cast in-situ reinforced concrete topping.
Fig. 4.14 shows the basic assumptions in design. Detailed infor- Fig. 4.12 Example qf a porta1,fiame structure - diagrammatic
mation is given in section 6.5.3 of this Handhook. and actual
4.2.4 Arrangement of the stabilizing system
In precast buildings, stabilizing components are combined and
connected to form an overall stabilizing system. The arrangement
of the stabilizing system varies depending on the type of building
and the actual basic structural system.
Cantilever action of columns can be used to stabilize low-rise
buildings with beam-column systems to about three floor levels.
The columns are normally continuous for the full height of the
structure. Horizontal forces parallel to the beams can be
distributed by the beams so that columns in the same frame
interact in bending. (HI in Fig. 4.16). Horizontal forces in the
transverse direction (see H2 in Fig. 4.16), are resisted in the first
place by the facade columns. However, for economical reasons
it is often advisable to let the intemal columns participate. This
can be done in two ways, i.e. either through the diaphragm action
of the roof or intermediate floors, or with the help of diagonal
bracing.
Diaphragm action in roofs is only achievable with concrete or
cellular concrete roof elements. The connections between the
elements and the tying systems are designed to resist al1 in-plane Fig. 4.13 Esample qf structure with shear walls
forces. In this way the total horizontal force acting on the
building is distributed over al1 the columns according to their Precast concrete shear walls are inexpensive, have large in-plane
stiffness. stiffness and strength, are easy to erect and may be integrated
For light roof structures where diaphragm action cannot be with the beam-column system as either infill walls or cantilever
achieved, the distribution of horizontal forces on the gable walls walls or boxes. Infill masonry walls and steel cross-bracing are
over the extemal and intemal columns can be secured by also used.
diagonal bracing between the beams of the extemal bays with The skeletal structure must be looked upon as a whole in its
the help of steel rods or angles. three-dimensional shape. Normally it consists of two principal
Cantilever action of columns is easy to use, but the maximum directions perpendicular to each other. The system may be
height of the structure is limited to about 12 m because of the different in the two directions. For example, it is rather common
architectural restrictions on the sizes of the columns and the to use frame action in one direction and bracing in the other. The
allowable deflections. system may also vary along the height of the building, for
Braced systems are the most effective solution for multi-storey example, with shear walls in the lower storeys and beam-column
skeleton structures, irrespective of the number of storeys, systems at the higher levels. Shear walls are also often used to
because the stair and elevator shafts are already present for complement the horizontal stiffening action of cores, e.g. at both
functional reasons, so that additional costs of utilizing them as ends of a long and narrow building with a central core, or where
stabilizing members is negligible. The concentration of al1 cores are placed in an eccentric position.
horizontal actions to some selected members permits smaller Structures stabilized by frame action are seldom used because
columns and simpler connections. Connection details and the of the need for elaborate connections on site. Frames containing
design and construction of foundations are greatly simplified. double-T or H-shaped units avoid this problem to a certain
FIP Handhook on precast building structures 45

1 11111111111 1i1111
Flmr units
Plan vicw
Fig. 4.14 Principle of diaphragm action in precast Joor.7 and roofs
degree. Care has to be taken during transport and erection due to

the relatively large two-dimensional size of the units. In precast
structures, it is generally advisable not to put connections in the
span of beams or at the half storey height of the columns because
of the difficulty in accommodating the differences in assembly
due to dimensional tolerances of the units and in masking the
joint.
In buildings with load-bearing walls, cross walls are very
appropriate to function as stiffening walls. However they only
provide resistance in their own plane and ought to be completed
with other walls perpendicular to their plane or with cores. (Fig.
4.20.) When walls have rather large openings, e.g. for doors, it
should be checked whether the part of the wall above the door
opening can contribute. If not, only the part of the wall beyond
the door opening should be considered. Composite action of
adjacent walls forming L-, H-, U- or T-shapes are possible on
condition that the vertical joints between the panels can transfer
the required shear forces (see section 7.5).
The most important aspect both for structural and economic Fig. 4.15 Stahlization of low-rise huildings by cantilever
reasons is the achievement of regularity in the lay-out of the action of columns with moment resisting base connections
structure, both horizontally and vertically.
Diaphragm action of the floors is used to distribute the
horizontal load between the stabilizing components. The floors
must be designed and detailed in accordance with the intended
behaviour. The distribution of horizontal loading between shear
walls and/or cores depend on a number of factors, Le.:
Stiffness of the stabilizing components
In-plane deflection response of the stabilizing components
- this is predominantly a flexura1 deflection in cantilever
walls, a shear deflection in infill walls anda miss deflection
in steel cross-bracing.
Position of the stabilizing components - ideally the struc-
ture should be balanced by positioning the stabilizing
components according to their stiffness in order to avoid
torsional effects (see Fig. 4.19). Fig. 4.16 For horizontal stahility, interaaction hetween the
columns can he achieved by diaphragm action of the precast
roof
46 FIP Handhook on precast building strucfures

E
Rod hcm
Di;t@on;il
hr;icin@
Exicrnal
hay
"11 1 YlCU
. Expansion joints in the floor diaphragms - expansion joints

are usually provided at about 80 m intervals in floor dia-
Fig. 4.18 Exumplc c f o hr-aced skeletal structirre
phragms if the structure is rectangular on plan, or at about

60 m intervals if the plan is non-rectangular, depending on
climatic condition, type of structure, type of foundation,
etc.
It i s 1Jossible to optimize the number of precast elements in a

buildi ng by also utilizing stability walls and cores as vertical load Shear wiill,
canyi ng members. In this way, the permanent vertical dead load r
helps to reduce tensile stresses originating from horizontal loads Floor diophragm iiciion
and tlie need for vertical tensile reinforcement and anchorage i s
reduced or even prevented. Fig. 4.21 gives some theoretical
examples of possible locationi of the stabilizing elements.
As already mentioned earlier, torsion can be avoided by
appropriate located complementary shear walls. Fig. 4.2 1 (a)
shows the use of a single stabilizing core acting as a closed box
:don and capable of resisting large flexura1 and shear forces
nd, if necesiary in non-symmetrical buildings, torsional forces.
,Iternatively the core may be offset relative to the centre of a
ymmetrical building as shown in Fig. 4.21(b). The core is also
Iad-bearing because floor slabs are used to span from the core
,a the perimeter. This distance may be as much as 20 m.
In many instances two stabilizing cores are used as shown in
Fig. 4.21(c). The stabilizing cores are often used as stairwells
and are located at the ends of the building. The structure is well
balanced and, unlike the central core shown, this arrangement
can tolerate changes in frame geometry before the structural Fig. 4.19 Shear walls are needed to balance the torsion
efficiency of the stabilizing elements is reduced. However, the induced by the ecwwtr-ic'alposition ef the cor-e
effect of temperature and shrinkage on the slab in between two
stiff cores should be considered.
Stabilizing cores may be replaced with walls if an open
arcliitectural lay-out i s required inside the building. Figs. 4.21 (d)
and (e) show externa1 and interna1 walls in a balanced and
u n tlalanced arrangement respectively. Fig. 4.22 gives further
clarification. Stabilizing elements are also required in a direction
Perlpendicular to these walls as described in section 4.2.3. The
wal 1s may or may not be load-bearing depending on the framing I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
lay.-out.
1n connection with the balanced stability referred to earlier,
stakJilizing elements which are placed in the plan of the
uuilding in such a way that their centre of gravity does not
l-..:
correspond with the centre of gravity of the m a s of the

hui lding will cause torsion and unbalanced distribution of the Thc coic i \ rnosily
c"n\idcrcd a\ a
horizontal forces over the stabilizing elements. Fig. 4.22 shows composiic prolile
diff erent positioning of the stabilizing elements to achieve
u n t-. ialanced and balanced situations. -/ A
1+inally, when locating the stability elements, due Plan "lew

con sideration has to be taken with regard to the dimensional Dmr-opening: only ihe par1 0 1
ihc w d l heyond ihc door-opcning is
changes. Care should be taken that these deformations can take iaken inio considcraiion.
plac:e without, or almost without, introduction of serious cracks.
rypical combinations of stabilizing components for various
ES of precast structures are presented in Table 4A. Fig. 4.20 Positioning qf sriffening walls
FIF ' Handhook on precmt building structurvs 47

II Bl @'
I I
4.3 Structural integrity

The inost essential design purpose of preciist structures is to
obtain a coherent eiitity froni individual precnst coiiiponenta.
Some eleinents or parts of the structure have oiily ;I load-bearing
or separnting function. while others also perfomi ;I horiLontiil
stabilizing function.
The coherence betweeii aII these Durts is iichievcd throuch a
\et of adequate connections. 111the design of thew details, one
((1) tvtcr.iitrl .sytwiiotric,til s l r c ~ r i -\cull.s rrlso
(iioir-.s~.tiinic~ti.ii~iil
should not only consider the force transfer between the local
~>O".SihlC)
uiiits, but also the need for coritiriuity iicross the connections iind
the ductility within the connections to Lichieve geiieral structural
i n tegri t y.
This can be obtained through ;i three ciiiiiensioiial iietuorh of
ties. Ties are coiitiiiuous tensile elenieiits coiisistiiig of
reinforcenient bars or tendons placed in cast in-situ infill strips.
sleeves or joints between precast elemeiits i i i lorigituciirial.
triinsverse and vertical directions. Their role ¡a iiot only to
transfer normal forces between units. originating froin wind and
other loridings. but iilso to pive iidditionnl strengtti and safety to
the structure to withstand. to ;i certain extent. loading conditions
t e m e d as abnomial loads. ¡.e.:
settlernents
gas explosions
vehicle or aircraft colliaioris
tornados
explosions.
JK
Stabiliiiiiy coiiipoiieiii Sirucitire u i t l i f r m e Structure u ith dxletnl Structure with Structure with bearing Structure with cell
hylCIl1 systeni load-hearing walls facade systein
Caiitile\c.i-colulllll\
F r m c N itli iiioiiiciii
resistiiig cx)iiiiec.iioii~
Floor diqdirasiii *
Slic.:ii. \I a11
*
BO\c.\
l I
Detailed iiií0riii;itioii iibout tyiiig systems is given in sections CEB/FIP Model Code 1990. chapter 14 - Precast Concrete
6.5.1 and 7.3.7 o f t h i s / ~ l r l / r / h o o X . Elenients and Structures
Precast strtictiires are iiiore susceptible to the effect of FIP Recommendations: Design of Multi-storey Precast
abiioniial l o d s tliaii sonie ti-aditional foniis of construction Concrete Structures
because oí' thc presence of joints between the structural
compoiieiits. Ho\~cver.experience has shown that it is pertectly PCI : Considerations for the Design of Precast Wall Build-
possible t o cope M itli such loads by effectively tying together ings to withstand abnonnal loads
the various coiiipoiieiits of tlie structure. Portland Cement Association Reports: Philosophy of
Current protexsioiial consideration of abnornial loadings Structural Response to Normal and Abnormal Loads
concedes thLit failure of iiidividuiil structural elements or collapse
of a restricted portioii of ;i building because of a n abnorinal load A design approach to general structural integrity.
will be xceptable. although progressive collapse of a significant
portion of ;I xtriicttire a s ii result of local failure is deenied to be
generall!, uiiacceptable. 4.4 Connections
Progressive coll;ipse iiiiiy be defiiied as a chain reaction of Connections are amongst the inost essential parts in
failures followiiig diiiiiage t o only a small portion of a structure. prefabrication. The ingenuity of engineers and manufacturers
Progressi \,e c o l Iiipse i 11 bu i Id i iigs typical ly occurs when over the yeors has resulted in an extensive range of solutions and
abn«mial Ioaciiiig conditions ciiuse loss of structural capacity o r theoretical and practica1 justifications.
reinoval o f oiie or more critica1 iiiembers. Viirious design The overall behaviour of a precast structure will to a large
strategies tor iiiiiiiiiiisiiig the effects of accidental dainage have extent depend on the behaviour of the connections. In this
been put foru ml. iiiid these have been categorised as follows: respect, the connections should be regarded as essential parts of
the structural system.
Precast concrete connections must meet a variety of design,
Eliiiiiiiate tlie Iiiimrds uhicli cause local failures. ¡.e. pro- perfomiance and other criteria. Their principal function is to
Iiibitioii of gas iiistalliitions in niulti-storey buildings. in- transfer forces across joints so that interaction between precast
stiillatioii of specific protection at sensitive parts of the units is obtained. This interaction can have several purposes. i.e.
xtructure. c.2. bollards iiround columns to prevent vehicle to:
iiiipact. incorporiition of features i n a building which will
l i i i i i t tlic swerity of a hamxi. e.g. venting to liniit the connect units to the bearing structure
prcssure developed by a gas esplosion. However. with the secure the intended overall behaviour of precast subsys-
abow c\ceptioiis. ahiiomial loads can not be eliminateci tems such as diaphragm action of floors, shear wall action
t0t:ill). of walls. etc.
Desigii of the structure so thiit the hazard does not cause transfer forces from their point of application to the
aiiy locnl failure. I t is not possible to specify the loadinp stabilizing structure.
;issociated witli structiiral accidents with any certainty so
thiit. in ;ipplying the direct design approach. the forces to Other aspects concerning the function and appearance of
be resisted are of an idealised iiature and arbitrary inagiii- connections may result in specific design and execution
tude. Tlie British code gives data for such calculatiolis. requirements. for instance with respect to water tightness, fire
H o ~ e v e r from
. iiii ecoiiomic viewpoint. the above inethod protection. durability and aesthetics.
is harcll!, jiistifiable in the light of the sniall risk of the The detailing of connections should also fulfil requirements
OccurreIlce o f progressive collapse. with respect to the manufacture. transport and erection of the
Allou ing tlie iiiitiiil lociil failure t o occur. but desigiiing precast units. Here, the need for tolerances is an important matter
the strticturc s o that progressive collapse does not occur by to consider. Complex connections inay interfere with efficient
ensuriiig ;iii iilteniative path for the load. I n this respect. it production and erection of the units. Even the advantage of
is most iiiiportant to prevent structural inembers from precast construction may be lost by the use of inadequate
fiilliiig. thus initiating further damage by debris loading. connections and therefore the experience of the manufacturer
concerning good. appropriate and simple connections should be
Detailed iiitoi-iiiatioii iibout tie systenis and options for providing used in the design. The precaster can nomially refer to standard
an alteniative load path witliiii the structure to avoid progressive solutions that cover al1 normal needs. Solutions can be developed
collapse are given i i i sections 6.5.7. and 7.3.7. with or by the precaster during the final design study of the
Philosopliy aiid recomnieiidiitions for the design of precast prqject for specific cases.
structures coiicerning tlie risk for progressive collapse have been Not al1 connections need to meet the same criteria. Some of
presented in several publications. Besides regulations in nationiil the iteins discussed in this section are self-evident. Other
codes. puideliiies are giveii. amoiigst others. in: requirements inay not be so obvious and may require special
consideration or specification by the designer or owner of the
CEB Bulletiii 191: Genernl Principles on Reliability for structure.
Strticturt's The design of connections is not only a question of choosing
appropriate connecting devices. The connection in its whole
CEB Rulletin 169. Draft Cuide for design ofprecast wall
must be regarded. including joints, joint fill. joint faces and the
cOllllectioI1~
49
eiid m i l e s of the precast uiiits. The erid zoiies x h i e v e the force
transfer from tl1c coni~ectingdevices into the units arid must often
be detailed and reinforced with regard to the introduction of
forces and pos\ible defomiations.
The basic priiiciples and design criteria are given in this
section. eiiabling the designer to understand the design
philosophy o1 connections in precast structures in general.
Practica1 examplcs of good cotitiections are given in Chapters S
to 8.
4.4.1 Basic force transfer mechanism

T/-r///sfiv.
Of' t . o / , / / " ~ ' ~ . S . ' i o /, /f i ~ / ~ C < J . S
Coin pre ss i o t i to rce s be t w ee ti iidj ;ice t i t e I e me t i t s ea ti be
transferred v i a direct contiict. vi;i j i n t mortar or similiir piidding.
or v i a beariiir elements.
It is impoiíunt to consider the rish of iineven contact fiices. This
inny result in stress concentriitions iit tlie effective coiitxt m a s .
cccentric applicatioii of forces aiid torsiorial effects. (Fig. 4.14.)
Direct contxt between the eiements with n o intemiediate
paddiiig material can only be ~ i s e dwhere great :iccuracy in
tnanufacture is obtnined and where the bearing stresses are sniall.
Mortar or fiiie coiicrete is used to even out irregularities
betweeii the joint t;ices. I t is often iised in j o i n t s betueen
load-bearing eleinents such a s coiumns iind walls. sometimes
between tloors and supporting beams. but seldom under beams.
Nomial .joint thichiiesses are betweeri 10 - 30 nim for mortar mid
30 - S O tnm for fine concrete.
Soft bearirig miiteriiils lihe neoprene bearing pads will also
even out irregdarities and distribute the stresses over the c o n t x t
area. They are often iised for supports iinder beams iind tloors.
Their thickiiess varies between 7 - 10 m m or even more. The
larger thicknesses are used t o allow displacements and rotiitions
in order to rediice force build-iip iit the connections. Above ;i
certain thickness and loading. the bearings can be made froni
neoprene lamitiates with interinediate steel plate reinforcement.
The pads should be pliiced iit some distance t'rom the support
edge as load traiisfer at the edge iiiipht result in damiige. The pad
should iillow for beiim detlection so that direct contact betweeii I O
M
the beain iind the siipport edge i s avoided. k

Hard beariiig iiiaterials. such a s steel plates. are used u here
iarge forces are to be transmitted. o r tor welded connections
between the siipported units.
T/.tri/sfi./.c!f' / ( , / / . s i / r fi)i.c,cJ.s
~
Te ti s i 1e force s are i iorina II y t ran s fe rred be t w eet i c o tic re te
eleinents by varioiis types of steel connectors. The cotinectors
can be placed t o be contiiiuoits across the @nt and anchored iri
the elements at e x h side. or anchor details are placed in each
elemeiit aiid coniiected ;it the site by overlapping. dowel action.
bol t i ng or we Id i ng .
The tensile force capacity of the coiiiiectioii can be detemiined
by the strength Lind cross-section of the steei details or by the
iinchorage capiicity. The latter can be obtiiined by bond action
along deformed bnrs or by means of various types of end anchors.
Anchorage by bond is often used to connect precast nienibers.
The precast uiiits hiive projectiiig bars which are to be embedded
in cast in-sitii concrete after erection. End anchors can be in the
forin of anchor heads, bends. hoohs arid similar. The force
transfer is achieved throiigh lappiiig (Fig. 3.16 a). dowel action
(Fig. 4.36 h). o r other ineaiis.
Bolting is iised extensively to transfer tensile and sheiir forces.
Anchornges such a s boits. threaded sockets. rails o r captive riuts
attached t o the rear of plates are iiiichored in the precast units.
(See Fig. 4.77.) Tolei-ances are provided using over-sized holes
in the connecting niember.
Welding can be iised to directly connect protruding details. e.g. the units by bond or end aiichors iirranged x u ~ r d i t i gto the
reinforcement bars that ovcrlap (Fig. 3.38 a). An altemative i s to principles above.
use an intemiediate steel piece which i s used a s a link in between Post-tensionirig i h iised in segmental coiistriictioii and i i i the
the concrete iinits. The intermedinte piece can be welded to walls of tal1 buildings. Cable ducts are iristallcd into the iitiits.
protruding detnils (Fig. 4.38 b) o r t o anchor plates o r angles and, after erection. the prestressing cables ;ire plnced in the ducts
einbedded in the eiement surface (Fig. 4.18 e). The anchor plates and post-tensioned. The .joints between the uiiits are Lible to resist
are fixed to the concrete eiements by welded bars anchored in teiision and shear forces.
5o
íd J
T/~<l//.qi’/. (!/’ . \ . / / ~ ~ l / / ~ , / i ~ i ~ í ’ c ’ . s Slieiir keys can be foiined by cast in-situ concrete or grout in
Shear torces bei\\een adj;iceiit concrete eleiiients can be joints between elenients with castellated j i i i t faceh (Fig. 4.30 a).
transferred t liro iig Ii hoiid. frict ion i n joi n t i n terfaces . interlock i n g When the connection i s loaded i i i stiear along the joint. resistance
by shear he!,\. d o u e l actioii of traiisverse steel bars o r rods. or is obtained by the keys acting a s mechanical locks that prevent
by Inec1i;inic;iI s h e x devices. Sliear triinsfer between precast and significant slip.
casi i n - s it u concrete i i i t erfiice s tliroug ti bond i s poss i ble for lo\v Various failure inodes are possible. Joint separation should be
shear stresses. Valties for xiiiiissible shear stresses by bond are prevented by ti’ansverse ties (Fig. 4.30 b). The connection
giveii iii Eiirocode 3. Part I €3 P i w i r s t C‘o/icwtc E/criw/i/.v i r i d nornially gives s t i f f behaviour until the loching mechanisin is
Strilc.r/r/~(~.\. destroyed by craching. The capacity then drops but the
Iii ;I joiiit iiitertxe n,ith soiiie roughneAs. shear forces are connection may have a considerable residual capacity acting in
inainly trnnsferrcd by friction. Houever. compressive stresses the shear friction mode.
are needed at tlie joiiit interface t o create the frictional resistance When steel bars o r rods are placed across ;i @ni. shear forces
(Fig. 4.29 a. werleaf). A periiiaiieiit compressive toree can be can be transfened between the elemeiits by dowcl action. The
obtained by gravity load which is traiisferred across the joint or dowel is loaded by shear at the joint interface aiid supported by
by prestressing. For iiiany iipplicatioiis i t is i i o t possible to obtain contact stresses in the concrete. The state of loading results in
a conipressive force in this wa!,. considerable bending defomiations i n the dowel. In the ultimate
However. i t is possible to induce compressive torees by state. the concrete crushes locally at the contact area and plastic
reinforceiiieiit bars which ;ire placed ;icross the joint and strained hinges are foiined in the dowel.
when the coiiiiection is loaded in shear (Fig. 4.39 b). Because of The shear capacity depends iiiniiily o11 the bar dimension and
the roughiiess in tlie joiiit interfiice. ;I wiall joint separatioii will the concrete strength. The capacity decreases considerably when
tale place when the joiiit is loiided in shear and slip occurs the dowel is loaded by shear at some distance from the interface.
along the intert’xc. The joiiit sepawtion creates tension in the Such eccentric loading should be avoided as much as possible.
reinforciiig bar.; aiid the tensile force is balanced by a Large tensile stresses may occur in the concrete around the
compressive toree ;icross the iiiterface. dowel.
The induced compre ¡ve force make shear triinsfer by friction Depending on the dimensions of the concrete eleinent and the
possible. tlie so called heiir-frictioii’ effect (Fig. 4.79 e). The distances from the edges. it may be necessary to provide splitting
sheiir resistiiiice increases with ;in iiicreiised amount of transverse reinforcement around the dowel. When the dowel is anchored by
reinforcenieiit iiiid iiicreased frictional coefficient. The shear bond or end anchors, combined behaviour of dowel action and
frictioii effect can be iiiiproved by iiidentatioiis at the joint faces. shear friction is possible.
7 t;A--''g
53
4.4.2 Types of connections I HC.i,ii
2 l>,n\c,l
1 (iroiiicil I 1 d C
Pi/i/icd(Y~/r/r<'c~fion.s 4 s"p,x>""'~p d
Precast heaiiis are usually designed t o be siniply supported. The
pinned coniiectioii is ;i typiciil solution for this case. Horizontal
forces can be traiisterred by dowel iiction of the steel bar or bolt
(Fig.3.33) wheii tlie vertical slot i i i the beam is grouted. Some
niovenient can be obtained if the slot is left unfilled. The
connectioiis lend themselves to simple detailing and
constructioii. Detailed inforinatioii about pinned connections is
given in section 5.6.
-IY,.Yi.\ Iillg .o/ln<'<.tions
Monr<J/If
Bending iiioiiic'nts are often transferred between concrete
elements by estnblishing ;I couple of tensile and compressive
forces i n the conriection. T h e principle is based on the splicing
of the reiiiforcement between units by means of overlapping,
bolting o r wldiiig. Fig. 3.33 shows examples of inoinent-
resi st i ng conncct ioiis.
TO/..\iíj//i// / / / ~ ~ i / l < ' / / f - / ~ < ' . ~ / s< f' íi ,Jr/ :/ :i I < ' í ' / / O / l . ~
Torsioiial iiioiiieiits ofteii iippear in precast tloor beains which
are loaded oiil! on one side. The resulting torque at the beam end
should be resisted ;it tlie wpport and transfonned into ;i bending
inoiiient in ilic' supporting inember. As with bending moment
transfer. the torcpe can be resisted by ii couple of forces. for
instaiice ii tensile aiid ;I coiiipressive force (see Fig. 3.33).
S i r . s l w i . s i o / l (~oIr/rwtions
Precast tacade uiiits are often fixed to the structure by ineans of
suspension fixings. They are intended to transfer the weight of
the panel hach 10 ihe structure and to resist the positive and . 1
negative wiiid loads.

SLAB
4.4.3 Desigii considerations 11 ll I
A vai-iety of aspects iiiust be considered in the design of structural
connections i i i precast buildiiigs relating to the structural
behaviour. function of tlie coinpleted building. tire resistance.
inanufiicture. handling and erection.
S i / ~ f l ~ ~ i l /l ~/ ~
< '<l rI cl l l ~ i o l l r
Connectioiis should he designed to resist the forces to which they
w i l l be sutjectcd duriiig their lifetime. Some of these forces are
apparent. heiiig c~iiisedby dead and live grrivity loads, wind,
earthquahe. ami soil or water pressure. Others are forces caused
by restraint of \ oluiiie chiinges in the ineinbers and those
requi red to iiia in tai n st abi I i t y.
Voluine changc's are caused by teniperature change. creep and
shrinhagc' of tlie clciiieiits. Iiistiibility can be caused by eccentric
loiidiiig. either iiitentional or uiiiiitentional. as well as laterril
loads froni wind aiid earthquahe.
There are priiicipally two opposite ways to take care of the
iieed for niovc'nients. ¡.e. either by allowing the displacements to
occur ;it tlie connections. or by giving the connections the
n e c e s s q restriiiiit t o prevent them. In the latter case the
connection i i i u \ t be designed for quite considerable restraint
forces. In priictice it i s possible to choose solutions. If some
relative displaceniciit i s possible. for instance due to elastic
deforinations of structural niembers or connection details. the
restraint stresses w i l l be relieved. Partial freedom for movements
will have the w i i e effect. In this context it is not only the force
transfer ciipxity of the connectioiis which is of interest but also
tlie full loiid-displ;iceiiieiit reliitionship and the deformability.
I t is i i l w ~ ;id\,isable
s 10 design and detail the connections in
order t o :i\,oid brittle failures in case the connection is
overloaded. tor instaice due to underestimated forces. Ductile
behaviour of tlie coiiiicctions is desirable. Ductility is the ability
to undergo pla\tic defomiiitioii without a substantial loss of force
triinsfer cqxicit). Ductility is often quantified by the ductility
factor \i,liich relntes the ultimate deforniation to the deforniation
at the ciid of tlic elastic raiige.
53
II r
Ductility shoiild i i o t be coiifuscd M itli deforiiihilit! iind not

o n l y :issociated with transfer of bendiiig iiionieiits. In the c;iw o f
ovcrloading. ;I ductile connection \vil1 rc;ich i t s yield xid s t x t to
detoriii plastic;illy. The plaxtic displiiceiiieiit u iII gi\ e tlie
iiecessary relief o f the resti-aint toree m l ;I n e u \t;itc of
equilibi-iuni will be reached. Largc displaceiiieiits u iII result. but
the force transfer ability is \ti11 tlicrc x i d brittle fiiilurez aiid
diimage i n connection /ones are prevented. The I x g e
deforniatioiis give wai-iiiiig of ;i prohlciii.
The principle of baliinced desigii for ciiictilit! c;in be iippliecl
iii order to secure ductile behiiviour o f conncctions. Tlie priiiciplc
for ;I balanced design is illustrated in Fig. 4.36 o11 ;I connection
ti-aiisfening iiiiiinly tensile force\ ;icros\ ;I joiiit. Tlie conncction
consists of sevenil coiiiponents uliicli can be coii\ideied a\ linh\
of ii force path. The iiiichorage bars are identificd as thc ductile
l i n k iind presurned to have the i i i o s t iiiiportaiit coiitribution to
the total pliistic displacement o f the connection. Tlic iiiiii M ith
bnlanced desigii is to ensure that tlie ftill plasiic dctoiiiiiibilit> of
the ductile link\ ciin be reached before the coiincctioii tails.
Premiiture brittle fiiilures i i i the other coiiipoiieiits shotild be
prevented. This nieans that ~ 1 1 1 the other coniponcnts. ¡.c. the
iiiichorqe of the bars in the element. the steel :ingle\. thc \teel
rod and the welds shoiild be dcsigiicd to rcsist i i o t oiil!, the 1. ield
capacity but the ultimate capacit> o f the ;iiichoragc bars. I i i this
rcspect. ;in uiiespectedlj high value of tlie ultiiii:ite \trciigth of
the ductile component i s uiifiivourable ;ind slioiild be coiizidered
i i i the design by introduction of chiiriicteristic Iiigh \.alucs.
I n the design for force transfer capacit!, it is iilso importaiit to
consider s o called traiisieiit situations. Dui-iiig Ii;iiidliiig. storing.
triinsport and erection. connection details c x i he eupozed t»
speciiil loading cases. Teniporai-y supports. ecceiitric loading
during erection. wind l o a d s beforc thc building iz coiiipleteci.
lifting iiiid temporory stahilisatioii are esiiniples o f triinsient
situations.
In the design of connectioiis the poaaihility o f ;iccidentiii
iictions should also be considered. Forces can be iiiti-odticed in
the connections LIS :i direct effect o f xxidciital loads. e.g.
esplosioiis. collisioiis. etc. H o ~ e v e r iii . c;iscz when accicieiital
actions cause severe diimage to the building structure thcrc will
be ii need for force redisti-ibution iind the foniiatioii o f alternative
load-beiiring systenis thiit can bridge ovei- ihe daiiiaged part. The
connections. such iis esseiitial parts of the striictiiral s!'steni.
sliould facilitate such traiisforiii~itioiis.111 dehigning for such
situiitiona. it is not only the force transfer capacity that is «f
iiitereat but iilso chiimcteristics such as defoi-iiiability ~ i n d
d uc t i I i t y o r evcii t he fu I I load-d i sp I;ice ni en t re i;i t ion \ h i p o f
connections.
Firlic~tioriOf' tli"
~~o~/~/cY~/io~/.\
With regiirds to the fiinction of the coinpleted building. certain
chiiracteristics mny be reqiiired froni the connection\. Besidez the
structural requireineiita coiiccriiiiig forcc triiiisfer ;ind
freedoni for niovements in the service atate. thc follou~iiig;ispects
niay need to be considered in the desigii of the conncctions:
vapour bai-rier
water tightness
When connection details are directly exposed to fire, the force
transfer capacity may be reduced as a result of the high
temperature. Therefore, connection details which are vital parts
of the structural system should be protected to the same degree
as other structural members. Protection can be obtained by
cast-in-situ concrete or fire insulating materials. However steel
details partly embedded in concrete will have a lower
temperature rise than non-embedded steel because of the thermal
conductivity of the surrounding concrete.
Many precast connections are not vulnerable to the effect of
fire and require no special treatment. For example, the beanngs
between slabs and beams or between beams and columns do not
generally require special fire protection. If the slabs or beams rest
on elastomeric pads or other combustible materials, protection
of the pads is not generally needed because deterioration of the
pads will not cause collapse. The pads can be replaced after a
fire.
In case of fire, walls and floors have an important separating
function as regards thermal insulation and fire penetration. The
connections at joints in walls and floors should be designed in
Fig. 4.37 BCLrm-cdumn cmncc.tion with hidden c.orbe1 order to prevent the passage of flames and hot gases.
Manufacture nf pr-ecast units
sound insu lation One of the most important pnnciples in the design of connections
is to keep them simple. Maximum economy of precast concrete
heat insulation construction is achieved when connection details are kept as
deformatiains simple as possible, consistent with adequate performance and
ease of erection. Furthermore, complex connections are more
dynamic rc:sponse to vibrations difficult to design, to make and to control and will often result in
durability poor fit in the field. This can contribute to slow erection and give
aesthetics less satisfactory performance.
The following paragraphs give a list of items to consider dur-
demountak)ility. ing the design in order to improve fabrication simplicity. In many
cases, some of these items must be compromised to enable the
When vapour an(d water insulation are used, it is important to connection to serve its intended function.
detail the connections so that the insulation is not damaged by
movements from loading, temperature, creep and shrinkage. Avoid congestion - the area of the member in which the
The heat insul:ition in a precast building is strongly dependent connection is made frequently requires large amounts of
on the constructici n of the joints. The air leakage through joints additional reinforcing steel, embedded plates, inserts,
should be minim;al to achieve low energy consumption. In cold block-outs, etc. It is very important to design the connec-
climates. the con nections should be designed in order to avoid tions in such a way that sufficient room is left for concrete
cold bridges. to be placed correctly between the different details. Rein-
With regard to durability, it is necessary to consider the nsk of forcing bar bends require minimum radii which can cause
fit problems and leave some regions unreinforced. If con-
corrosion of steel and cracking and spalling of concrete with due
attention to the ac:tual environment. Steel exposed to aggressive gestion is suspected, it is helpful to draw large scale details
environments shciuld be provided with permanent protection. of the area in question.
This can be achiicved by applying a layer of epoxy, rust proof Avoid penetration of forms - projections which require
paint or bitumen , or by casting-in with concrete or mortar. In cutting through the forms are difficult and costly to place.
many cases the c:onnections cannot be inspected or maintained Where possible, these projections should be limited to the
after the buildirig has been completed. In such cases the top of the member as cast. Even this inhibits finishing of
connections, with out maintenance, should have a life expectancy the top surface, especially on deck members of double
that exceeds that Iof the structure. Stainless steel is recommended T-units and hollow core slabs.
if maintenance c)f exposed steel is not possible. The risk of Minimize embedded items - items which are embedded in
galvanic corrosion should be considered with the use of the member, such as inserts, plates, etc., require plant
dissimilar metals. Galvanic corrosion occurs when metals of labour for precise location and secure attachment. These
different nobility are in electrical contact and are bridged by an items should thus be kept to a minimum. This especially
electrolyte such 2is water. The use of electrical isolators can be applies to items embedded in the top surface. However, if
required to preveii t contact between dissimilar metals. the same steel plate is placed in the bottom or on the side
When connections are exposed in a building, aesthetic aspects of the form, it can be placed with great accuracy.
can influence the choice of the connection type. For example, the
support connectiion of a beam on a column can be a visible Use standard items - wherever possible hardware items
concrete corbel c)r a hidden metal connection inside the beam. such as inserts, steel shapes, etc., should be standard items
(Fig. 4.37). More details are given in section 5.6. Various types that are readily available, preferably from more than one
of connections cain, from the aesthetic point of view, be more or supplier. Custom fabncated or very specialized propnetary
less sensible to cope with dimensional deviations of the items add cost and may cause delays. It also simplifies
members. fabrication if similar items on a product or project are
standardized with respect to size and shape. There is also
Fir-e resistancv less chance of error.
With regards to possible fire exposure there are two main Use repetitive details - it is very desirable to repeat details
aspects which skiould be considered in the design of connec- as much as possible. Similar details should be identical,
tions, ¡.e. even if it may result in a slight over-design. Once workmen
are familiar with a detail, it is easier to repeat it than to leam
the effect (if fire on the force transfer capacity a new one. It will also require fewer form set-ups and
the separating function of the connections. improve scheduling.
FIP Handbook on p i m m t building struc’tures 55

Allow altematives - a precast concrete manufacturer will peak acceleration. More sirnply. its effects are often idealired
very often prefer certain details over others. The producer with a set of design forces. derived from the site's date and the
should be allowed to use altemative methods or materials. structure's main response parameters.
provided the design requirements are met. Allowing alter- Seisinic effects have both vertical a n d horizontal components.
native solutions will often result in the most economical However. vertical components, up- and downwiirds. rarely affect
and best performing connection. well designed structures. which are iible to withstand vertical
Use 'foolproof' details - the general rule is that the actions both in overloading and in unloading - in fiict, the loads
conventionally present during iin eiirthquake a n d the safety
connection device should be as 'foolproof' as possible. It
factors iipplied to the materials are both taken to he lower than
should be placed in the mould. correctly orientated. with-
normal.
in the necessary tolerances. with a minimum use of effort On the other hand. low-rise buildings do not withstiind
and with less chances of making mistakes. horirontal forces other than seisniic and niay siiffer severely if
Avoid heavy connection items - a final point to consider they are not specifically catered for in design.
when constructing connection details is the weight of the The safety standards agree that. in nomial cases. the structures
connection units. Units requiring two persons for lifting should not collapse under the strongest expected earthquakes but
may in some cases be acceptable, but the general rule is could undergo even large diiniage. whereas tor frequent
that one person should be able to handle the unir done. If low-intensity earthquakes. there should not be iiny diimiige. Both
this is not possible. the use of cranes i s the altemative. In cases should be considered. Accepting daniiige for carthquiihes
that case the units can be rather heavy. but it should be having very long retum periods. coiiipiired with thc lifcspaii of
remeinbered that heavy and large units are more difficult the structure. is reasonable x i d econoiiiic.
to place accurately and their placing takes more time. The relevant feiiture permitting thc structurc iiot !o collapae
despite large daniage. ¡.e. Ixge defomiations. i \ thc 'ductility'.
StOI.U<L!E U l l d trwll.sl7or't Of' thr ~ 7 l ' c c U . s t1111 its allowing ultimate design forces lower thnn thosc N hich would
Due consideration has to be given to the fact that the shape and appear in the undamaged structiire during ;I givcii earthquake.
dimensions of the chosen connection details can cause problems The ductility is the ability of uridergoing large plastic
during the transport and storage of the elements. Reinforcement deformiitions. ¡.e.. during severe earthquahes the structure should
bars or other protruding items can be troublesome during be capiible of deforming in the post elastic range to lateral
handling and storage. They may also prevent efficient loading displacements of several times the displaceiiieiit at first yield
on trucks. Protecting bars can sometimes be replaced by threaded during several cycles of seismic loadiiig withoiit ;I aigriificiint
inserts and loose threaded rods or bars that can be screwed into loss in strength.
the inserts at the building site. It is difficult to quantify the ductility for coiiiplex structures.
Thus. structures are assigned 'ductility cliisses' xid 'coefficients
Eiwtioti of the clenictit.\ of structure' with regard to material properties, cross-section
Much of the advantage of precast concrete construction is due to design and detailing. Beyond the cliissification, designers should
the opportunity for fast erection of the structure. Field bear in mind the concept of ductility iind fit the structure to it.
connections should be kept simple to realize this benefit fully Symmetry and regularity of the structure defiriitel\. help the
and to keep costs within reasonable limits. I t is sometimes overall ductility.
necessary to compromise fabrication and erection simplicity in In the design of earthquake resistant structurea incoiporating
order to fulfil the design requirements. precast concrete elements the main difficult) has been to find
Hoisting precast pieces is usually the most expensive and time efficient and economical riiethods for coiincctirig the precast
critical process of the erection. Connections should be designed concrete members together to give iidequiite strength. stiffness
so that the unit can be lifted. set and unhooked in the shortest and ductility.
possible time. When fastening i s needed before unhooking to Composite structures are M idely used for iiionient resisting
achieve temporary or final stability. this operation should be as frames of buildings in soiiie earthquahe-prone couiitrics. such as
fast and simple as possible and not sensitive to weather New Zealand and Japan. Such frames are designed with the aim
conditions. Connections that make it necessary to move the of achieving monolithic behaviour. Otherwise. different
element horizontally in the final position o r t o hoist the units at mechanisms of failure iiiay be assigned. providing the
a skew angle should be avoided. corresponding critical m i e s with sufficiently ductile behaviour.
For fast erection it is necessary that the connections are 'Capacity design' aims iit ensuring thiit. in the event of a ver).
adjustable to allow for dimensional deviations. Not only should severe earthquahe. yielding will orily occur in selected locations.
the tolerances of the precast elements be considered. but also the In capacity design the desired niechariism of yieldirig is chosen
possibility of incorrect placing of the elements. This can be due and the yielding regions are designed for adequiite strength. stiff-
to deviations in the cast in-situ foundations or supporting ness and ductility. Al1 other regions of the structure are then
structure. In this respect. it is advisable to allow for as large dimensioned to ensure that they h i l l no! yield o r fiiil before these
tolerances as possible for such parts of the construction. For regions.
example, clearance gaps between a cast in-situ structure and
cladding are normally not visible in the finished building. and so. 4.5.2 Moment resisting frames
within sensible limits. tolerances should be made as lar,me as For moment resisting franies of buildiiigs thc best iiieans of
practica1 considerations demand. achieving post-elastic ductile deformations is by flexura1
Connections should be accessible during mounting. for yielding at selected plastic hinge positions. sincc with proper
placing and fastening bolts and nuts, carrying out welding. etc. design the plastic hinges can be riiade adeqiiatel\ ductile. Failure
and for inspecting and checking the quality afterwards. The risk modes to be prevented are those ciiused by:
of using connection details incorrectly should be minimired by shear
using simple but appropriate solutions.
plastic hinge rotiition of heavily loiided coluiiiiis
4.5 Earthquake design sliding shear along construction @nts o r other .jointing
faces with precast members or i i i plastic hinge regions
4.5.1 General design principles buckling of compressed elenieiits o r reiiitorcenient
Earthquakes act on a building in form of a motion at its base. bond failure aloiig lapped splices o r ;it ;iiichor;iges.
provoking motion and deformation of the structure and. conse-
quently. the rise of inertial forces in it. The ground motion rnay Al1 of these undesirable failure iiiodes leiid 10 premature strength
be represented by an accelerograni. For the sake of design, it degradntion and reduced capability for eriergy diaaipation during
may be defined by means of a spectrum of frequencies and a cyclic loading.
56
1 1 1
I l
n
O 0
Tlie coiiiicctioii between tlie precast floor eleiiieiita aiid diiiiciisions. cte. Modulatioii iii coiiiicciioii \iiili iii;i\\ proiliictioii
the vertical clciiieiits to u hich tlie hori/.oiital loads are is theretore i i o t iiiiper;iti\,c. h i t iiiost tlesir;ihlt. ;la i t ha\ ;ti1
t raii sfei-red shou Id hav e xleq ti;i te st reiig t h and s t i ffiiess . intluencc o11 the cost of the eleiiients.
Shear heys o r iiiechaiiiciil coniiections ciin be used with This iiieaiis that prccast coiicrcte prodiictioii planta \Iioiilil he
:ippropriiitr reintorcenieiit to foi-ni such coiinectioiis. ;is \ers;itile ;ia poaaiblc i i i ordcr to gi\,c tlic rcqiiircil \.;iri;itioii biit
s t i II g u;lr;ln tee cont i 11ti i t ) of pro11tic t i011. Slaiitl;irll i /at ion \ ti0 LI Id
Tensile iii-pliiiie forces due to deep beaiii defoniiatioiis of
i i i the t'irst iiistaiice be piirsued IoI dctail\. cro\s-scctioiis.
ttie tiiaphragm betueeii ttie vertical structural eleiiieiita
slioiild be tnhen by specially desigiied teiisile reinforce- coniiections. base t!'pc prodiicts aiid s! stciiis. tahiiig iiiodtilar
iiient tliat iiiay be desigiied iiccordiiig to ;I struts and ties coordiii~itioiiinto :icco1int i-ather t t l ~ i i i I oo/; si~iiid~irdi/~itioii of
illodel. conipoiiciit s.
Tlie hnsis f o r iiiodiil;ir plaiiiiiiig is to selcct ;I \iiit;iblt. grid.
Ofteii ;I reiiiforced coiicrete top?iiig is cast iii-sitii over precast \\here the building i s located relati\cto ttie i1i;iiii ;i\is 0 1 - lille\ ot'
floor cleiiiriita. This toppiiig coiiiiccts the precast eleiiients tlie grid. The i i i o d t i l ~distaiicc\ b e t ~ e e i itlic griil liiies shotild. as
f . i I. '.1 5 possible. be eqiial. Tliia nill l i i i i i t tlic iiiiiiibci. ot'diftrrriit
togetlier xici traiistcrs ttie seisniic shear forccs dc\,eloped i i i the
tloor systeiii to tlie verticA eleiiieiits. Diaphragnis which are coiiipoiiciits to be iiiaiiiit;ictiii-ed aiid siiiiplity the dt.t;iiliiig. The
\itiole process tlicii hccoiiics iiiucli iiiorc cfficiciit.
reqiiired onl) t o distribute horimiital forces gciierated at their
ouii leve1 to uell distribtited vertical eleiiieiits will i i o t c a ~ i s e Tlic iiiost coii1iiioii iiiodiilc ot' ;I hasic plaiiiiiiig grid is ;I
problems in design. iiiiiltiple of 300 i i i i i i ( 3 M . \\,here M = 100 i i i i i i ) . Thc niost
coiiiiiioii choice ot dist;iiicca betu ecii ttic grid Iiiics i s 1700 iiiiii.
Diaphragiii t'orces are geiier;illy Iou i i i regular friiiiies iind
becoiiie relevaiit iii dual structures. Tlicy iiiay become very great 7400 111111. 4x00 111111. 01'6000 111111. I t is rccoiiiiiiciitiet1 1hat spaii
in structtires wlicre thc positioii of w d l s anct diaphiagiiis vary Iciigths Liiid siles of coiiipoiiciits that f i t iiito ibis s! atciii he
:ilong the ir heigh t. cliosen. Guidclincs I10u t o c11oosc grici line tli\t;iiice\ are gi\,eii
i n thc tollo\ving chapters tor each 1' pc ot strllL~til~~l s! stcni.
Iiidustri~llpi-oductioii lead\ t o sLl~st~lnti~ll co\t sil\ ings. ;iii11 has
4.6 Modular coordination and a l w ~ i y sbccii sccii a s ;i possiblc soliitioii to redtict. tlic high cost
Icvels o ! modei-n coiistrlictioii. For solile t> pcs 0 1 ' L~on\trllction.
standardization s ucli LIS i nd us t ri al iind con1iiierc i iil bii iId ii i gs. t he pri iic i plc of
Modulatioii is ;iii iiiipoi-t;iiit ecoiioiiiic factor in deaigning aiid tising standard building coiiipoiieiits has gciier;ill! bceii acccptcd
coiistructiiig buildiiigs. both for the structural parts iiiid the iind applied. For other btiildiiigs. iiiainl! thow \iticre rcpctitioii
finishiiig. This is geiier;iII!, truc tor iiII building methods aiid i s iiitlueiiciiig the arctiitectural qipcxmcc. ;i cc'rtaiii ;iwrsioii
iiiaterials. Houever. iii prcfiibrication. this is e v e n niore iigaiiist over-cievelopeci staiid~ircii/~itioii h;is becii ciicoiiiitcred.
proiiounced. especially i i i teriiis oí' stiiiidai-di/atioii and miss 111 industrial btiildiiigs. rnodtilatioii iiiid st~iii~l~ii.di/atioii does
production. The use of iiiodular plaiiiiiiig i s iiot aupposed t o be ;I i i o t onl) iiieaii that Al diiiiciisioiis are bascd oii ;I stiiiidxdi/ed
liinitation o11 the freerlom of plaiiiiiiig as i t is only LI tool to iiiodular grid. but a l s o that the clciiiciits Iiiivc sí;iiiil;irili/ed sh;ipes
x h i e v e systciiiatic worh mid ecoiioniy iind t o siiiiplity iii1cl reiiitorceiiieiit. Tliia eii;ibles tlie preca\ter to dispo\c ot scts
coilnections and detai ling. o f iiioulds which can be tised duriiig loiig pcriods uid tor iiiiiii!
As ;I rule. modular coordiiiatioii should be used throughout tlic pro.jects. aiid thus beiictit t'roiii tlic iid\.aiitage\ ot' m i s s
precast buildiiig in every desigii. as fiir a s it cioes i i o t coiitlict uith prod iict ion.
other coiistructioiial o r architecturnl requireiiieiits. Where For office buildirigs. schools. Iioapit;ils iiiid siiiiiliir buildiiigs.
possible. staiidiirdi~ediiiiits. elements iiiirl systenis should be ttie interna1 structure i s geiierdl! iiiodtilated. l'lic iiiodulx \iicltli
tised aiid iioii-st:iiidard solutions and details shoulci be avoided. of floor elements i s ofteii tahcii o \ e r i i i tlic plmiiiig of tlie tloor
This applies ~ i l s oto tlie grid line distarices. storey heights. step aiirfiice.
5S
For tlie t:ic;ides. iiiodiilatioii is ccrtiiinly desirable. but sliould h i i c l i an extent that stereotyped huildings w i t h tlie same
not coiistitiite ;in obstiicle tci tlie architectural concept of the appeiirnnce aiid cliaracter over tlie whole country resulted.
building. Fnr too olteii in tlie piist. iircliitectural concrete fiicades H c ~ e v e r .there are iilso a Iiirge iiumber of positive exiimples
have gi\ e11;I stereotyped iiiipressioii due to tlie repetitiveness ot Lvhere prefabrication has led to complete satisfxtion, both with
the eleiiieiit\ in tlic tiiciide. Hov.e\w. todiiy i t is unjustifiable to respect to tlie constructional ami architecturiil features.
critickc tlie ide;i ot precastiiig for laching tlexibility siiice eiich The shape o r lay-out of tlie building does not necessarily need
facade pr0;ect is 1is1i~iIlydesigned a s iI 'one-off' for whicli nevv to be rectanylar. dthougli it is the most coniiiion shape. Fig.
inoulds ~ I M Iiiivc to be iiixie. Precast faciide uiiits c;in be 4.4 1 shom s examples of possible shapes iind configurations. The
niore ile\ibie tliiiii i i q otlier product o11the inLirhet. pliinned use of the huildings will i i i most cases detemiine the
111 Iiotising x i d ;ip;irtnienth. there iire enou2h exiinipies froiii spaii lengtlis iind tlie directioii of the beams. arid thereby the
different coiiiitrics \\ Iiere st~iiidiirdi/iitioiiliiis becn ciii-riedo ~ ito
t selection of tlie type of beaiiis iind tloor iind roof slabs.
5 Frarne and skeletal structures
\election of tlic tranie

the c ~ p t i n i i i i i i11se o f coIllpoIlcIlt\
pro\isions I'or ser\ icca
special teattirea. slicli a s c;lntile\'crs
other itenl\ reqtiiriiig \pc'eifie;ltiOil. sticli a s iippearance ;iiict
finish iind other perforinance reqtiireiiients.
For iiiost buildiiigs tlie selection of iiiteriial fi.ame conipoiieiits i \

goveriied by tlie deiii:iiicis o f the hy-out. such a s the necd for
clear tloor xeiis. the loc~ltioii.\¡/e Nld orientiition of lift sh:ifts
and striirwells. ine/ziiniiie tloors, and iiiiijor subdi\,isions of tlie
building. The choice of extei-rial components is governed b!, the
fiicade. and the desigiier is iible to specify ;in externa1 fraiiie thiit
is. in the iiiaiii. different froiii the intemnl ai-rangeiiient. xid t o
ad.1 us t t he fraiiie coiiipoiient s to Y ti i t bo t h i n temal aiid e x te rnal
requireineiits.
Detniled iiifoniiiition i s given in the following section iibout
ttie types of fi-anic\ LIlld components. m d the general principles
for st ruc t ti tal desig ii .
5.2 Types of frames and skeletal structures

There are a iiuiiiber of differciit solutions for precast concrete
fraiiies. They geiierallj, vary :iccordiiig to tlie height m d the ti\e
of the bu i Id ing .
5.2.1 Single storey buildings

Nornially tlie skeleton of. for exiiinple. ;I single store! indtistrid
building. is coiiiposed of ;I series o f bnsic portal fraiiies. Each
frame coiiiprises tuo coluiiiiis u i t h moiiient fixed coiiiiections at
the foundatioiis. and ;I free siipported roof beaiii. The btiildiiig
is nomially stabilired by tlie cantilever iiction of the fixed eiid
coluinns. Tlie Iiorimntiil load x t i o i i on giible walla can be
distributed to al1 colunins by diiiphrqm action of the roof. The
distaiice betweeii portal friimes is governed by the spaii of the
roof aiid fricade construction. In spaiis tip to 5 or 6 ni. the roof
eleiiieiits are directly suppoi-ted on the beams. Table 5A Guidelines on span lengths and building
Roof beiiiiis c;in be either sloped plane or straight profile. heights
Secondiiry roof bemis are used M hen the distiince betueen por-
tal franies is Iiirger thiin the span of the roofelenienta (Fig. 5.3).
Special large column-free ;irex are obtained by tising
Ioiigitudiniil priniary inteniiediiite beiiiiis u hich carry the inaiii
roof beams (Fig. 5.3).Table 5 A $ves some indications a s to the
span lengths and buildiiig heights. The figures are guideliries. I 1
not absolute liniitatioiis. Dimensions are in iiietres. OptimLim 1x - 33 7-12 13 1 s

Another sb stem for large halls exists tising large span roof units.
stipported o n rous of coluiiins and beaiiis. LIS shouii in Fig. 5.4. Max i m u i i i 40 13 21 3)
Example with prefahricated concrete @ame elements, with
ic
infill elements.
Fig. 5.5 E.wmples of precast @ames
with an optimum span of between 6.0 - 14.4 m, depending upon

the live loads and the type of floor slab selected. In the other
direction the columns carrying the roof structure will normally
also carry the beams for the intermediate floor.
The solution relies on cantilever action for horizontal stability
in the columns and rnornent fixity at the foundations and this is
generally applicable for frames up to 3 storeys. Besides the
above examples, the system is also commonly used for low rise
commercial buildings, schools, small offices annexed to
industrial halls, etc.
5.2.3 Multi-storey buildings
Multi-storey precast concrete frames are constructed with
columns and beams of different shapes and sizes, usually
connected with hinged joints. The horizontal stability is provided
by precast concrete or masonry shear walls or boxes, or by steel
cross bracing, usually around precast cores for staircases and/or
lift shafts. Stability has occasionally been provided by in-situ
concrete cores or shear walls, but these have not been used
extensively because they do not utilize the benefits of
prefabrication.
!n.ge roof rinits on lonqitirdinal portals
Beamlcolumn skeletal system
This system is widely used for multi-storey buildings up to 20
stability is provided in the same way as storeys high and above. Fig. 5.8 illustrates a typical frame of this
bed. The recommended span lengths are listed tYPe.
The structural frame is commonly cornposed of rectangular
to beam/column assemblies in single storey columns over one or more storey heights, up to four storeys
he use of different types of precast frame maximum length. Circular columns are generally one storey high
xamples are given in Fig. 5.5. and will be a little more expensive if they are longer in locations
such as lobbies or entrance areas. They will generally have to be
buildings with intermediate floors cast in a vertical position and therefore limited to one storey
:ally constructed as single storey structures, it height.
y to put in intermediate floors in parts or the The beams are normally rectangular, L-shaped or inverted
ding. This is commonly achieved by adding a T-beams. They are single span beams, simply supported and
,am/column assembly to carry the intermediate pin-connected to the columns or concrete corbels or by specially
developed hidden connection details. Another way to build up
loors are generally much larger than on the roof the structure is to use continuous beams on one storey height
the spans will normally be shorter. Span B, as colurnns. Hollow core floor slabs are by far the most common
3g. 5.6, will normally be between 4.8 - 20.4 m, type of floor slabs in these types of structures.
n precmt building structures 61

Systems with fi-ame elements
There are also precast frame systems where the beams are
integrally cast with the columns in frame elements. The elements
are a single storey high and the most common shape of the units
is double-T or H. The horizontal part of the frames acts as a beam
and cames the adjacent precast floor. The precast frame system
is comparable to a monolithic one and can transmit horizontal
in-plane forces to the foundations by frame action. It is well
suited for earthquake resistant structures.
The disadvantages of frame systems are:
complicated shapes of elements with respect to manufac-
ture and transport
lifting problems during erection
difficult temporary bracing during erection
Fig. 5.6 Precast halls with intermediate Joor
I Main \pandn.l k a m
2 Hollow-core unit
3 Intemal rectangular k a m
4 Gahle hpandrel heam
5 Gahle k a m
6 Main edge k a m
7 Landing suppon beam
X Staircaie and Ianding
Y Ground beam Fig. 5.8 Typical heamlcolumn skeletal structure, with core to
10 Column
I I WdII
provide horizontal stahility.
12 Douhle-lee unii
13 Interna1 heam
14 Main edge spandrel beam Table 5C Guide to span lengths and heights
1 B(m) 1 C(m) 1 H(m)
Minimum 1 4 1 4 1
Fig. 5.7 Principle elements in a low-rise precast fi-ame Optimum 1 8.4 - 12 1 6 -7.2 1 3-4
structure Maximum 1 20 1 14 1 16 and greater

Plan view
Fig. 5.10 Typical fíoor lay-out offi-amed precast building
Short spans require more columns and foundations and will

normally increase the cost of the structure. On the other hand,
long spans require heavier and more expensive elements. Local
restrictions on road transport have to be considered. The use of
light weight aggregate could eliminate some of these problems.
5.3.2 Modulation
In frame and skeletal buildings, modulation of the grid is often
govemed by the width of floor and facade units. Since most
precast floor units have a width of 600, 1200 or 2400 mm, the
most common distances between the grid lines perpendicular to
the floor spans being a multiple of 600 or 1200 mm, for example
7.2 m.
In the direction of the span of the floors, the modulation is less
important than in the other direction. The choice is very often
govemed by the facade modulation or particular conditions of
the project.
5.4 Design for frame action

There are severa1 systems in use to stabilize precast concrete
frame and skeleton structures. The various systems can of course
also be used in combination. The lateral stability is provided by
one of the three systems:
Cantilevering columns fixed to the foundation
Frames with rigid joints between columns and beams
Bracing achieved by shear walls or truss action.
5.4.1 Cantilever action of columns

Cantilever action of columns is generally used in low-rise
buildings up to about 3 floor levels. The stability of unbraced
pin-joined skeletal structures is provided entirely by columns
designed as cantilevers for the full height of the structure. It is
Fig. 5.9 Precast fi-ame with crucijorm units usual to ignore partial restraints provided by moment rotation or
torsional stiffness in the beam-to-column connections, deep
extemal spandrel panels, or intemal brick or block walls. The
5.3 Lay-out and mcodulation

5.3.1 Lay-out
, Hinged connection
The planned use of the biiildings will in most cases determine

the span lengths, the dirc:ction of the beams and thereby the
selection of the type of be;3ms and floor and roof slabs.
In industrial buildings Iroof beams will normally span in the
direction of the smallest siide of a rectangular floor lay-out. The
floor units will span in th e same direction. The reason for this
lies in the repetition of the elements, the option of using the edge
floor beams to support the facade cladding, the erection sequence
of the units, etc. For square floor lay-outs, the bays will be chosen
in relation to the use of the building. In offce buildings and
high-rise frames, the spar1 of the floor elements will often be Fig. 5.11 Skeletal structure stabilized by cantilever action of
perpendicular to the main facade. the columns
FIP Handhook on precasit building structures 63

liiie of Iiorizoiital ioad applic:ition is assiinied to be through the
ceiitroid of the tlooring systeiii.
The iii;ixiniuiii Iieight for an iiiibraced pin-joiiited striicture i s
Libout 13 ni. The fiictors coiitrolling heiglits greater thiin this are
Iihely to be xchitectiii-al restrictions on the sizes of colunins.
deforniatioiis of the striicture. ;iiirl/or the magnitiide of the
inoiiieiit -re st r;i i n t req ii i red iit tlie f o ti ndat ion. The iiionient
cai-ried by the coluinii depends o n the degree of fixity betueen
the column iind tlie footiiig iiiid on the resistance of the soil to
rotation of the footing.
Wind forces acting oii the fiiciide of ;I building iire resisted in
the first p l x e by the fiicnde coluiiins. Hou ever. for econoinical
reasons it is ;idvisable t o Ict tlie interna1 columns participate i i i
providiiig Iiorimital stiibility. Tliis ciin be done in two \\ays.
either through the ciiaphragiii iictioii of the roof. or with tlie help
of di agoiiii I brac i iig .
Diaphragiii action i i i root's is eiisily iichievable u ith concrete
o r cellular coiicrete roof elements. The coiinections betweeii the
eleiiients iind tlie tie beanis are designed to resist ~ i l lin-plaiie
forces. I i i t h i s w a y the totul horizontal force iicting on the
building is distributed w e r iiII the coliiiiiiis m m d i n g to their
5 ti ffne ss .
For light roof striictiires. uhere diiiphragm iiction can not be
achieved by the roof striicture itself. the distributioii of the
horizontal forces on the giible walls over the rxtemiil and intemiil
coluiiiiis is iichieved by dingonal bracing between the beanis of
the externa1 bays. with the help o f steel rods o r :ingles.
5.4.2 Frame action

When flexura1 continiiity is provided in the connections betueen
beiims iind coluiiiiis ;inci/or slaba. iii-plaiie stiffness is obtiiiiied
by fraiiie :ictioii. Tliis coiitinuity is xhieved with variolis means
such as inonolithic coiinections. b) uelding o r bolting the
beain-to-coliiiiiii coiinection. o r b\, iiaing doiible-T- or H shiiped
frame Llll i t s.
Siiice precast traiiies gciierally o i i l ) provide in-plane stiffness.
the sheletal striictiire is ; i I w provicied with other s t a b i l i h g
coii~ponentssticli a s corcs.
5.4.3 Braced skeietal structures

Varioiis types of hraciiig x e the best iiieaiis of providing stability
in iiiiilti-storey sheletal atructiires. irrespective of the nuniber of
storeys. Connectioii dctails iiiid the design arid construction of
fouiidatioiis are greatly siiiiplifieci. Precast concrete s h e x ualls
are iiiespensive. have large iii-plaiie stiffness and strength. iire
easy to erect aiid niay be integrated with the beani-colunin
systeni iis eitlier iiifill ualls or ciintile\,er walls or boxes. Infill
iiiiisoiiry ualls x i d steel cross-bi-aciiig are also iised.
Diaphragiii ;iction of tlie tloors is used to distribute the
horimntal load between the stabiliziiig coniponents. The tloors
niiist be designed iiiid detailed i i i :iccordance with the intended
behaviour. The load appiicntion in tlie braciiig units is once iigiiin
iimed t o be ;it the centroidal liiie in the tloor pliine. The
tribution of Iiorimiital forces between \hear w aIIs iind/or cores
dependa on ;I iiiiiiibrr of fiictors. ¡.e.:
Stiffness of ilie stiibili/ing coniponents
In-plaiie detlection respoiisc of thc st;ibilihig coniponents
- this is predomiiiantly ;I tle\iiral detlection in cantile\,cr
u~ills.;I she;ir detlection in iiitill u.alls xid ;I truss detlection
in steel cross-brxiiig.
Positioii of stabili/ing coiiipoiiciits - ideiilly the stiibiliLiiig
coniponeiits should be positioiieri i i i siich LI way thiit no
torsion occiirs. ¡.e. tlie centre of gravity of stabiliziiig
coiiipoiieiith coiiicides with tlie ceiiti'ti of gi.Li\.ity of hoy¡-
m n t ~ l ltorces .
Expaiision j o i i i t s i i i tlie tloor diiiphriigm - expanaion @nts
are iisiially provided iit &out 80 m intervals in tloor dia-
phriigiiis if the striictiire is rectaiigiil;ir on plan. or at aboiit
60 m intervals if the plan is iioii-rectan~iiI;ir.depeiidiiig on
c I inint ic condi t ions . t y pes o f S I rtict 11res iilld fc~linda
t i on
IyQe.
o4
5.41.4 Comparison of the systems
Cantilever action of columns is easy to use, but the maximum
he¡ ght of the structure, without additional stabilizing
COInponents, is limited to about 12 m because of the architectural
K Strictions on the sizes of the columns and the allowable
def lections.
Structures stabilized by frame action alone are seldom used,
:ame of the elaborate connections on site. Frames containing
rble T- or H- shaped fmme units avoid this problem to a certain
g-ee. However they may create some problems during
nsport and erection.
Braced systems are the most effective solution for multi-storey
ske:leton structures because the stair and elevator shafts are
alr<:ady present for functional reasons so that the additional costs
of utilizing them as stabilizing members is negligible. The
COIicentration of al1 horizontal actions in some selected members
Pelmits smaller columns and simpler connections. Furthermore
the columns will in effect have a horizontal support at each floor
lev el, which can also contribute to the slendemess of the Fig. 5.15 Cantilevering halcony with intermittent insulation
col urnns. layer. to avoid cold bridges
The skeletal structure must be looked upon as a whole in its
thriee-dimensional shape. Normally it consists of two principal
Perpendicular directions. The system may be different in the two
dirixtions. It is, for example, rather common to use frame action
in im e direction and bracing in the other. The system may also
vary along the height of the building, for example with shear
waIls in the lower storeys and beam-column systems at the higher
levels.
5.4i.5 Cantilevering floors and balconies

Ca,ntilevers may be formed in a number of ways. Beams may be
deFigned to cantilever over columns, to provide a projection up
to :about 2.5 m, although it can be larger with special or deeper
be2ims. The projection may also be varied to produce changes in
Plan shape and elevation. Cantilever beams require columns to
be spliced at every floor level. This design may also require a
gre ater number of beams and may need an additional edge beam
at 1he end of the cantilevers.
Certain types of floor units, such as double-T, may be designed
to 1cantilever up to about 1.5 m directly over edge beams. The
ovt:rall structural zone may then be large because it is not
PO! isible to use halving joints in the floor units at the supporting
be: ims, but this is not a problem where the floor cantilevers over
a structural wall. Hollow core units are not recommended for
diriect cantilever action, other than for small cantilever spans.
Wf ien using any type of floor, the manufacturer must be
1
corisulted because the floor units are normally designed for use
as Isimply supported spans.
Special care should be taken to avoid cold bridges in solutions
wit h cantilevering units. The problem is difficult to solve,
esl:iecially for cantilevering balconies, both in cast in-situ and
P'e cast concrete. A possible solution is shown in Fig. 5.15. An
intc:rmittent insulation layer is placed between the precast
bal cony and the floor. The acting forces in the joint are
traiisferred by means of concrete or steel struts and protruding
reiiiforcement.
Balconies can also be supported by separate plain or open
vertical panels, inverted L-units or other special elements. These
units are thermally insulated from the interna1 building structure.
An example is shown in Fig. 5.16.
Another solution to avoid thermal bridges consists of self sup- Fig. 5.16 Example of balcony units siipported by externa1
PO' Ting balconies, suspended from the building structure. Fig. panels
5.1 7 shows a U-shaped balcony suspended from the bearing
facade wall.
other products for special applications. Standard products are
5.!5 Elements easily available and are cast using existing techniques in existing
moulds. Typical standard products include columns, beams and
5.2i.1 General slab units. The products are standardized in the sense that the
In precast construction a distinction can be made between iength, dimensions and load bearing capacity can be selected
staindard and non-standard products. Standardization of precast within certain limits. This information can be found in catalogues
un¡ ts is normally limited to details, section dimensions and from the manufacturers or standardization bodies.
shaipes. Non-standard products are designed by architects for a Precast skeletal construction makes most use of what are here
sPe:cific project, e.g. facade elements in architectural concrete or called standard elements. In this case the designer needs to
FI1 Handbook on prec'ast biriiding strirctures 65

Fig. 5.17 Suspended U-shuped hulcony
Fig. 5.18 Examples of precust columns

choose the most suitable elements for the project. In the
following sections, general information is given about the
existing products. Detailed information can be found in the Columns generally require a minimum cross-sectional
product catalogues of the manufacturers. dimension of 300 mm to accommodate the column to beam
connections, but smaller sizes are possible. The 300 mm
5.5.2 Columns dimension provides a two hour fire rating, making it suitable for
Precast columns are standardized with rectangular or circular a wide range of buildings. Storey-height columns with
cross-sections. Standard dimensions for rectangular and circular continuous beams on the top can also be used where edge
sections are given in Table 5D, where recommended sizes are cantilevers are required. Columns may either be plain grey or
shaded. Any sizes and shapes can of course be manufactured, have a decorative finish on one or more faces. The designer may
independent of standardized dimensions. need to allow for finishes when deciding on the net cross-section
The lengths of the columns are specified according to to be used in the structural analysis.
architectural and engineering considerations on each individual Columns may be continuous to the full height of the building
project. For single storey buildings with cantilevering columns, or may be stepped back at an intermediate leve1 to satisfy
lengths up to 12 m are normal. In special cases precast, architectural demands. As in any form of construction, it is
prestressed columns up to 30 m have been used. In multi-storey desirable to keep columns in vertical alignment and it is
construction the normal column length for a unit is 3 or 4 storeys, preferable to terminate columns at positions where the floor or
with a practica1 and economical limit at approximately 15 m. roof construction can span over the columns.
Columns are commonly founded in pockets in in-situ concrete
Table 5D Standard column dimensions (mm) foundations, or on prepared pad foundations with projecting
reinforcing bars or anchor bolts. The base plates can be offset if
necessary (see section 5.6 ).
At floor levels, columns have structural inserts or corbels to
pfovide support for the beams. The positions of the inserts or
corbels may be varied to provide connections at different levels
on each face of the column, but it is preferable and more
economical to keep these variations to a minimum. Reasonable
changes in the dimensions or shapes of column cross-sections
Larger can be produced, either in a single precast unit or by splicing
v-~.,,
Circular different sections together.
FIP Hundhook on pr-ecast building str-uctur-es

Fig. 5. 250 - 300 250 - 400 800 - 1400 10 -25
300 - 400 300 - 500 1200 - 3000 15 - 30
300-500 1 400-600 1 1300-2500 1 25 - 4 0
5.5.3 Beams
A wide raiige of bennis are iivailiible in preferred section sizes.
usually SO mni or 75iiiin iiicrements. together with an indefinite
range of noii-preferred siles.
Roof' I W l / i ? l . \
Sloped beiims with 1-shaped cross-sections. normally
prestresaed. tire coininonly used for industrial buildings where
long spana are required. The pitch varies froin 5 to 12 %.
Normal aizes are giveii ¡ t i Table SE. Other beam cross-sections
which can he used in roof construction are the 'channel' beams
and the 'shed' beanis. They are also standardized in a selection
of sizea.
i.oof
Scc.oirlll~/~ \~ bc~<rtlrs
There are purlins with various cross-sections that are extensively
used ;is xecoiidiiry roof beiims. Normal span lengths are from 6
to 13 ni iind the depths are froin 3.50 to 600 mm.
~ / ~ o s c ~I X ~ U I ~ I S
M / r l t i - / ~ i ~ ~ .\ti.</iglit
Preciist m;inufacturers iionnally provide straight beams with
1-shaped cross-sections as a standard product. The beanis can be
used for botli roofs rind tloors. The selection of standard depths
i s nomially more restricted than for sloped roof beams. Normal
use for theat: beains iiiclude loiig spans and tloors with heavy
loada. Spaiis are froiii 10 to 35 in.
Beiiins witli rectangular cross-sections are very commoii.
Normal spans are froni 4 to 14 m.Standard dimensions are given
in Tiible SF. whcre recomineiided cross-sections are shaded.
Rectangular beams often havc half joints to conceal the
corresponding rectangular corbels at the supports. They
nomiallj do tiot ;ict in coinposite action with the tloor.
1
y?
F i g . 5.2 1 E.vunip1e.s o f ' d ( e i - e i i r types of'r~oof'

shcd irriits
heunis and
Flooi. h ~ t r r ~ / . ~
Floor beniiis nomially have a rectangular cross section. although
1-shaped beains are also used. especially for large spans and
loads. Rectangular benms can have either the same width as the
coluiiiii (Fig. 5 . 3 a). or ;i larger width (Fig. 5.35 b). In the first
case. it will he necessary t o cut notches in the floor units around
the coluiiina. but not in the second case (see also Fig. 6.13).
Nomial diniensions are as follows:
Length: 3.8 - 13.4 m

Width: 7.50 - 1000 mm
Deptli: 300 - 700 inm
67
Table 5F Recommended straight beam sections
700 1
750 1
300
400
500
T 1
Rectanguliir beaiiis witli largc widths iind m a l 1 deptha are often

iised i i i tloor striictiii'es. cspccially d i e n ;I limited totiil depth of
the tloor striictiire i s of priiiixy iiiiportmce. These beaiiis M i l l
iiomiiilly be desigiied aiid cictailed to x t compo\itely \I ith the
in-situ toppiiig.
Another coiiiiiioii tloor bcaiii i i i precaat con\triictioii i s the
ledge beiiiii. with e i t h e i ;iii L-ahiiped 01' iiiveited T-shapcd
cross-sectioii. Tlicx beaiiis also have the ;ici\J;iiitage that the) can
rediice the iieces\ary total depth of thc tloor striictiire t o ;I
iiiiniiiiiiiii. Sonie prociiiccrs Iiave developed iiiverted T-beams
uhcrc the ledge has ;I heiglit of oiil) 60 - 70 m i . Thc total
thichiiess of tlic tloor htriictiire i h heiice greatly rediiced. therebj,
peiiii it t ing gi-eat tle i,ibi I it) tor ;I I I tccli 11¡cal i n stal lat iona.
Noiinal diiiiensioiis are a s t o l l o ~ a:
Lciigth: 4.x - 11.4 111

Heiglit (11):
Width(b):
350 - 850 111111
200 - 500 i i i i l i l - +
Ledge M idtli ( b , ): I O0 - 150 111111
Ledge height (ti, ): 1 SO - 700 inm
Rec tiiiig ti lar bcniii s are les5 e ffic ie nt st ruct iiral I y t han in verted
T-beniiis. biit they are siiiipler t o ninnufacture arid may theret'ore
be iiioi-e ecoiioiiiical. They iiiay be considered where the
structiii'al depth is not ;I limiting factor. Changes in tloor leve1
iliay be ~iccommodatedby L-beaiiis. single boot beariis. or by
building up oiie side of aii iiivertcci T-beam.
OS
1
A
11 11 11 II
11 11 II 11
II 11 1 1 11
II II II II
Y u
70
IL
.
...
.,
.
-c
v
....-...
c
.-.
.
z
.-
?-
e
e
.
=z
'>
L
.....
.
c
.-.
.
.Y
=
.
Y
*
.
I
I
5.6.6 Beam-to-column-to-floor connections
Floor beaiiis are usuiilly coiiiiected to the columii o r corbels by
iiieaiia of grouted douels or bolts. I i i soiiie iiistiinces. especially
for edge beaiiis. torsional iiioiiieiits have to be i-esisted. This can
be doiie either by bolting or ueldiiig (see ;ilso Figs. 1.35. 5.33
;ind 5.31).
7.3
6 Precast floors
6.1 General The self weight ot the 4t~iici~ire - t h i s iii;iy be ;I iiot;ible

property i i i some iiifreqiient coses. Apart troiii tlic M tight
Precast tloors offer iiiaiiy adviintiiges over cast in-xitu tloors. e.g. o t the structure itself. tlie weight of ;I \ingle preca\i i i i i i t
absence of scaffoldiiig. short construction tinie. sinooth
iiiiiy be very iiiiportiiiit beciiu\e o t tlie trectioii circuiii-
underside. high niechanical and durability perfoimances. long
st;tiices. A tlooririg syhteiii o r iit Ieaht tiic si/c ottlic clciiieiit
spaiis. etc. The market at preseiit offers a Iarge viiriety of precast
is soiiietiiiies choseii oii the b;i\i\ 01' tliis ~ ~ ~ i t ~ ~ i ~ i i .
tloor systeins froiii which five inaiii types can be distiiiguiahecl:
hollow core tloors

ribbed soffit tloors
massive slab tloors
composite tloor-pliite tloors
composite bem-block tloors The reqiiired tle\ibilit), iii dehigii - tliis coiiccrii\ tlie
possible need to mahe big tiole\. cantile\ crs iiiici ;iiI hiiids
Table 6A gives iin indiciition of the siLes and weights ofthe miiin of shapes and coriiers i i i tht. buildiiig x i t l c;in iiitliieiice tlie
types of tloor. choice of the tloor t) pe.
The main structuriil requirements of tloora are span load
bearing. trrinsverse load distribution of concentrated loadings 6.2 Main floor types
aiid distribution of horic.ontal x t i o n s by in-plnne diaphragni
action. as well a s the ability to nieet the effects of accidental 6.2.1 Introduction
xtioiis iiffecting it or its supporting structures. 111 addition.
Precast floors c;in a l a o be classitied. ;iccordiiig to their
depending on their use. tloors can ;iIso have to fulfil other inanufacture. into totally iind piiiíinlly precaht tloors.
requirenients such as acoustic iiisulation. fire resistance etc. Totally precast tloora are coiiiposrd o í u i i i t a M Iiicli are totiill)
The criteria for choosing ii tlooring systein varies in each casi at the plant. After erectioii. the u n i t h are c~iiiiectt.dto thc
building and they mny include:
structure and the lorigitiidinal .joiiits are grouttxi. I i i sonie case5 ;I
cast in-situ structuriil toppiiig i \ adcied to iiicrcasc the
The load bearing cupacity of tloor striictures - this varies
load-bearing ciipacity.
signitkxintly between differerit systenis. This characteristic Partially preciist tloors are coinposcd of ;i prccast part mci ;I
usually deteniiines selection of the tlooring system. cast in-situ part. Both piirts Norh together M Iicii coiiiplete to
The sound insulation chiiracteristics - often ;I critica1 achieve the needed striictiiriil capacit) .
property in dwellings. Sonie slab types are thus not used in
housing at all. 6.2.2. Totally precast floors
The fire resistance - this a l s o viiries significantly betweeii
the various tloor types. 111 precast structures the application Holloii, c.oi.c~,tiooi..s
of a separiite fire resisting material is iiot nomially needed Typical cross-sections of IiolloM - c w e tlooriiig ;irc stiou 11 iii Fig.
because of the good fire properties of the concrete. Only in 6 . 1. Hollou core units have loiigitiiciiiiiil core\ 01' \L liich the iiiain
some specific cases do additional nieaaures hiive to be purpose is to reduce the Mcight o f tlie floor. Tlic elenient\ are
taken. aviiilable i i i different cieptlis i i i order to d s t j the various
performance iieeds for apiiii iirid loadiiig. Dift'crcrit altemative
l'ahle (>A T ~ p e 5and propertie5 of comiiion preca5t floor u n i h .
St rLIctLlr;ll deptI1 MO\t coI11I11oI1 Weiglii 01' tlllil

(111111) Liilil \% itllh (iliill) ( h N/iii2 )
100 - 300 300 - 2400 3. I 4.0~
Kciiitorcetl coiici-clc
I h c IIillf \ I 70 1300 7.0 - l.x

C'oiiliiierci~il
Iiitltistri¿il
h r h iiig
Prc\ti'es\etl coiicrctc
Rihhctl
Coiii incrc ial 5 34 ( 3 0 ) 200 - xoo I700 - 3300 2. I - s.0 120
I ntl ti st ri ;i I (240)
Parhing
Coin ine rc i;iI s 30 600 - 1300 1 so0 - 5000 3.0 - 3.6 120
I iidiis t ri al
Parking
Coiiimcrc ¡al Iso - 300 600 1.45 - 3.5 60

I nd u \ t ri ;iI
Coin iiierc i ;iI I 20 200 - 700 1200 I .7s - 6.9 420

I i i d u st ri ;iI
Pnrk ing
Miissivc
Housiiig 17.2 100 - 200 600 - 2400 2.1 - 4.x 130
D w e l l iiigs (240)
Coiniile~c i al
Plank 1f O L l \ i i1g 1.50 - 3so 600 - 3400 I .o - 3.0 120

Dwelliiigs (240)
Coiiiincrcial
Bcaiii-block
Hoiis iiig 57.2 300 - 300 1.x - 2.3 130
Dwelliiigs
( e ) Exumple of hollow core units used for wall c.laddin<g
Fig. 6.2 Examples of hollow cw-e jloor-s atid r-oofi
cross-sections exist due to differences in the shapes of the cores than the nominal size to allow for construction tolerances. They
and the edge profiles. are mainly used in buildings with larger spans or loadings such
Narrow floor elements of 300 mm width are generally made as office buildings, hospitals, schools, shopping areas, industrial
in reinforced concrete although prestressed elements also exist. buildings, etc. They are however also used in apartment
They have been used for a long time in domestic low rise buildings and social housing because of the favourable cost rate
buildings. Wider hollow core units appeared on the market in the and the fast erection.
sixties. Units in reinforced concrete are up to 2400 mm wide and Prestressed hollow core units are manufactured using either a
are manufactured to a maximum span of 9 m. The majority of long line extrusion or a slipforming process. The degree of
the units are normally 600 or 1200 mm wide, although other prestress, strand pattem and depth of unit are the main design
dimensions are also available. Reinforced hollow core units are parameters. In some countries an altemative process, called
generally produced in moulds with removable parts and 'wet-casting' is also used. The latter elements are characterised
longitudinally moving tubes to create the cores. by large square openings.
Prestressed hollow core units are normally 1200 mm wide and After hardening, the elements are normally cut to the specified
up to 20 m long. The actual unit width is usually 3 to 6 mm less length using a circular saw. A rectangular end is standard, but
76 FIP Handbook on precast building strut~tures

( u )Diugiammutic c.\-rrmplesof rihhed floor units
(c) Rihhed,flooi units in pluce
Fig. 6.3 Rihhc
ch are necessary in a non-rectangular These units have excellent stability and load-bearing capacity
d. offering a long span unit able to carry relatively high loads.
-e profiled to ensure adequate vertical Where units with a shallow tlange depth (50 mm) are used, an
:routed joint between adjacent units. in-situ reinforced concrete structural topping is normally
I c e s does not readily permit required to ensure both vertical shear transfer between adjacent
om the joint faces. The shear capacity units and horizontal diaphragm action in the tloor .
, sufficient to provide transverse The single T - unit offers the longest span solution of al1 ribbed
d loads without the use of an in-situ soffit units, but at the expense of greater depth. The slab element
:alt with in detail in Section 6.5.4. may be up to 3.0 m across and the shear capacity of the wide ribs
can allow higher loadings than are posible with the double T.
Single T- units are particularly suited to situations where the floor
of ribbed softit precast concrete units, slab is required to support load bearing columns and walls.
U-elements are ribbed elements with a flat and smooth underside.
For roof applications, only the longitudinal joints between the
elements are grouted. The overall depth varies between 250 mm and
650 mm and the span can go up to 22 m. For floors, the U-elements
are covered with a shuttering slab unit and an in-situ topping is cast
over the whole surface. This constitutes a different solution to box
girders. The overall depth lies between 500 mm and 700 mm and
either upright or inverted. These the maximum span is 18 m.
prestressed. Inverted U-shaped units
ed for light loading over short to Massive sluh poor..~
produced in typically 600 mm wide Massive slab units are often made in lightweight or in cellular
i r low self weight. concrete to reduce self weight and improve the thermal
.e in fact a combination of a beam and properties. They are mainly used in housing and for roofs of
, tie reinforcement in the transverse industrial and commercial buildings. Massive slab units are also
al1 depth of double T-units can vary manufactured in normal concrete either for acoustic insulation
n,allowing spans up to 22 m. The width or for hygrothermal reasons. Both reinforced and prestressed
O0 mm, e.g. 2400 mm, 3000 mm, etc. massive slabs are used.
77
floor-plates normally need propping during construction at a
spacing of 1.5 m to 3.5 m depending on the upper tlange of the 1
girder.
The essential advantages of this system, compared to
traditional cast-in-situ floors are, that, apart from the props, no
moulds have to be used and most of the reinforcement is already
incorporated in the prefabricated piank. However, self weight is
higher than for hollow core or ribbed floors. 1
t00-250 nim Beam-hfockfloors

This type of composite floor is made with the foliowing
components:
precast joists (main beanng component) placed parailel to

each other, generally at a distance of 0.4 to 0.8 m. Joists
Fig. 6.4 Massive slah irnits may be of reinforced or prestressed concrete. A speciai
type of reinforced joist is the so called lattice joist. made
up of a concrete flange and a steei truss (Fig. 6.6 d and
Fig. 6.24).
prefabricated infill blocks, placed between the joists. The
6.2.3 Partially precast floors blocks can be of normal or light-weight concrete (Fig.
6.6.a,b,c), ceramic material (Fig. 6.6.f,g), expanded poiy-
styrene (Fig. 6.6.d,e), cardboard etc.
Composite ,floor-platejloors
This typical semi-prefabricated floor system consists of precast . in-situ concrete filling, sometimes combined with an inte-
gral concrete topping, reinforced if necessary.
1
floor-plates that are combined with an in-situ reinforced concrete

topping to achieve a robust solid composite floor. The precast ~ ~cross-sections
~ iare shown
~ in ~~ i 6.6.~l .
plate units are 0.6 m ro 2.4 m wide and 40 to 100 mm thick. The
lengths are adjusted to the floor spans. Floor-plates are made
either in reinforced or prestressed concrete. The underside has a 6.3 StaiI'S
smooth finish. Precast concrete staircases are very interesting products because
To ensure a good interaction between precast plates and in-situ of the quality of finishing and the cost efficiency. Traditionally
concrete, the plates are in most cases provided with protruding cast in-situ stairs are extremely labour intensive and the effective
lattice girders. During transpon and erection this reinforcement total cost is often underestimated and additionai finishing
results in an improved stability and stiffness of the units. The material is always needed.
Trnnwcrsal reinlorccmeni 0 1 thc
l
\ame \ccii«nal ilreii a\ ihe inrnwersal
reinlnrccmcnt o1 ihe tloor pliiie..
\ Rough wrtacc l
( a )Reinforced composite ,floor p Iates
( h )Prestressed rihhed floor-plates
Fig. 6.5 Examp les qf composite J7oor-pfurestructures
78 FIP Hundhook on precast hirilding strvctures

i.6 Typical cross-sections of composite heam-block floors
combined flight and landings. In the latter solution there may be

differential levels at floors and half-landings necessitating a
finishing screed or other solution (Fig. 6.9).
The third category comprises monoblock helicoidal stairs and
it concems self supporting stairs. They can be used either in the
stainvells or individualiy between the different storeys (Fig. 6.10).
6.4 Modulation
Precast concrete floors are extremely versatile and can
accommodate almost any arrangement of support walls or
beams. There are, however, certain guideiines on the
proportioning of a building in plan which can be usefully
employed to simplify the construction. Totally precast floor units
are generaiiy moduiated on a 300 mm base. The most common
ate tread units dimensions are 600 mm, 1200 mm and 2400 mm. Elements for
composite floor systems are sometimes made to specific
trary, are industrialised dimensions. When planning a building for design with precast
ranging from smooth as concrete floor elements, it is advisable to modulate dimensions
n-situ solutions, they are to suit the commonly available element widths.
e designer requires a Composite beam and block floors are less sensitive to
~bleamount of repetition, modulation. The required coverage can be achieved by varying
ey buildings. The most the beam spacings, either using beams in pairs or special infill
section . blocks. Where beams are positioned at reduced centres it may
iposed of separate tread not be possible to use flush soffit blocks uniess special sizes are
t steps or for spirai stairs. available. With careful modulation these situations can be
j by an angular toothed minimised, restricted to the edge of the building or avoided
-e anchored in a central complete1y.
In a simple structure al1 the floor elements should preferably
pht stairs. The staircases span in the same direction, simplifying the lay-out and, in the
it flights and landings or case of prestressed elements, limiting the number of camber
uctures 79
Support he.im\ lor hali-l.inding .mi 1.indinp
' Floor-lcvel C ~ $ Chcaiii
(u) Separate lunding,Jlight und hulf-landing units ( h ) Comhined landing,jli,pht und half-lunding unit
Fig. 6.8 Alternative luy-outs,for hilo-jlight staiirases
Fig. 6.9 Types of monohloc helicoidul stuils
80 FIP Handhook on precast huilding structi~~'es

clashes within a bay. In Fig. 6.10 the dimensions which require
modulation are clearly indicated. A distinction may be drawn
between the degree of modulation required for a wide slab floor
and that for a beam and block floor but the basic principle is still
the same. To maintain repetition in the detailing of the units, the
most economical lay-out of the different floor areas is based on
a 1.2 m modular grid
Where exact modulation is not possible it may be necessary to
produce a special unit, cast to a smaller width or cuí to the desired
width from a standard module. In general, cut units should be no
narrower than half the standard module. With prestressed
concrete elements there may be a tendency for units which are
cuí narrower than this to exhibit differential camber compared
with the adjacent full-size units. Narrow strips of in-situ concrete
may also be used, designed to span in a direction transverse to
the precast floor span. In many instances this in-situ strip can be
usefully incorporated into the connection and tying system.
At floor supports the precast floor elements may conflict with
beam/column intersections. To counter this it is possible to detail
the beams to be wider than the columns thus allowing the floor
units to remain plain ended (Fig. 6.12 a). In this case the floor prclerahly II x I.20 rn
modulation becomes independent of the column spacing and is 1 1 1 I
I
thus simplified. When beams are not wider than the column 1 T
PIS,, "WW
width it will be necessary to form notches in the floor units (Fig.
6.12 b). It is normally possible to remove up to 1/3 rd of the floor Fig. 6.1 O Esanzple cfflooi. plan modulation
unit width without causing overload or instability at the
remaining bearing. It is essential that the longitudinal floor joints
coincide with column positions to facilitate notching of the units
and this should be considered when proportioning the building
lay-out. A number of variations may be required to suit the
particular lay-out of individual buildings but the economics of
the floor constniction are maximised where plain ends can be
used.
When a building tapers in plan, the precast units will require
non-square ends. The units should not be skewed more than 45".
Even within this range, a series of skewed ended units may
quickly deviate from their intended shape and lead to
complications such as loss of bearing. Units with both ends
skewed greatly increase the probability of complications during
erection and should be given accurate consideration in the design
and manufacture.
Prestress in pretensioned precast components may not be
effective in very short floor units and therefore precast units used
on short spans may need to be designed as normally reinforced
concrete sections. At the apex of a tapered floor area it may prove
difficult to accurately produce skew cuí ends which maintain the
correct floor coverage and these areas are best detailed in in-situ
concrete when the span falls below 2 m.
( a ) Lai;qr hram
Fig. 6.12 Beamlcolumn peor intersection
FIP Handhook on prrcast building structures 81

Changes in floor level across a building can also be readily
accommodated. Split level bearings on to a single beam or the
use of twinned beams at different levels are illustrated in Fig.
6.14. (See also Fig. 5.22).
Floor slab modulation is a useful approach to precast concrete
frame design but is not necessarily a requirement. Other factors
may dictate the spacing of supports without compromising the
use of a precast flooring solution. Awkwardly shaped sites are
typical of inner city redevelopment projects but despite the
necessity of constantly changing span length and direction,
precast flooring may still be a viable option.
Modulation may also be more strongly determined by the
extemal structural elements or cladding panels which remain
exposed after construction and dictate the aesthetic acceptance
of the finished structure.
6.5 Design of the floor structure

6.5.1 General
The structural design of precast concrete floors should not only
deal with the calculation of bending moment and shear force Fig. 6.13 Tapered hay details - small corners should be cast
capacity of the separate units, but also with the total coherence in-situ
of the floor. In the final stage, the individual components should
be connected in a manner that ensures adequate overall capacity
with interaction between the units. This interaction between
floors and supporting structure can be critica1 to the overall
building design. Besides span load-bearing the most essential
objectives to be achieved are:
structural integrity
distribution of horizontal forces by diaphragm action
transverse distribution of concentrated loadings over the
adjacent floor units.
6.5.2 Structural integrity

Floor systems consisting of individual precast concrete units
should be tied together to form an entity by a tying system, either
with or without a cast in-situ structural topping over the whole
floor surface.
Tying system
Ties are tensile elements consisting of reinforced narrow
concrete infill strips, sleeves or joints between precast
elements. Their principal function is to tie the structure
together so tensile forces can be transferred between the
individual precast elements and between the elements and the
resisting structures. The tying system also makes shear transfer
possible by providing the necessary clamping effect.
The infill concrete serves to transfer the tensile and shear
forces from the elements to the tie reinforcement and to prevent
it corroding. The tensile chord can be either in the form of normal
reinforcing steel or prestressing tendons. The latter can be Floor k i i m
post-tensioned or non-tensioned but in any case the tying system
should be effectively continuous. This can be obtained by
lapping or welding reinforcement, or by using threaded couplers,
cast-in sockets or other anchored fixings.
The following types of ties should be provided:
F i g . 6.14 Split leve1 bearings ,for pi.ecmt,floor.s
Peripheral ties - these ties are placed around the total
precast floor within a distance of 1.2 m from the edge.
Peripheral ties are made continuous round extemal comers the second, transvere ties. Interna1 ties may, in whole or in
by concreting them into the in-situ edge joints or by lapping part, be spread evenly in the floor or may be grouped at or
the tie reinforcement with the longitudinal reinforcement in the joints, tie-beams, floor beams, walls or other appro-
in the precast component. Structures with intemal edges, priate positions. In floors without topping where ties can-
e.g. atrium, courtyard, L- or U- shaped floor lay-outs, etc. not be distributed across the span direction, the transverse
should have peripheral ties detailed as on Fig. 6.15a. At ties may be grouped along the beam lines.
inner comers of the perimeter, the tie reinforcement should Horizontal ties to columns and walls -facade columns and
be anchored straight inward on both sides. walls should be tied horizontally into the structure at each
Intemal ties - these ties are placed in two directions, floor and roof level. Comer columns should be tied in two
parallel and perpendicular to the span of the floor units. directions. Steel provided for the peripheral tie may be used
The first category is called longitudinal intemal ties and as the horizontal tie in this case.

Floor
\pan .
( a )Per.ipher.al ties ( h ) Interna1 ties
Fig. 6.15 Horizontal ties
Requirements regarding minimum tie-force capacities are

' available in national standards, e.g. British Standards BS 81 10,
the Swedish Building Code SBN 1980. Eurocode ENV Laicral
1992-1-3.
Strirctirral topping
Ties may also be provided wholly within an in-situ concrete
topping. Structural toppings are not normally necessary to
achieve adequate interaction between the floor units. The
tendency is to avoid on-site casting work as much as possible
and to perform a most of the work at the precast plant. Toppings are
only necessary where composite action with the floor units i s
required where there are heavy concentrated loads such as those Floor, acting
from storage racking and heavy machinery or moving loads such as hurilontdl
diaphrdgm,
as those from forklift trucks. Structural toppings should always
be reinforced with a light fabric.
, 6.5.3 Diaphragm action

Horizontal loads from wind or earthquakes are usually
transmitted to the vertical stabilizing cores orto shear walls, etc.,
by the roofs and floors acting as horizontal diaphragms. (Fig.
6.16).
The precast concrete floor or roof diaphragm can be analyzed
by considering the slab to be a deep horizontal beam. This is
analogous to a plate girder or beam containing chord elements F i g . 6.16 Diaphragm action qffloors
as shown in Fig. 6.17. The structural central core, shear wall, or
other stabilizing components act as supports for this analogous
beam with the lateral loads being transmitted to them.
The model for a deep beam is usually an arch and tie structure.
The inner lever arm used for the determination of the force in the
tensile tie shall therefore be taken from code provisions
pertaining to deep beams.
The tensile, compressive and shear forces in the diaphragm
can be calculated by normal methods. The tensile forces are
resisted by the peripheral tie reinforcement of the floor. The
'
longitudinal joints between the precast units are critical for the Shear wall
shear force transfer. Shear forces are transferred between
adjacent units by shear friction, aggregate interlock and dowel
action. To resist these forces, it is necessary that the units be tied Tcniilc chord Cornprewve
together so that shear forces can be transferred across the joints diagonal
1 Plan v i c w
even when they are cracked (interlocking effect).
The most critical sections are the joints between the floor and
the shear walls because the shear forces are at their maximum.
Examples of good connections are given in section 6.7. F i g . 6.1 7 Analogous plate girder
FIP Haridhook on precast building strirctirrcs 83

c
Table 6B Load distribution factors for composite
beam-block floors
Nuiiiber of
side of the
7
1 I 0.76 I 0.13 1 0.15 I o 1 l I

3 10.14
I
10.19
1
10.13
1
10.06
1
l1 o l
1
I
1 1 1 1
1
1 1
[ 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.07 0.03 O
>5 1 1
0.1I O.17 1 O.17 1 0.07 1 0.03 1 0.01 1 O
Tlie distaiice befu een .joists is i i o t greatei- tliaii XOO iiiin
Tlie coiiceiiti-ated lo;ids are iipplied to tlie ceiitral half of
the tloor \p;iii.
Pai-titioiis or other Iiiieai- l o x l a are iisstiiiied to exteiid over
the full leiigtli o f the spaii. 01'have sii1iiII occasioiial inter-
i-LlptiOilS. e.g. ;I door. 01'tl1e load i s coiiceilti-atcd in the
cei1ti';il half of the spaii.
I n these cases the effective load cai-i-ied b!. encli j > i s t is obtained
by iiiiiltiplyiiig tlie total coiiceiitrated loxl by tlie load factors
giveii i i i Table 6B. Wheii tlie load does not ;ict on ;I .ioist. but in
bet\\eeii two of theiii. tlie load is divided betwecii tlie two
iici.jiiceiit .joists aiid the siiiiie pi-ocedui-eLIS iibove is iipplied.
More data are iivailiihle iii tlie FIP Giiide to Good Priictice
Hoi.i:otlttrl Coiir/>o.sifc'
.$f/~ilí~f//i~~ps.
6.5.5 Design of composite floor structures

Gcricrwl
Iii coiiiposite coiistructioii. iiiteraction i s achieved betweeii
preciis t coi11poneiit 4 :111 d cas t i 11 - s i 111 C O l l C re t e. COI11pos ite
coiistructioii always iiivolves cast i i i - s i t i i coiicreting on site. The
fol I nw iiig case s of coiiipos i te ;ict i oii c;in be di s i i iigui shed :
coniposite actioii i l l the coiiiposite pi-ecast. cast in-situ

tl0oi-S previOii41y iiieiitioiied. ¡.e. tlooi--pliite Liiid beaili-
block systeiiis
composite actioii oii totally precast tloni-s with aii inter-
acting sti'ucturlil loppillg
composite iictioii betw eeii iloor iuid siipport beain. ¡.e.
preciist heaiii or steel gii-der.
Coiiiposite riction is iiiiiiiil!, iised to optiiiiile tlie structural

of precast collsti'lictioil. for e\iiinple. 1 0 :
pel-t'olil~~u~ces
iiici-ease tlie load beai-iiig ciipiicity of tlooi-s by tise of an

intei-~lctingStrLIetL1r;11 toppiiig
complete a partirill!, precast tloor. e.g. iii tloor-plate tloor-
ing
i-educe t k ci'o\a-\ectioii of stipp0i-t beiiiiis by tLihiiig iid-
vantage of the lai-gei-iiiodulus of inei-tin of tlie coillpo\ite
cioss-sectioii
iiicrense tlie sliex ciipacity of hollo\v-core uiiits by filliiig
the corcs over 3 cei'taiil distaiice a1 the i1ipp""ts
iiiipro\,e tlie fii-e resistiiiice
iicliieve i11oineiit coiiti 11 Uil! aiid cal1t i l e \ w ;le t ion at
siipports
improve di~iphi-iigmaction for large hoi-imntnl loads. e.9.
iii seislllic coiiditions.
l l l ~ , s i g /~/ ~ / ~ ; l l l ~ / / ~ / l ~ . s
Tlie tollowiiig atiiges shoiild he clieched iii the desigii:
Tlie iioii-coiiiposite structui'e dui-iiig coiistructioii - ¡.e. tlie

precast uiiits have heen ei-ected aiid tlie iii-situ coiicrete i s
K
F i s . o..?/ ~ ~ j ' l ~ o l l l / l o . s .\tl"I('r//l'l'
E.\l/iir/>l<~ itl'
cast. biit has iiot yet h;irdened. Stresses occiir oiily i i i the
precast iinits resiiltiiig froiii their self-weight ;ind the
weight of the \ve1 coiicrete.
The coniposite \tructiirc after hardeiiing o f the ¡ t i - a i t i i
concrete. Additional stresses resiiltiiig froiii the superiiii-
posed loads. service aiid partitioii loadings. cliffereiitiiil
shrinkage aiid the total creep relasation ;ict o n the mono-
iithic coiiiposite structiire.
The desigii should include checks o f thc Liltiiiiate beariiig

capncity iind the hori/oiital slieiir stresxs at the inteifiice betu een
the preciist aiid iii-sitii coiicretes of tlie coiiiposite striicture. as
well a s thr stresses iii tlie preciist iiiiits diiring the various stages
o f ma ii u fact u re ;i iid con s t r uc t i o ii . The st re s se s ;i t t he
serviceability liiiiit st;ite are obtiiiiied b> d d i n g i i p the stre
from the loadiiig siti1;itiotis ;it thc various stages. UltiiiiLitt: I
state calculatioiis are coiiipiited ;is for iiioiiolithic sectioiis. tahiiig
i i i t o iiccouiit the differeiit streiigth propertiea of the \.arioiis pnrts
of the coiiiposite sectioii. Detailed iiifoniiiitioii about the de\igii
of coiiiposite hori/oiital striictiires is iivailable in the FIP Cuide
to Good Practice o11 ~ / O l ~ i ~ / Jl.ollr/>o.sitc
//t~il .St/~/Il't//l~l'.S.
lfollo,t, 1'01.1' l / / r < l /.il>l>cd

soffit , f l O O i ~ . S ic.itl/ .\t/.1/(.t111~~/1l / J / l / l i i / : ; . \
Structui'al toppiiigs will iiicrcasc the ultiiiiate iiioment ciipacit!,.
biit the xktitioiinl ueight o f tlic toppiiig ii1e;iiis that it M ill oiil!,
be beneficial iii spaiix iip to 17 to 1 1 111 f«r hollow core tloor\.
The thickiiess of ;I structural topping shoiild be ;it least 30 iiiiii.
Larger thickiiesses are poasihle. but the efficiency n,ill ;ilwi!.s be
I itnited.
Artificiiil rouglieiiiiig of the s~ii-i'acc of I i o i l o M -core u i i i t s
rarely iiiiproves tlie bond betueen iii-sitii iind precast coiicrete
sui-face since other paraiiieters play al1 even iiiore iinpoi-tant role.
namelv:
The cleanliiiess of the suifiice

The iiioistiire ievel - idcally the s~it-i';ice should be hiiiiiid.
but accumulation of uater is ciisastroiis aiid e\ e n ~ o r s e
t h u i dry siirfaccs.
Pi.oF)"riiotiiiig ~t the cii\t iii-hitti coiici-ttte - \ei-y ofteii the
' i i./.
w.it. ccment ratio is too high ancl gives rise to large
1
aiiiounts of shrinhiige. Plaatici/er\ u i i l help t o overcoiiie

tlie probleiii of worhiibility.
Compacfioii 01 the topping - this difficulty is often solved
by iisiiig ;I ratlicr uet iiiii. Here also the ideal soliitioii is to
use ;i niore plastic iiiix aiid to coiiipact it by \ibr;it¡oii.
The iibove piiraiiicters x e iiII inore o r leas iiffected b> the

roughiiess of thc siirfiicc. liideed. cleaiiiiig. prevention of M atei'
xcumulntion iiiid conipiete filliiig iiiid conipaction at tlic
ciipicit! i s c;ilciilated tahiiig iiccoiiiit of the tetisile strength of tlie stage iind tlie complete tloor structure after hardening of the
concrete \itice thc uiiits Iiaw no reiiiforcement otlier tlian i ti - s i t u coti c re te a t comp Ie t i on .
Ioiig i I 11di 11L11 pre 4 t re 4s i ng t e lid 0115 . Tlie .joists are sniall precast beiiiiis iii reiiiforced or prestressed
Thc FIP Coiiiiiiissioii 0 1 1 Prefiibriciitioii has detailed a proper conci-cte. Witliiii the group of reinforced beanis are tlie so-called
design pliilo\oph) Liild c~llculiition fom1ulas to nieet these lattice j>ists. composttd ~f ;I concrete bottoin llange iind ~iliittice
requireiiieiitz. ¡.c. FIP Recotiitiieiidatioiis P/-cc.tr,s/ P/.c~.sfi.í~.ssc~il girder. The joists can pei-fonii their structural function in
ffíj//íj\l' ( ' ( i / ' l ' k ' / í J í J / ' , Y . 11 ¡\ hLl\ed 0 1 1 ;I INge Series Of test I.t?SUlt\ different ways. ¡.e.:
011 titlitz ;ilici ftiii->c:iie i100rs ( W reciticed timiels.
Tlie iiiiiniiliictiircrs literature s h o i i l d be retened to for precise with regard to the erection stiige. tliey ciin be self-suppor-
pt.i-t(,rt1i;itlL~e c i m Tilese l1i;iJ UI-J hiigiltll fi-0111111~1~1f;ici~rer to tiiig or they caii be teinporary supported on props.
n l ~ l n u t L l tirer
ct bccauae o f differeilces in profi les. 17restrezs. \ 4 i t l i regrird t o tlie final loxi beariiig stagc. they can be self-
e«Ileretc \trength. firc resialalice. cte. hearing or semi-bearing. In the first case. tlie in-situ con-
crete is not considered in the load-bearing capacity. while
6.6.1 Rihbed soffit units in tlie second case the iii-situ concrete and eveniually the
Single x i d doiihle T-Ltiiits iis ~ e l l Ll-shiiped eletiietits are blocks are iissunied t o contribute to the load bearing
preztressed loiigitiidiiiiill!~ hotli tor streiigtli iii tlesure rind i i i ci1p;icity of the cotnposite structure.
shear iiiid 1 0 ColltrOl deflections. When required. shear
reintorcciiieiit i s ~1140 plnced i i i tlie ~ e b ins iitichoriige ~oties.The Thc infill blochs caii iilso be used in different ways. ¡.e.:
1laiigt.s ;irc rciiiforced iisiiig M elcled fiibric to coiitrol shriiikage
crachiiig ~ i i i dto eiisiirc tlie hori/oiital distrihution of loadiiig to iioii-resisting blochs. M hich have no structural function in
tlie wehz. Tlie iiiiits are iiesigiied xcorciitig to the cliissicA i~iles the final beiiring system but seive oiily ;is foiinwork during
for preatreszed cxmcrete. erection. e.g. this is the case for expanded polystyrene
i n fi II bloc ks .
6.6.2 Floor-plates
Precazt tloor-pliitcz iire prestrcssed o r reiiiforced. Where used. semi-resisting blochs. wliich triiiisriiit the live load to the
iiittice girders ;ire iii;iiiutiictiireci froiii high tensile steel b x s t o ioists in the traiiaverse direction. hut have no structural
stiffeii tlic elciiieiits diiring transport iind erection. The function in tlie longitudinal tlexural capxity or the shear
loiigitudiiial bar5 iti tlie 1;ittices iire igiiored in desigii for tlie capacity of the tloor.
ser\ icc.;ihilit! coiiditioii. but the!, i i i q he iiicluded in tlie desigii resisting blochs. which function together w,ith the iii-situ
for the iiltiniate l i i l i i t state. concrete as the coiiipression mne in the composite section.
6.6.3 Heaiii-block floors More detai 1s a bou t tlie des i gn aiid calculiition of b e a n - block
Tlie complete :in;ilysis of bean-block tloors coniprises tlie tloor systeins are given in the FIP Guide to Good Pi-actice on
calculiition of tlie .joists aiid infill blocs during the construction Hoi.i:oiituI c,otiipo.sitc . s / i x c ' / i r i ' c . s .
6.7 Connections
6.7.1 General
Tliei-e are thi-ee c;itegoi'ie\ of tloor coiiiiection\: I 7
\tippoi't coiiiiectioii\
coiinec t i oiis ;ir loiigit tidi ii;iI joi 11t s
lateral coiiiiectioiis at LIIl~tIppOi-tedtlooi-edges.
To ciistii-e tliat pi-ecast tlooi-s peifoiiii siitisfactoiily. i t i \ iiiost
iiiipoit:iiit t o coiicei\,e xid desigii the coiiiiectioii\ propeil!,. Tlie
piiiiciples giveii i i i sectioii 4.4 \hotild be tollo\\ed. This sectioii
gives pi-acticnl i-ecoiliilieilcl~ition4;iiid eic;iiiiples foi- ttie ciesigii
aiid detailiiig o f t!.pic;il flooi- coiiiiectioiis. Tlic essciiti:il
«b.jectives ~ e :
to coiiiiect the Llllits t o tl1c siippol-tillg sti'ticttii'c

to ti'aiister teiiaile tOi-ceh to the stabili/iiig s! stei11
to eatablisli \ti-ticttir;iI iiitegi-ity aiid iiiahe diaphi-agiii xtioii
iiiid lioi-i/oiit;il loxi disti-ibiitioii posible
to halniice the effects of ci-eep. shi-iiihage. teiiipei-nttirc

cl1;inges iiild diffefci-ciitialSettlClllellts.
6.7.2 Support connections Table 6C Nominal values for support length to he used
The detailiiig of coiiiicctioiia ;it thc siippoi-t dcpeiids o11the type at the initial stage of projects.
«f tlooi tiiiit and tlie material o f tlie stippoi-ting structui-e. ¡.e.
coiici'ete. stccl oi- bi-ich iiiasoiiry. The pi-actical poiiits to be
coiisideied are:
iiiiiiiiiiiiiii stippoi-t Iciigth. tahiiig toleraices iiito coiisider-

ilt ion
c\,tllllt'\s ot tile C m ; l C t /OW ;iiOiig tile stipp(w 7 0 - 1.30 75 - lío 70 ~ 100
i-otatioii capocity - pi-eveiitioii of spiilliiig
t ie ~li-i-~lllgelllellts
100 l 1 3
~ ei-esti-;iiilt ot tilt t i ~ o i tlllit\.

( i ~ g i - of -
S l / / l / " ~ l ' t Icvrgtlr ;ici.jaceiit \ti'ticttii'e toi both 1101111;11 iiild ~ibiionii~il lo;idiiig sucli as
Table 6C g i w s iioiiiiiiiil desigii \ ~iltiesfoi- the siippoi't leiigth of fi i-e oi- ;ice ideiit . Tlie coiiiicct ioii ni tist t Iiei-ctoi-e sat isf> t he
pi-ecaat tlooi- eleiiients in tlie loiigittidiiial dii-ectioii M Iiich caii be icqtiii-eiiieiits of foi-cc ti'aiistei-. \ti-ticttii-;iI iiitcgrit! . dctoiiii;ibilit!
tised iit tlie i i i i t i d stage of ttie pi-oject. The effective stippoi't aiid dtictilit!. Tlie detailiiig of tlie 1oiigitiidiii;il. ti-iiiis\ ersc aiid
leiigth is the desiyii v d u e decreased b!, dI iipplicahle tolei'anccs pei-ipliei-al ties i s ci-iticiil iii this coiitest. l't1ei.c Llfc diffei-ent
i i i iiiaiitifiictiii'e aiid coiisti-tictioii. I i i soiiie cases. shoiter Iciigtlis
pi-actical solutioiis dcpciidiiig 011 the t! pe ot tloor ;iiid \lippoi-tiiig
c m be al I ow cd w.1iei-t t e i i i poiai-y \ti ppoi-ts are pi-ovided . st rtic t tire.
The figiii-es i i i Table 6C iiicliide provisional vnliies foi. I i i hollou coi-e tlooi-\. tlie loiigittidiii;il tie bar\ ;irc pliiced eithei.
toleraiices o11botli tlie leiigth of ttie ílooi- i i i i i t aiid the positioii ot iii the ~ i o u t e dloiigitudin:il .joiiits 0 1 i i i coiici-eted sleeve\ (Fig.
the wppoi-tiiig \triicttii-e. AIIo~;iiicehas also becn iiiade foi- tlie 6.26). Thc Iattei- ai-e iiiade i i i ttic top tl;iiige\ 01' tht. i i i i i t \ dui-ing
rish of sp;illiiig. iiiiintitxmie. Tie bai-s placed in loiigitiidii1;iI joiiits iieed iin
Tlie stippoi-t Iciigth depeiids iilso o11 the iiiagnitiide ot the ;iiichoi-nge leiigth of iibotit I .O to 1 .5 111 becaii\e ot tlie louei-
loiiding . For hol Ion, core i i i i i ts. heaiii- block flooi-s ami ~iiiclioiiigc coiiditions ttiaii toi coiicicted \lee\ e\. \4,llei-e iin
tloor-pliites. tlie heai-iiig sti'esscs are i-arely ci-iticd. However. foi- xiclioiagc leiigth of 0.6 to 0.X iii ofteii siiffices depeiidiiig oii the
i-ibbed soffit tiiiits. tlie loxiiiig c;iii be veiy tiigh iiiid ttie stippoi-t t)'pe iiild diiiieii~ioiiof the tie bar ~ i i i dthc \trciigtli o f thc gi-Otlt.
mne rathei' siiiall. c.:. M heii double T-tinits ;ire stipported o11theii- At iiiteriiiediate stippoits. tlie loiig'ittidiii~iltic h a n ;ire iiindc
webs. l i i s t i c h cases tlie i i i i n i i i i i i i i i \,nliie iii tlie Table sliotild be coiitiiitiotis over the stippoi-t sti'uctiire. w,liei-e:is ;it cdge hemi\ ttie
tised. loiigitiidiiial tic biii-s ;irc dii-ectl! mchoi-erl to tlic ti'aii\vcrse tie
Rigid iieopreiie sti-ips. wet iiiortni' beai-ing. steel plates oi- bcani oi-the suppoiíing sti'tictiii'e that ftiiictioii\ ;i\ ;i tic-beam
siiiiilai- iii:itcri:ils x e t i m i to locali/e tlie wppoi-t i-eactioii aiid (Fig. 6.27)
iiiipi-ove tlie stippoi-tiiig coiiditioiis M heii beiii-ing sui-faces ;ire The Iiollo\h core tlooi- t i i i i t h iii-c iiiiclioi-ed to the stippoi'tiiig
tiiieveii oi- M heii ttie coiitxt sti'esses iii-e tiigh. Iii liglit loadiiig. \ti-tictiii-e eitlier b!,:
e.g . doiiies t ic hii i Id i iig s. t l i q are iio t ;I Iu a y s s trtic t tii-;iI 11,
iiecessai-! aiid tlooi iiiiits caii ofteii be laid directl!, onto the direct ;iiichoriiig i'eiiifoi'ceiiiciit bct\\ ecn tlie pi-cc;i\t heaiii
siippoi-tiiig sti-tictiii-e. Iii otliei' c;ises tlie uw of beariiig pads i s aiid coiicreted coi-es
;I IW I y s x i v is d l le . b!. overlnpping hetneeii i-ciiifoi-ciiig loop'
Iii double-Tcoiisti'iictioii it i s i-ecoiiiiiieiicied tlie suppoi-t be
located ;ir tlic \\cbs. cveii M . t i e i i tlie tiiiit eiids with a piotrtidiiig
by ,jointing loops ;iiid lorlgitlidiiial tic bX'
top plate. 111 t h i s Mil!' the \tippoi't foi-ces iii-e inti-oduced dii-ectl'
LoiigittidiiiLiI tic bai-s sliotilci preferabl!, be placcd iiiidei-iie;ith ttie
iiito tlie \\ehs.
traiis\ erse tie bai-s.
111 i-ibbed d f i t tloois. the coiitiiitiit!, bet\\eeii iiiiits iind tlie
Tic, c r i ~ i ~ c r i i ~ ~ i ~ i t rc cr i~ tlic
i 1 i . ~s i i p p o i ' i
The ob.ject of tie coiiiiectioiis at tlic stippoi-t i s to eiistii-c thc \tippoi-tiilg structtii'e i\ obtaiiied by dii-ect ~iiiclioi-iiig of
ti-aiisfei-of \,crtic:il iiiid hoiimiital loiidiiig fi-oiii the tlooi- to the
proti-tidiiig bais fi-oiii tlie iiiiits iiiio tlie tie bcaiiis (Fig. 6.2X) oi-
bb, \heldiiig (Fig. 6.29).
SS
CoiitiilLiit~ he(\\ re11 pi-ccaat tlooi- Liiiits iliid the supportiiig design philosophy t o heep connectioiis siiiiple iind to provide
structure iiiii) iilso he obtaiiied by iiieiiiis of ii structural topping. stability by a liinited iiumber of stabilir.iiig coiiiponeiits.
Tlie reiiitorceiiieiit of the toppiiig iiiay he coiitinuous over the However. unintended i-estraiiiing effects can appear. for
intei-iinl hemi\ mid lapped u itli projectiiig reiiiforceiiieiit in tlie iiistance due to heavy uall loads o11the ends of the tloor units.
tloor beaiiis. In liollon, core units M ithout i-einfoi-cement at the top. one
Coiinectioii\ betseeii coiiipo\ite floor-plate tloors aiid solution t o the probleiii is to support the tloor uiiits on wall
suppoi-tiiig iiieiiibers preseiit te\v probleiiis. Coiitiiiuitl can be corbels. and another is by usiiig partial soft joiiit fill or slrinted
pi-ovided b! Iiippiiig the iiiesli u i t h reiiiforceiiient pmjecting ends.
froiii tlie siippoi-tiiig beniiis oi- v.nlls. Also i i i coiiiposite Tlie justification of the latter solution is based oii tests. I t has
heaiii-bloc tlooi-iiig coiitiiitiity is also iiiade in ;I rather elassical been stated that in the case of slaiited ends. the first crack always
\4a! \\ itli pi-ojectiiig biii-\. i-einforced toppiiig etc. Typiciil det;iils appears betweeii the slanted tloor end and the concrete joint fill.
ot' the heaiii-tlooi- coiiiiectioii are showi i i i Fig. 6.3 1. iind that this crack ends inside the supportiiig zone of the eleinent.
011 fuither loading. the elernent behaves as a fi-ee supported unit
iind shows the saiiie sheai- ciipacity as when siinply supported
froni the begiiining. Of course the problein caii also be avoided
b), designing the units i i i such 21 way that they can take up the
iiegat i ve iiioiiient s. b! top i-ei nforcemeii t.
89
In conclusion:
Unless the supports are designed for moment continuity. it
is recommended that the connecting reinforcement bars be
located in the middle of the cross-section rather thiin in the
upper side. This is to avoid undesirable restrliining mo-
ments Lit the support. Placing of the reinforceiiieiit close to
the bottom is less favourable iii reliitioii to the design
philosophy with respect to structural iiitegrity as further
explained in this chiipter. Therefore the best locatioii is in
the middle of the cross-sectioii.
Uiiintentioniil cwch iiiduceiiieiit should he :ivoiclecl iii the
eiid miies of the tloor iinits. Such iiiduceiiieiits can be
foiiiied by ti'ansverse slots in the top s~irf;iccof the panels.
iiiiproper cndiiig of the tie bar\ xicl possiblc sliriiihage or
pi-oduction ci-achs i i i tlie hollon core iiiiii. For iiistarice.
the eiidiiig of the coiicrcte till i i i the cores will foiiii ;i discon-
tiiitiity in the holloh core u i i i t mil create ;i potentinl plaiie
oí' crxhiiig. Thrreforc. i i i Al core\ w,itliotit tic ;irrmge-
meiits. the coiicrete fill shotild he eiided M i i h i i i thc siipport
Ieiigth (Fig. 6.33 a). In cores providecl \A itli tie biirs. the
coiicrete fill h h o u l d be e\teiicled to tlic ciitii-c /oiic wliere
t he pre s tres si iig force i \ triiii s fei-red.
The quality of the concrete t'ill ;it tlic ciicls of thc iiiiits iieed
iiot be as high as that o f the elemeiits. Iiideed. partial
re\trnint can iilso be iiiduced by ;idhesive hoiid betweeii the
eiid face of the hollow core i i i i i t aiid tlic iii-\itti coiicrete iii
the traiisverse .joiiit ;it the stipport.
t.'/C~.\-i/>l<'.\11pp/wr.\
Studies have recently beeii cai-ried o u t coiiceriiiiig tlie iiltiiiiate
cnpacitb of hollow) core tloor\ \iipported oii tlie bottoiii tliinge of
\iipportiiig beaiiis. Duriiig the last feu !.ears. ;i great variety of
innovative beaiiis for slencler tloors h;ive beeii iiitroduced (Fig.
6.33).The beaiiis are noiiiially desigiied ;ix iioii-coiiiposite beiims
but composite tliit bemis iiiay A o be toreseeii i i i the design.
provided that stresses iiitroduced iii [he s l h ~ire~ i i l c ~ q ~ i n t e l ~ ~
taheii i i i t o iiccount.
Tlie defoniiatioiis aiid atresses in tlic s h b s c;iii be iiiiiiiiiiiied
by iiicreasing the stiffiiess of the beaiiis. liiteractiiig effects may
be ricglected if the design shear of tlie s l h i s Iiriiitecl to the shear
tlcxurnl ciipacity.
6.7.3 Connections at longitudinal joints

Loiigitiidiii;il joints between tloor tiiiits are cIe\igiicd to eiiwre iin
xieqiiate traiisfer o f hori/oiitnl iiiid vertical s h e x forces betweeii
xi~j~~cell t units .
With hollow core liiiits Liiid LJ-shq~edo r iiiaasi\.c iiiiits. the
joirit faces are profileci to f o i i i i ;i longitiic1iii;il shex-hey wheii the
joint is grouted. T) pica1 @nt profiles ot' I i o l l o \ v core uiiits ;ire
shown ir1 Fig. 6.35. U-sliaped iiiiits xid iiiaszive \liibx have
\ ini i lar joi t i t profi les.
The veiticiil sheai- capacity iit lorigittidiiial j ) i i i t h betiieen
hollow core iiiiits i s rarel! ci-itical. e\'cii v, itli Ixge coiiceiitiated
1oadi ngs.
Double :iiid siiigle T-tiiiits oftcri sp;iii across the lorigitudiii~il
joiiits coiiiiected by ueldiiig. Tlie neld i x toriiied betweeii ftiIIy
iiiicliored iiiild steel profiles. l i i case of doiiblc T-iiiiits M ith
sufficieiitly large tloor tlaiiges to be u s e d u ithotit toppinp. the
longitudiniil joiiit is iiiderited aiid shear trxister is possible by
friction aiid iiiterloching effccts x r o s s tlie joiiit (Fig. 6.36).
6.7.4 Connections at lateral joints

The i i i a i i i fuiictioii of the coiiiit'ctioiis ;II tlic lateiol .ioiiits
betweeii the edges of precnst floor iiiiita xitl beaiiiz o r M aIIs ixiiiniiig
parallel to tlie tloor i s t o triiiisfer Iiori/oiit;il shcar hetueeii the
tloor the xl.jiiceiit striictiire. especinll!. wheii thew iire ~tiihili/iiip
coinpoiieiits.
Recesses for coniiectioiia inay be í'oiiiiccl i i i h o l l o w . core tloor
uiiits by reiiioviiig part of the top tliiiige. Coiiiiectioiis bq
re i i i force m e ti t bars :irid cas t i 11- si t ti coiic'i-ctc are pl;iced
iiiteiiiiitteiitly aloiig the edge of the sliib. iisually ;it 2.4 111 centres.
o r coiitinuous in-situ j o i i i t s iiiay be u s e d wliere ;i stroiiger shear
YO
c ' , -,..
1 - -
' 1111.1
. .
.. ..
f-l i1-
.. p
6.8 Openings and cut-outs
Openings i i i precnst tloors c;in he pro\~idetliii ;I \\ idt. \ kiriet! of
sires and positioiis \4 hich \4 i l l he iiitlut'iiccil h! coii\iclerntioii\
of strLictlii'al de'rign. handling. \ i s l i a l ~lppe~lr~lllce ~ i i i dcosts.
Large Opeilillgs are generiill' ill~ideriliriiig ii~~liiii~iictlire. If the
uiiits ~e ciist i i i steel iiiot11d'r. opeiiiiig'r x i d hloch-outs are
produced usiiig ;idditioii;il iiioiild pieccs (Fig. 6.i')).
111 estrusioii 01' slipton11 processes. holes Liiid opeiiiiigs are best
foilned iminediiltel)~iitter c;isting in the iioii-li~irtlciicdconcrete.
7- The eclges of the openinga are i-ather rough \\ hich ¡\ 1101 ;il\\.;i>,s
A A \ iw;ill>, accept;ihle. Tlie ;id\,iiiit;ige of tliis s o l t i t i o i i i s iliat i t is
1 4 1
v cheap.
I n hollom core u iiit' r . the \\ idih aiid 1oc;itioii o f \,()¡Lis iii;i!. iieed
t o v a q vi i t h di ffereii t cro'r s -'rec t ion 'r o f ti 11it s. espcc id I >
regarding tlie si/e aiid iiuiiiher ot loiigitudiiial cores. 111 geiicral.
opeiiiiig4 i i i the ceI1tr;ll part of thc cross-scctioii c;in he inade up
to 400 miii viide. Opeiiiiigs iii the edges ;ire liiiiitcd to iibotit 250
to 300 iiiiii. hut it is :iI\\ii> s po
:1cr04s the loiigitlidiiiiil j 0 i i l t ' r ot
Where the i1ppearance i'r iinportoiit. opelli11g4 01' ciit-»tits are
s;i\vii in the hardened coiicrete. Siiiall tioles. up to ;ihout 150 i i i i i i
diniiieter. caii iilso be core-driilcd oii aite ivitli ;iil\~mtage.
Where the opeiiings are too large to hc iiicoi-por;ited \\ ithin the
hollou core uiiit. triiiiiiier ;ingle\ o r cast iii-sitti triiiiiiicr bemis
-3--
are used to cai-r)' the ends of the tloors at the edges o f large Iioles
(Fig. 6.41 ). The self weiglit of the uiiits i'r tr;iiisferrcd to the
adjaceiit uiiits througli the triiiiiiicr ;iiigles. \\ here;i\ the
\Liperiill posed Ioiid i ng i s t raii s te rred t Ii r o Li? 11 t Iit. gro Ll ted
long i t Udi na I joi n t 4 011 coiid i t i on t I1at t he \\ 110Ie 110 0 1 - i s enc losed
by itdeqiiate peripheral xid iiiteiiial tie'r. The tloor uiiits o11eitlier
coniiection is required. These iiiay he foniied either by Li'ring ii side of the hole iiiiiat be 'rufficieiitl!. rciiiforced t» c ~ r ! the
softit unit o r iiiay exteiid to the fiill depth. The sliib is sLifticiently ildd i t i olla I I oiid i iig .
flexible to ;iccoiiiiiiod;ite differential \ ertical mo\'eiiieiits caiised 111 coiiipo\ite tlooi--pliiiih tl0oi-i. \,(>id\iiiid C i i t - O t i t i ciii1 eii>il>
by teiiiperature tluctLiatioiis aiid loiida. he added even after placiiig the tloor plaiihs diie to tlie siiiiill
Typical coiiiiectioiis betvieeii double-tee uiiits aiid lateral tliichness of tlie plates. If required. xiditioiial reiiitimwiieiit iiiii>
vialls are s h o w i i i i Fig. 6.38. he placed i i i thc ¡ii-'ritu p x t of tlic 'rliih.
Y2
" 7 - .-
r
Trimmer hedm
Fig. 6.41 Use qf trimmei- angles or beams for- lar-ge voids
Fig. 6.42 Large ivids ~mhe mude at the longitudinal joints Fig. 6.43 Slab units supported by trimmer angle
qffloor- units
FIP Handbook on precast building str-uctur-es 93

7 Bearing walls
I
7.1 Types of wall structure
7.1.1 General
Precast walls are mainly used in apartment buildings, housing,
hotels and similar structures. The system is composed of bearing
walls with precast floors and roofs of massive panels, hollow
core units, floor plank systems, etc. (Fig. 7.1). This prefabricated
component system can be considered as the industrialized form
of conventional cast in-situ shear wall construction. The system
was used extensively in the 1950s. Projects of 500 to 5000
apartments were manufactured in large precast plants according
to the principle of closed system construction, ¡.e. al1 components
manufactured to specific plans developed by one precaster.
In the meantime, precast bearing wall construction has evolved
into an open system construction. In the open system two
complementary parts can be distinguished, i.e.:
a load bearing structural part
a finishing part.
The structural part comprises the essential components of the

building structure, namely the load bearing walls, floors, roofs,
stairs and elevator shafts and can be considered as permanent,
whereas the complementary part comprises the non load-bearing
facades and partition walls and also the complementary
equipment.
The following is limited only to the bearing walls. In wall panel
construction the different structural building parts fulfil a load
bearing and separating function. Both aspects have to be treated
simuitaneously in the design.
The aim of modem design philosophy is to create large free
spaces inside the structural part. This can be achieved because
of the large span capacities of prestressed floors. In this way one
obtains not only more flexibility with respect to the lay-out of
the structure, but also the option to adapt the lay-out in the future.
Some examples are illustrated in the following sections.
7.1.2 Load-bearing cross walls

In this most prevalent form, the load bearing cross-walls are
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the building (Figs. 7.2
and 7.3 a). Floors are supported by the bearing cross-walls, Le.
interior and end walls. Longitudinal stability of the whole
building is ensured by cores and/or longitudinal shear walls,
either interior, and if necessary, exterior. Facade walls are, as a
rule, non-load bearing.
7.1.3 Spine wall system

The load bearing walls are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
building (Fig. 7.3 b). Floors are supported only by longitudinal
walls. Facade walls in this system are always load-bearing and
are of precast architectural concrete, bnck masonry, etc.
Longitudinal stability of the building is achieved by load
bearing walls and transverse stability by cores and/or transverse
shear walls and gables.
7.1.4 Mixed systems

The two principles above are often used in combination with
each other, for example in single family housing and in tal1
buildings (Fig. 7.4).
In single family housing, the facades are either in precast
sandwich panels, in traditional masonry or in a combination of
both. In the latter case, the inner leaf of the facade consists of a
precast concrete wall with the smooth moulded side inwards.
After erection, the outer leaf is masoned in-situ, and connected Fig. 7.1 Principle o t u tyicul lurge panel conci.ete s?rucmre
to the inner leaf by means of protruding cavity anchors. und e.vump1e.s
94 F I P Handhook on precast building strurtures

Non-heiirinp ~ ~ ~ i d c \
1
( h )Spinc ~ i a l system
l
Fig. 7.5 Ex-ample of pwcast staircase and eleiwtoi. shufi
Fig. 7.4 Mi.ved Mwll hearing systcms
FIP Handhook on p i w a s t hirilding strirctures 95

7.1.5 Elevator and stair well shafts The CKISS-M ;iII c;iii be coiiipo>ed o f otit' 01' I ~ ~ O I>:iiiel\
W
Load bearing wall panels are often used to construct elevator and positioneci in line with each other depeiidiiig o 1 1 tlic profile Lind
stnirwell shafts. Tlie panels are connected after erectiori to form the leiigth. The niaxiiiiuni length o f ;I single piiiel i \ govcrned
composite T. L. U o r box-shiiped sections. In some c;ises. the b!, thc equipnient iit the plant iiiid ;it erection x i d i\ iioniiall!.
coniposite units are totiilly precast or pre-rissembled at the plant. betwecn 3 aiid Y ni. and exceptionally tip to 17 ni. Wlieii C is
The advnntage of preciist cores iind shafts over those cast l q e r than these diniensioiis. st.veral paiiels ~ i r eiiscd. I t is
in-situ lies maiiily in the qiiality of the surfiice finishing. fiister recoinriiended .joints be located ;it the pei-peiidiculnr \\Al\. e.g.
construction and better alternatives for organizing the erection c4. c5. Ch.
of the total precast striictiire. The ininiliiuni value o f 1.3 ni is oiily go\,t.riied b! pr;ictical
consideriitioiis in orrler to keep the cost 1% itliiii re;i\oii;ible liiiiits.
7.1.6 Special arrangements at ground levels
A relatively dense disposition of hearing ualls coriiplicates the 7.2.2 Positioning of cores and stair wells
iirrangement of speciiil premises for corniiierciiil. social o r Fig. 7.8 s h o u s dteniatives for tlie locatiori ot \ertical cores v.ith
service purposes i n lower storeys. The design of such respect to the loaci beariiig \ \ ~ i l l s . Tlie shetclic\ g i \ e oiil! the
arrangements iit the ground tloors usually calls for the iilteriition iiccessar! structiiriil ~ a l l xid
\ corez. I t iz i i l a!~ \ possihle to Lidd
of the structuriil concept of the building between the louer ami extra \ v d l s at certain placcs. e.g. tor re;i\on\ 01' ;icoustic
the upper storeys. in 511I ;Ir ion.
The following strticttiral concepts are most often usrd for I t is recoiiiiiieiided thnt the iiiodti1;itioii 0 1 tlie cIio\eii tloor
friimed louer storeys: s! steni for the iniplantation of the cores be considered. For
example \\he11 tloor units of 1.7 ni widtli ;ire choseii. the
beaiii aiid girder fiaining u ith ;i beiim Lirranged iiiider each dimensions of C1.2.3shoiild prcferabl! be ;I iiitiltiple ot' I .7 ni o r
load beariiig uiill ofthe typical storey. Eiich primary bearii 0.6 111.
may be suppoi-ted by coluiiins and sonie secoiidiiry beiims
may be siipporteci by the priniary beanis (see Fig. 7.6). 7.2.3 Implantation of the cells
Tlie riititiinl ;i~;itigtltilt'titiind super-positioti of \%;iIl\ ;irid cell\ is
table-lihe tloor - over siich ;I tloor the loiid-beiiring ualls iiiuch niore tlexible thaii could be thotiglii o t tor prccast
of the habitable storey iiiay be positioned iirbitrarily. coiistructioii. The sketctie\ 0 1 1 Fig. 7.0 illusir;ite zoiiie
po\sibilities aiid priiiciplcs.
7.2 Modulation
The following guideliiies are intended for niiilti-storey iipartment
7.3 Design for cantilever and shear wall
buildings. but they can ~ i l s obe Lipplied t o louwise buildinga. action
7.2.1 Location of the walls 7.3.1 Horizontal stability
Suggested overall dimensions are given on the f o l l o ~ing The horimiital stability o f ;i building with prcca\i lox-bcaring
drawings and Tiible 7A. Tlie value o f B depends on the s p m of u d l s is iisstired by meiins of:
the tloors. B I .y.should preferiibly be niociulated on n x 3 M o r
n x 6 M where M is the biisic module. shear wiill actioii
C noniially riiiiges from 1.4 ni uithoiit further limits. It i s ciintilever Liction iii u a l l s aiid cores
strongly reconiniended that C I . ~ .be~ modulated
. on n x 6 M or
even n x 13 M dependiiig on the u idth of the tloor eleriients. diaphragm iiction iii tloors
Cross-walls are very iippropriiite in ftinctioiiing as stifteiiiiig

Table 7A Suggested wall dimensions ualls. However they provide resistiince oiily iii their o ~ plaiie n
and ought to be completed M ith other w l l s pcrpeiicliciilar to tlieir
plane o r with cores (Fig. 7.10).
M iniinurn 4 in 3.3 111 The iicting horizontal loiiding is distributed o\er tlie tlifterent
Norman 6 - 13 ni 3.6 - 6 111 1.3 - 1.7 ni u a l l s ami cores proportionall\ to iheir respective stiffiiess. Wtien
u alls have rnther Inrge openiiigs. for exaiiiple for cioors. i t sliould
be chccked whether the p x t of the wiill above tlie d o o r opeiiing
97
distributioii of the horizont;il loadiiigs t o thc diftoreiit st;ibiliring
coniponents. The principle of the diaplir;igni ;iction is c\plained
in section 1.3.3.
7.3.2 Structural integrity

As alrendy explained i r i section 1.3. the abzoltite iiecczsit! t o
achieve a three dimensional htructtiral cohereiicc betw eeii thc
different elements can not be over-eriiphasi~ed.Tenailc capacity
between the elenierits across the coniiectioiis iiitizt be provided
to establish this integrity.
Connections between concrete paiiels easentially n'orh i i i shciir
and conipression. At the serviceability liiiiit ztiite. thc friction
resistance of the joints n,ill be sufficient to tahc tip the shear
forces. However in case of xcidental londings ver! iiiiportant
tensile stresses occur together with large dcfonii:itioria.
In order to transfer these forces correctly. coiiiiectioiis hhould
provide the following two chxacteristicz, nmol!':
Continuity of the connecting reinl'orceiiicnt - ncrdcd to

achieve the bridging capacity for the traiisfcr iind redis-
tribution of the loadinga.
High ductility - iiot onl\, necesaary to tahc t i p the e\tra large
defonnations, but also t o h s o r b the energy ot thc tlynaniic
act ion.
Conseqtiently provision should be inade for sutt'iciciit integrity

of the structure in al1 directioiis by acieqtiate tie rciiiforcemerit
(see also section 1.3). The principal fuiictioiis o f ties are ;iz
fol lows:
The peripheral ties should iichieve the dinphragm action of
the tloor and can be considered a s tensile reiiitorcciiieiit of
a ilat horizontal beam fomied b) the total tloor.
can contribute. If not. only the part of the wall beyond the door The longitudinal ties should establish tlie ecluilibritini of
opening should be considered. the horizontal forces iicting on interior aiid e\terior walls
Composite action of adjacent walls fonning L. H. U or due to different eccentricities. effecta o f u.iiiclz, accidental
T-shapes are possible on condition that the vertical joints loadings. etc. They should ;iIso anchor tloorz ;it the ztipport.
between the panels can transfer the required shear forces (see The longitudinal tie force i.; calculated ;is ;I fuiictioii of the
section 7.5). eccentricity and the iicting loadiiig.
The different storey height superposed wall panels are Tlie transverse ties should i i i the firzt p l x ~tnhe up the
connected in such a way that the total wall can function as ;i unir horizontal tensile component o1 the forcrz LictiiiF in the
in cantilever or shear wall action. Single and composite vertical joints between crosh walls.
cantilevers can be distinguished (Fig. 7.1 1).
The connections between the different panels should be able The transverse ties should a l z o providc the tr;insverzc intcgrity of
to transfer shear. tensile and compressive forces. The diaphragm the building iind help to creiite the bridging capiicit!, of the wiills
action of the tloors plays a n important role in the transfer and i i i case of local dainage of an tinderlyiiig u;iII.
98
Rrq ii i rciiicii t 4 rcgxdi iig 111i 11i 111iini ti, force capiici ties are later filled with in-situ concrete to increase the load-bearing
1
N :it ioii ;il Lind I nte mit ioiinl St iiiidxds . e .g. Eurocode
w;i i I ablr i 11 capacity and the thenniil and sound insulation properties of the
ENV IW7- I -.3. British Standard BS X 1 10. Swedish Building uall. To secure bond m d position of the two prefabricated
Codc St.ciic>ii7:2. S B N 1980. cte. planks. lattice girders are cast at the factory into the planks. with
a spacing ofabout 0.6 ni. Tlie voids of the walls can be reinforced
to tahe stabilisation forces or large vertical loads.
7.4 Elements The surface ofthe inner and outer wall F x e can be smooth, ¡.e.
readg for wall paper. or can be finished i i i any architectural
, 7.4.1 Elements for load-bearing interior walls surfiice. The composite wall elements can be designed for inner
The thichiiess of iiiassive wiill Linits viiries between 90 to 300 nim ~ a l l sand for outer walls subject to earth pressure o r other
dependiiig o11 the reqLiiremeiits of strength ;ind sound iiisulation. horizontal effects. Both surfaces of the walls are usually finished
The eleiiients are m r c ) heiglit. u i t h ii maximuni length of about and ready for wall papering or pninting after soine small
4 ni. This valiie is generally govemed by transpoit conditions. 'touching up'. Electriciil conduits can be incorporated during
The length of the paiiels is iisunlly between 7.4 to 13 m. casting
f i ~ ( ' < ' l l . \í/' O l l i / ~ ( J . \ ~ ii'í///

/l' ~'/<'iii<'llf.S 7.4.2 Elements for cavity walls
Coiiip(taitc u,;ill eleiiients (see Fig. 7.15) are designeti to speed Cavity walls are the inteinal leiives of double facade walls (see
up erectioii of w;iIls aiid t o woid hitteriiig on site. Pliicing of section 3.3). The thickness of the inteniiil cavity walls is
the light cleiiieiits i.ecliiire\ little time and no special liftiiig generally between 70 to 100 mm.The gable tops can be made in
deviceh. Tlie diiiic.ii.;ioiis are tlexible iind can be acljusted to one or two units. The maxirnurn height is about 3.5 m and the
alinost mi! \torc! heiglit iind to leiigths of up to about 10 ni. maximuni length about 9 ni. Doors and window frames can be
Where ncccss;ir! friiiiics. pipes iind slots can be foreseen aiid incorporated in the wiills at manufacture. (see Fig. 7.16)
pliiced i i i t o the clements during niiinufacture. Opeiiings for
doors. wiiidou 4 x i d otlicr puiposes can be inade in the factory 7.4.3 Special wall elements
or with little effort ;it Ling tiiiie o11 site. Openings in the walls for Special wnll elements are sometimes made for bathrooms and
doors or other pui.po\es are generally not limited with respect to kitchens. or combinations of both. with many incorporated
diiiieiixioii\. conduits for services, e.g. electricity. water. gas. The purpose is
Tlie precast M aII pliinks are ;Iiiiininiuin of40 min thick. A wiill to industrialize the labour intensive installations on the building
consist\ oí' tv.0 planks. placed 70 10 IO 0 inin apart. The void ix site as rnuch as possible.
I IL
7.5.1 Wall-to-wall connections The vei-tical tie coniiectioii at horizoiitiil joints between
superimposed wall units is obtaiiied by tie reiiiforcement placed
cither iii the vertical joiiits (Fig. 7 . I X b) or iiiside the eleinents
(Fig. 7.19 a).
Il'1rlls ,sitrrlrtc'll i l l / ~ l ~ l ~ / I ~~~I Ill l< ~r r/l>il llr l r < ~ . s

Wall uiiits caii be coiiiiected to foiiii composite T. I or U-shaped
sections. The stiffiiess of such profiles is coiisiderably higher
than for single units. but the iieed for shear capncity in tlie veitical
joints is also lxger. When the out-of-plane stiftness of the units
is insufficient. overlnppiiig reinforcing loops should be used in
the veitical j)iiits.
7.5.2 Wall-to-floor connections

Coiiiiectioiis betweeii walls aiid tloors are piirtiiill) dealt with in
sectioii 6.7.3. The follou iiig figures give iiiore exiiiiiples.
101
1--T
8 Architectural concrete cladding
8.1 Introduction the matter. At the initial design stage. the required experience is
rather limited and al1 relevant information is piven in this
8.1.1 General Hciridbook. Final detailed design is usually carried out later on
The term 'Architectural cladding' refers to precast units. by the precast manufacturer.
generally used for facades of buildings. which are intended to The usual procedure for the initial design of architectural
contribute to the architectural effect of the construction through concrete cladding is as follows:
application, finish. shape, colour. texture and quality of First. the architectural elevational appearance of the build-
fabrication..
Architectural concrete has evolved during the last decade ing is established. without paying too niuch attention to
towards a high quality building material offenng a range of top details at this stage.
quality finishes such as limestone or granite. complex brickwork Having amved at outline sketch design for the elevations.
detailing and masonry profiles reproduced in reconstructed or the role. if any, to be played by the wall panel joints in the
simulated stone, al1 features which would be prohibitively overall effect of the elevation has to be determined. e.g.
expensive if fabricated on site by conventional methods. Should they be expressed. o r conceded within the
Today's precast architectural cladding offers the designer a
model?
vista of styles. allowing his imagination to range from the repro-
duction of styles of the past to the creation of imaginative build- Where are joints acceptable froni the architectural
ings of the future. point of view and where not?
Next. the facade elevation is split into individual units to
8.1.2 Capabilities be prefabricated. The subdivision is dependent on the
Architectural concrete cladding has the potential to perform possible joint positions, changes in facing material, pro-
more functions in the building design than any other types of truding architectural parts, size and weight of the units. and
cladding on the market today. the relation between the internal structure and the facade
with respect to planning and panel tixings. etc. The nianu-
Aesrheric firtictioti facturer's advice is often desirable.
Precast concrete architectural cladding offers an extremely wide
range of visual appewances. Despite the basic structural material Generally. the larger the wall units. the more economic the
being reinforced concrete, the finished elenients do not always project and the better the site productivity. Of course limitations
need to have the appearance of concrete. Buildings clad in can be imposed by the capacity of site craneage and transport
precast architectural cladding can give the impression of being constraints. This is examined in detail in section 8 3 .
constructed in brickwork. faced in intricate carved and profiled
masonry, polished marble or granite. Altematively, if a designer 8.2 Structural systems
wishes to maintain the appearance of concrete, the elements can
be produced in a vast range of self finishes - an array of profiles Depending on their function within the building. architectural
and textures which bring out the natural beauty of the aggregates concrete cladding can be designed as either single or double skin.
from which the elements are made. The most common structural systenis are described in the
Small reveals. chamfers and chases may be used to increase following section.
the visual definition in addition to disguising the true positions
of the construction joints between the prefabricated units. 8.2.1 Load bearing facade elements
Load bearing facade elements support the vertical loads from the
Structural jirtictioti tloors and the structure above. These elenients can also
Precast concrete cladding can form an integrated part of the contribute to the horizontal stability of the building. Fig. 8.1
framework of a building. Concrete in itself has good structural illustrates how the load-bearing function is achieved. The tigure
properties which can be used in an economical way. by designing shows a framed facade element carrying the integral vertical load
the facade elements to be load bearing. of the floors and the above facades. It can be fabricated as a split
structure system (see section 8.8.1) with the thermal insulation
lsolatitig fiiticrioti layer and outer skin applied aftenvards or as a sandwich element.
The excellent performance of concrete in airborne sound As previously mentioned. the above facades can in principle
insulation is well known. Thermal insulation is achieved by the also fulfil a horizontal stabilizing function like any concrete wall.
insertion of light expanded foamed or mineral fibre materials into This is seldom done in practice. In such a case shear connections
the facade. Another important characteristic of concrete is its between the elements may be necessary.
heat absorption capacity. Up to date, the energy conservation The facade can also be coniposed of load bearing spandrel
effect of the mass of heavyweight materials has been ignored by panels as shown in Fig. 8.7. Here the spandrel elements act as
most designen. beams, transfemng vertical loads to columns. In this case one
Architectural concrete cladding has the advantage of can distinguish between single skin and double skin units. The
combining the effect of m a s and lightweight material through double skin can be either sandwich or split structure. When the
either sandwich construction. in which a layer of insulating exterior cladding is made in architectural concrete, then it is
material is set between two concrete leaves. or by fixing the classified as a 'double skin' element. When another material is
insulation material on site at the same time as the internal wall used. e.g. brickwork. masonry. aluminiuni etc.. then it is a 'single
lining is constructed (see section 8.8.1). skin' element.
8.1.3 Design considerations 8.2.2 Non-load bearing elements

The majority of designen hesitate to work with architectural Non-load bearing facade elements fultil only an enclosing
concrete cladding because of lack of knowledge on how to tackle function. This distinction can also be niade between single and
104 FlP Hcitid1m)k oti precasr hriíditig .striictirre.s

floor slab
inwlation
f 4 -
interior
lining
insulation
extemal
loadbearing
facade unit supports facade
self weight
Fig. 8.1 Load bearing frame elenients or plain facade elements
factory placed
m
insulation
precast
concrete
double skin
(or sandwich)
site or factoni
site
cladding
Fig. 8.2 Load hecrring spandrel units
FIP Handbook o11precast building structure.s

Plate 44. Office building, La Hulpe, Belgium.
Plate 45. Detail, office building, La Hulpe, Belgium Plate 46. Office building, European Union, Brussels,
Belgium
106 FIP Handbook on precast building struciures

E
Plate 47. Detail, oftice building, Canary Wharf, London, UK
Plate 48. Office building, Canary Wharf, London, UK Plate 49. Interior detail, oftice building, Canary Wharf
FIP Handbook o n precast building structures 107

Plate 50. Locomat, Versailles, France
Plate 51. Office building, S. Gallen, Switzerland Plate 52. Office building with brick-faced panels, Brussels,
Belgium
FIP Handbook on precast building structures

Plate 53. Shopping centre, Wijnegem, Belgium
1
Blate 54. King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Plate 55. St Kreuz Church, Merzhalben, Germany

Plate 56. Commercial centre, Roma, Italy
Plate 57. Hotel, Skarholmen, Sweden

double skin units. In principle the shape of the units can be to the exterior face of the wall panels and finally the exterior
designed without any restrictions. Single skin elements are cladding panels are erected. The exterior cladding can be made
generally used for the facings of wall units, columns, spandrel in precast concrete or in other materials. Very often the window
panels, etc., whereas double skin sandwich elements are frames are placed over several storeys giving a great deal of
generally used in skeleton structures. However, this is not a hard architectural freedom to the design.
and fast nile since single skin units are also used in skeleton
structures in, for instance, ‘split structure facades’. (see 8.2.3). 8.2.4 Special elements
Non load-bearing elements can be fixed either separately to There are a number of subsidiary units which may be used in the
the structure or they can be self bearing, as shown in Fig. 8.4. In completion of the previous systems, such as:
the fmt case the self weight of the elements is supported by the
exterior columns or beams of the building stnicture (Fig. 8.4.a). parapets
In the second case the facade is supporting itself and the elements
are only anchored horizontally to the structure (Fig. 8.4.b). The plinths
vertical load of the facade is canied by a column or beam and string courses
transferred to the structure orto the foundation.
balcony units
8.2.3 Split structure facade other special decorative facade components.
A recent development concems the so-called split structure
facade. It concems a facade construction in which the two leaves,
i.e. the inside leaf and the outside leaf, are fabricated separately 8-25 Fibre reinfOrced cladding
and erected separately. The load-bearing leaf of the facade Glass fibre reinforced concrete (GFRC) is used for non
consists of simple framed panels placed with the smooth load-bearing panels and other purposes. GFRC architectural
moulded side towards the interior of the building. The precast cladding panels are thin walled portland cement based
floor units are supported on these elements. Afterwards an composites with alkali resistant glass fibres that are randomly
airtightjoint ceiling is applied and an insulation layer is attached dispersed throughout the product.

y -
/-
--
. --
si-
I'late 5%.Adrninistr;itivc hiiilding, 1,ondon
I'late 59. Dctail. iidniinistrativc lwilding. 1,ondon
111
Plate 60. Balcony unit in polished concrete
Plate 61. Column with special shape
Plate 62. Non-load bearing wall panels

, control
Plate 63. Facade in GFRC for apartment building in

Monte Cado
' i bearing
a. Non b. Self bleafing facade
facade
Fig. 8.3 Principle of self bearing and non bearing facade
elements
Plate 64. Renovated facade with GFRC panels for office

Fig. 8.4 Principle of the split facade complex in Caserta, Italy
GFRC panels are suitable for wall units, window wall units, Detailed information on GFRC and other fibre products is
spandrel panels, comices, column comers, etc. Specific available in specialized literature.
charactenstics of the product are:
8.2.6 Interna1 structural elements
Low self weight - the thickness of the GFRC composite is Architectural concrete can also be used for decorative purposes
usually 10 to 13 mm. The panels can be faced with a thin inside buildings. As a matter of fact, al1 precast components can
layer of conventional decorative concrete. be made in architectural concrete when this is needed for
Large variety of complex shapes and surface pattems and decorative purposes. Numerous examples exist, e.g.:
textures.
special columns in large entrance halls
The units are non load-bearing.
floors with decorative underside profiles
The panels can be either single skin or sandwich with an
interior thermal insulation layer. suspended decorative ceilings

.
Plate 65. Stair in polished architectural concrete Fig. 8.5 Example of two storey height facade units
intemal walls Facade units covering more than one storey need a larger
central cores column section than single storey units because of the loads and
bending moments during manufacture and erection. As a general
polished stairs, etc. rule it is recommended that the bending moments in the units
during transport and erection be kept as small as possible in order
to reduce the risk of cracking.
8.2.7 Guidelines for the choice of the structural system
A pertinent question in connection with the choice of the facade 8.3.2 Hinged connections between panels
system is whether to use load bearing or non-load bearing facade Load bearing facade elements normally transfer only the
units. There is no all-round answer to this question. The vertical loads from the floors and the above structure. The
following guidelines may be of help in making this decision. horizontal forces acting on the facade are transferred to the
stiffening structural elements, i.e. cores, shear walls, etc. via the
The architectural appearance of the facade elevation diaphragm action of the floors. The connections between the
Load bearing panels are suggested for pronounced vertical facade elements and floors are normally designed as hinges in
facade architecture provided that the vertical load bearing parts the direction perpendicular to their plane.
of the facade are not too far from each other, e.g. a maximum of When required, the load-bearing facade elements can aiso
7.2 m, and possess a sufficient cross-sectional area. If the contribute to the horizontal stability together with the cores and
concrete section needed for carrying the vertical loads aíready shear walls.
exists, it is good economy to use it. For a pronounced horizontal For non-bearing elements the overall stability is assured by
facade, either load bearing spandrel panels or non-load bearing the bearing intemal stmcture. The connections between the facade
facade units can be used. elements and the bearing structure are designed as hinges.
For facades without a dominant vertical or horizontal structure
the choice between load bearing and non-load bearing facade 8 3 3 Stabiiity provided by load bearing facade elements
panels will be govemed by the specific conditions of the project. composed of facade tubes and facade shear wails.
Framed panels are often load bearing, whereas special shaped
units are usually non-load bearing. The load-bearing facade elements have to be designed to resist
in-plane horizontal forces due to wind or earthquake. The
The modelling of the exterior sugace vertical joints should be able to transfer shear forces. This may
Fiat cladding is often made with sandwich elements or with split be obtained through grouting of the vertical joints, by welded
intemal and extemal wall systems. Cladding with a pronounced connections or other suitable materials.
expressive shaping, for example with heavy curved surfaces, is
normally made as single skin.
8.4 Principles of calculation of members
Concrete or steel structures
Precast architectural concrete cladding is often associated with 8.4.1 General considerations
a precast concrete building frame. However there is no reason Precast cladding in architectural concrete is usually produced in
not to use such cladding for cast in- situ concrete structures or reinforced concrete. In some cases a small partial prestressing
steel skeleton structures. In this case the facade will be non will be applied, e.g. to limit tensile stresses during handling. Full
load-bearing or self-bearing. prestressing is seldom used for facade panels.
The calculationsfor facade panels are in principle no different
to those for normal reinforced concrete structures. Cracking
8.3 Stability principles for load-bearing should be avoided as much as possible because it disturbs the
facade panels aesthetic appearance. For these reasons larger limitations will be
imposed on the serviceability stresses. Possible additional
8.3.1 Stability provided by restraint of the facade stresses due to different deformations should be taken into
elements to the foundation account.
For low buildings, i.e. 1 to 3 storeys, without central cores the The following construction phases should be taken into
load bearing facade cladding can be used to contribute to part of consideration for the calculation of the elements:
the horizontal stability of the building. In this case the facade unit
is fixed into the foundation and covers the full height of the during manufacture, storage, transport and erection
facade in one piece. (See Fig. 8.5.) in service, after hardening of the connections.

Plate 66. Facade with pronounced vertical structure, Woluwe, Belgium
Plate 67. Facade with pronounced horizontal structure, Goteborg, Sweden

The forces acting during both phases are quite different. In restrained deformations at the supports. Those forces sometimes
addition, the concrete strength of the elements is much lower at dominate the normal loadings on connections (see section 8.4.3).
the demoulding stage than in service. Recommendations are
I given in the following sections concerning the most important
points 8.4.3 Deformations
Elements in architectural concrete can be subjected to
8.4.2 Loadings during the different constructional deformations due to temperature movements, shrinkage, creep
phases and support movements. Precast strucmes are able to take up
l
The most critical loading nearly always occurs when demoulding these deformations even better than cast in-situ structures.
the units. Not only does the self-weight of the units, but also the
adhesion to the mould and the dynamic loading at stripping play Thermal defomtions
a role. In order to take into account these facts, the self-weight Deformations due to differences in temperature between parts of
of the units will be increased by a coefficient equal to 1.5 to 2.0 the structure should be studied with care. Such temperature
times the self-weight according to the complexity and the overall differences may appear, for example, between parts of the
' dimensions of the units. For example, for framed panels a structure situated inside a building, which is at almost a constant
coefficientof 1.5 may be taken, and a coefficientof 2.0 for plates. temperature, and parts of the facades and roofs which are
The lifting points should be placed in a judicious manner in order exposed to climatic conditions.
to limit bending moments during stripping and manipulations, For non-load bearing facade elements the connections should
especially for long units. A coefficient of 1.25 may be applied to be designed in such a way that movement between the facade
' take account of dynamic loadings dunng manipulations and units and the supporting structure in the direction of the thermal
transport. expansion is possible in order to avoid concentrations of stresses
For the calculation of the panels in the serviceability limit at the connections. For sandwich panels, the connections
state, besides the normal acting forces, special consideration between the two leaves of sandwich panels should enable
should be given to indirect effects from volume changes or differential in plane movement of the leaves.

For load-bearing elements the induced stresses are taken up by The size of the supportingbeam or floor should be determined
the elements and the connections. The deformations can be in such a way that the long-term defiection will be limited to an
limited by providing sufficient expansion joints, especially at acceptable value, for example U1500.
ground level and roof level.
Temperaturechanges may also appear in the vertical direction 8.5 Shape of the units and dimensions
of a building. This is more marked for slender columns with low
thermal inertia, situated entirely or partially outside the facades. 8.5.1 Shape in relation to moulds
For medium climates the following temperature differences can One of the most important properties of concrete is the ease with
be taken into account: which it can be moulded, leading to a wide range of possible
shapes. Concrete shapes are not limited to volumes enclosed
60" C between the average maximum summer and mini- within plane surfaces - they may also be rounded. In fact the
mum winter temperature of facade and roof elements. option exists of making moulds from plastic materials or even
40" C for the maximum difference between the internal and from artificial rubber cast on a full scale prototype.
extemal leaves of sandwich elements dunng day time. From the economic point of view there are several factors
20" C for the difference between two opposite facades which must be taken into account at the time the moulds are
dunng a day in summertime. manufactured:
The number of identical units to be cast in the same basic
The highest temperature occurring in facade claddings is
dependent on the magnitude of the cross-sectional area and the moulds influences the cost of the project. On average 30
orientation and colour of the elements. to 50 units are cast in a basic mould. Normally these units
are not completely identical but small transformations are
needed to cast the full series.
Creep and shrinkage
The shape of the units should be designed in such a way
Volume changes due to creep and shrinkage of the hardened that the mould consists of a maximum number of fixed
elements are usually small compared with thermal movements.
However, attention must be drawn to possible effects of creep parts. At least one of the vertical faces of the fixed mould
during the hardening of the concrete when the shape of the mould in contact with the concrete should have a slope of 1 in 10
is hindering volume changes. A typical example is the intemal in the direction of stripping of the mould. In special cases,
mould frame of a framed element. Cracking can be avoided by and in agreement with'the manufacturer, smaller slopes
removing the element from the mould as soon as possible and by may be accepted. Fixed moulds avoid cement leakage, are
placing additional construction reinforcement. Special more accurate and produce higher quality elements.
consideration should be given to the intemal comers of framed Rounded shapes are generally a little more costly than
elements and changes from large to smaller cross-sections. plane shapes because of additional difficulties with manu-
facture of the mould and placing the reinforcement. Here
Settlement of the supporting structure again care should be taken not to produce designs without
a slope in the direction of stripping.
Facade elements which are supported on a reinforced concrete
beam follow the initial and long-term deflection of this beam. In The thickness of an element to be concreted in one oper-
order to limit the deflection as much as possible the supporting ation has an influence on the cost. In this respect, for
points of the facade elements should be placed as close as example, large projections as critical parts of elements
possible to the supporting points of the beam or the floor. generally imply higher production costs.
rii""" core
Pinned connections between
facade panels and frame
a. Vertical section b. Idealized
Fig. 8.6 Principle of a solution for horizontal stabilis, of buildings with stabilizing core

Impossible to remove the frame
o Frame for rabbet
o
i,
9
@ t ;/-p t p 9
Impossible to demould the unit
Fig. 8.7 Mould principles
Panel sleeves, block-outs and inserts are cheaper to pro-

duce and more accurately placed in the moulded side of an
element than in the non-moulded side, except for project-
ing parts such as protruding bars, etc., which should
preferably be placed at the non-moulded face.
8.5.2 Preferred dimensions
The preferred dimensions of facade panels are the storey height
and a multiple of a building module, e.g. 300 mm, for the width.
h
The latter is normally dictated by the planning or structural grid
of the building design. Elements with a height of 2 or 3 storeys
in one piece are only used for low buildings because of the
simplicity of the construction system. This latter case however
results in a larger structural section in order to limit handling extemal
stresses during manufacture. For higher buildings it is more face
expedient to work with storey height elements. The elements can
be more slender and the erection is simpler.
The maximum overall dimensions of bearing and non
load-bearing elements are govemed by handling and transport. Elevation Horizontal section mullion
As a general rule the weight of the elements should be limited to
10 tons. This corresponds with the normal lifting capacity of
average plant. However one should also take into account the Fig 8.8 Minimum dimensions of slender parts
handling at the building sites which are determined by the
location and the capacity of the crane. For example, for centrally
placed lifting cranes the elements at the comer of the facade are of cracking is greatest during demoulding of the elements. The
generally at the furthest distance and the weight might be adhesion to the mould is one of the most important loadings to
govemed by the lifting capacity of the crane. For normal which the element is subjected at a time when the strength of the
transport the general rule is that one of the two main dimensions concrete is still relatively low.
of the elements should not be larger than 3.6 m.
Elements having dimensions and weights deviating from these Minimum dimensions of window columns
values need special solutions such as exceptional transport, Panel thickness is dictated by structural design, the provision of
special cranes, etc., and should therefore be discussed with thc adequate cover to the reinforcement and the need for adequate
manufacturer beforehand. safety of the elements against cracking at the time of stripping.
To ensure good concrete filling and compaction and to guarantee
Minimum sectional dimensions of concrete cross-sections proper placing of reinforcement and adequate concrete cover, in
For facades in architectural concrete more precautions should be particular for fire resistance and corrosion, the following
taken against cracking of concrete than for any other structural minimum dimensions should be adopted (Fig. 8.8):
concrete. Small cracks which are normally acceptable with
respect to structural properties are disturbing in facade units for a> h/15 (h being the total height of the unit)
decorative reasons. Aftcr a period of time, dust particles may b> 100 mm (minimum opening for good casting)
penetratc into small cracks making them more easily perceptible
depending on the texture and the colour of the surface. The risk c>120mm

Plate 68. Offce building, The Netherlands
Plate 69. Office building, Italy
Plate 70. Hotel, Marseille, France

Plate 71. Office building, Brussels, Belgium
Plate 73. High school, Brussels, Belgium

Plate 74. Small office building, Boran, France
Plate 75. Details sculptural unit

A minimum concrete thickness for single skin concrete panels
should also be respected in order to avoid cracking and
deformations during manufacture. The data in Fig. 8.9 are the Minimum panel thickness
recommended minimum panel thicknesses as a function of the 160 mm
largest dimension of the panel. The figure is not applicable for
panels to be used as lost formwork or for sandwich elements. In
fact the two concrete leaves of a sandwich panel act as a 140
composite panel giving more rigidity to the panel than the sepa-
rate layers.
120
8.5.3 Modulation and flexibility
Modulation is an important economic factor in designing and
consimcting buildings, both for structural work and finishing. In 100 l
prefabrication,this is even more pronounced, especially in terms ,
of standardization and production and construction economy. 80 l
For the interna1 structure of a prefabricated building,
modulation is generally well established. The width of the floor 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8
elements is built according to a 300 mm modular design and m
1200 mm is a widely used measurement. The modulation should Maximum panel dimension
preferably be taken from the inside of the extemal wall as shown
in Fig. 8.10, at least for load-bearing walls.
For the facade units, the viewpoint is rather different.
Modulation is certainly desirable, but should not constitute an Fig. 8.9 Minimum panel thickness
obstacle for the architectural concept of the building. Far too
often in the past architectural concrete has been accused of

& Modulation Plate 76. Administrative building with concealed joints,
Paris, France
Fig. 8.10 Modulation should preferably be kept on the inside

of the load-bearing wall
lacking flexibility due to the repetitiveness of the elements in the

facade. This criticism is certainly unjustified since each project
is designed as a one-off for which new moulds always have to
be made. Modulation in connection with industrial production is
therefore not imperative, but does have an influence on the cost
of the elements.
Prefabrication of architectural concrete offers enormous
possibilities in terms of flexibility, amongst other things, Wough
transformationof the moulds. At the start of a project, studies are
carried out to decide which elements should be cast in which
mould, and in what sequence. A number of criteria come into
play here, such as:
the production run for identical or virtually identical
elements
the delivery dates
the type of finishing
the dimensions of the elements, etc.
Where a single mould is used for elements of different sizes, it

is preferable to produce the largest elements fmt and the smaller
ones later. In this way, the same superficial appearance is
maintained when the mould is modified. Usually one element is
cast per day in a mould. Changes of the mould can take up to 3
days, depending on the extent of alterations, and this should be
taken into account when fixing the delivery dates. The same is
true for finishing. In some cases, the elements have to harden for
severa1 days before surface finishing can take place.
8.5.4 Joints in the exterior facade
Joints are inherent in precast structures. Just as in natural stone
cladding, the joints have to be seen as a logical part in the design
of precast architectural concrete cladding. Various altemative Plate 77. Facade with concealed joints
solutions are available to obtain the desired result, e.g. false
joints, strongly or less pronouncedjoint profiles, etc.
Another approach consists of concealing the joints in the visual aspect, which is accepted as being an inherent factor in
facade. There are various possibilities. Joints are far less obvious prefabncated walls.
when they form a comer, or when they form the dividing point
between two different materials. Another technique consists of 8.6 Superficial appearance
interrupting continuous joints by staggering the elements or
having decorative elements cross over the joints, and so on. Concrete has long been considered as a rough building material,
There are many good examples of joints being incorporated with outstanding structural properties. However, many builders
smoothly. This does require a thorough study in the design stage and property developers remain unaware of its enormous
of the elements, and this aspect has been rather neglected in the potential as a decorative material. The material has undergone
past. Usually only the calculation of the minimum dimensions tremendous changes, not just in terms of texture and colour, but
was made to ensure waterproofing, without any concern for the also in terms of casting and surface treatments, which now means

that it can compete with the most luxwious wall cladding. 8.6.3 Faced panels
Examples are shown in plates 81 and 82. F’recast facade cladding can also be faced with other matenals,
such as natural stone, bricks, ceramic tiles, etc. These materials
8.6.1 Texture are placed at the bottom of the mould and cast into the units.
Concrete surfaces can be produced in any variation of texture, For small sizes, e.g. a maximum of 300 mm x 300 mm, as with
ranging from totally smooth to very coarse and these are ceramic tiles, bonding with the concrete is sufficient to ensure
described in the following paragraphs. that the materials are fixed in a durable manner. For larger sizes,
usually with natural stone, more precautions need to be taken.
Smooth as-cast concrete The stone is fitted with an anchor made of stainless steel and a
bond breaker is used to allow for differential expansion of both
This is surfaced with a smooth film of hardened cement paste, materials. Natural stone always has a different expansion
and the finished colour is therefore determined primarily by the coefficient to concrete. In addition, the temperature of the stone
colour of the cement and the fine sand fraction. This is obtained will be higher than that of the concrete due to the fact that it is
by using specially prepared moulds with absolutely flawless the externa1 surface.
surfaces and without leakage. The surface of the concrete does
not normally need any further treatment and is already in perfect
condition when it leaves the moulds. Repairs are however more 8.7 Panel fixings
difficult .The use of grey cement can cause differences in colour. Fixings are crucial for prefabricated construction. Much good
literature about connections and fixing details for precast
Simulated stone architectural facade elements exists with numerous examples of
This has the texture of fine natural stone. The concrete surface good applications. However, it is difficult to find information
is completely flat, but is not shiny. The coarse granulation of the regarding good design and execution criteria. Special attention
concrete is not visible. This finish is obtained by slightly etching will be paid to these points in the following sections.
or sandblasting the surface of the smooth concrete mentioned
above. 8.7.1 wpes of connections and applications
Ground concrete Connections with projecting reinforcement
This has a smooth surface with a more or less pronounced shine, The mechanism of this connection is entirely based on the
depending on the number of treatments to which it has been principle of force transfer between lapping reinforcement bars
subjected and the hardness of the aggregates. These aggregates and dowel action. The elements to be connected have projecting
are visible on the surface. Polished finishes are produced by bars which overlap in a judicious way in a cast in-situ joint.
using, in succession, two or possibly more grinding steps of Connections with projecting reinforcement cast into the
graded fineness. concrete as shown in Fig. 8.12 generally correspond best to the
above design pnnciples. They are also inexpensive. This type of
Lightly texture exposed aggregate finishes connection is often used to join load bearing facade elements and
These have a smooth surface, but the fine aggregates of the floors. It is also an adequate solution for the fixing of non
concrete are visible. This finish is obtained by washing it with a load-bearing elements. Specific advantages of this type of
surface retarder or by sandblasting. In the first case, the connection compared with others are:
aggregates themselves remain smooth, whereas with sand-
blasting, the aggregates become slightly matt. The surface finish large tolerances
can therefore range from slightly to completely matt. good economy
More heavily exposed aggregate finishes resistance to corrosion and fire.
These display the characteristic structure of concrete. This
appearanceis obtained by washing the surface cement away with The main disadvantage is that the fixing does not provide
water. For sections on the top side of the cast, this is done before immediate stability and must therefore be supplemented with
hardening of the concrete. For sections in contact with the mould, temporary supports or other permanent fixings during
a retarder is used, and once removed from the frame, the concrete construction.
is washed. As far as possible, aggregates of the same graduation Bolted connections
need to be on the surface to obtain a uniform appearance. Of
course, the texture depends on the size and type of aggregates Bolted connections are normally used for non-bearing facade
used, with every possible variant between rounded and broken elements. There are numerous possibilities making use of exist-
shapes. ing fixings such as cast-in bolts, cast-in anchor rails, cast-in
insert threaded bars, etc. (See Fig. 8.13.)
The bolted connection is demountable and provides immediate
Three dimensional textura1 patterns fixity. However, to overcome constructional deviations,
These are available with artistic motifs or al1 sorts of designs. tolerances in three dimensions must be accommodated.
These are applied in the moulds, and as it were, imprinted on the
concrete. In this way, artistic decoration can be applied to the Welded connections
súrface of the concrete, or, for example, the grain of coarse Welded connections are efficient and may easily be adjusted to
wooden planks can be imitated. varying field conditions. Their sírength depends on reliable
workmanship and the compatibility of welding materials with
8.6.2 Colour the metal to be joined.
The range of colours which can be used in architectural concrete Anchor plates are widely used for welded connections, in
are virtually the same as those of natural stone. In the case of fine combination with flat metal straps, reinforcing bars or metal
textures, the colour is largely influenced by the fine aggregates, studs welded to the plate. (See Fig. 8.14.) The exterior surface of
whereas in coarser granular structures, the range of colours of the plate is normally flush with the concrete face and provides a
the coarse aggregates will assume greater importance. In welded area for connection to the support system.
addition, there is the possibility of adding pigments to the
concrete to create special colour effects. However, slight colour 8.7.2 Durability
variations between elements may appear when pigments are Fixings of architectural concrete cladding are generally hidden
used. The same applies to some extent for smooth as-cast grey during the finishing of the building and usually cannot be
concrete. inspected thereafter. Apart from mechanical requirements,

Plate 78. Facade with polished and sandblasted surfaces
-.
- L- - -_ -
Plate 79. Facade with smooth and water washed concrete
Plate 80. Facade with white smooth as cast concrete

fixing materials should have sufficient resistance to physical and significance in determining the stability of the building in the
chemical deteriorationwhen they are exposed to the atmosphere. event of fire.
The methods used depend on the irnportance of the fixing and
the possibility for subsequent inspection. 8.7.4 Execution criteria
Fixings which are embedded in concrete and are in a dry In addition to the requirements conceming stability and
atmosphere only need to have the minimum concrete cover durability, a number of construction criteria are also very
prescribed by durability standards.When the concrete is exposed important in the design of good connections. Some general
to the weather and the thickness of the concrete cover is too low design and execution criteria, valid for al1 types of connections,
to guarantee that it will be waterproof, the fixings must remain have already been dealt with in section 4.4.3 of this Handbook.
corrosion free, e.g. by using stainless steel materials. Additional guidelines pertinent to architectural concrete
Fixings which are not embedded in concrete are generally cladding are given below:
made out of corrosion free materials. Austenitic stainless steel is
generally used for cladding units. The AISI Ti 316 (American Adopt the same type of anchorage for the complete clad-
standard equivalent to DIN 12371) and AISI 316 types can be ding as much as possible and also if the dimensioning in
used. certain cases is larger than needed. Serial work is cost
Care should be taken to avoid harmful bi-metallic contacts saving and improves good execution.
which could cause galvanic corrosion. Danger from bi-metallic Protruding bars should preferably be placed at the top side
contact can be avoided by the use of insulating washers and
sleeves. Only corrosion resistant materials should be used for of the mould in order to avoid difficulties when demould-
fixings between the two leaves of sandwich panels. There are ing.
some excellent systems on the market. Wherever possible, accurately positioned anchor slots or
inserts should be used, cast into the structural concrete as
8.7.3 Fire protection the basis for panel fixings. Cast-in fixings fall into three
Fixings which are embedded in cast in-situ concrete must meet categories:
the minimum requirements for dimensions and thickness of stainless steel sockets or proprietary anchor fixings
concrete cover which apply to concrete structures. Metal fixings
must have additional protection against f i i depending on their site drilled expanding bolt fixings
location in the completed building. pre-positioned dowels or cleats on a steel structure,
Some fixing details between precast elements do not need any usually incorporated during steelwork fabrication.
special treatment.For example, this is true in the case of neoprene Fixings should also take account of tolerances in the struc-
supporting pads. They are normally fully protected by the
ture of the building and the manufacture of the precast
surrounding elements and would normally be of little
units.
Plate 82. Office building, London, UK
e
Plate 81. Office building, Brussels, Belgium Plate 83. School building, Lund, Sweden

Dowel
Flexible
grommet
Dowels inclined in
opposite directions
f Granite-facedpanel
'13 thicicness
Thickness
Section
Fig. 8.11 Example of f i i n g and lay-out of granite-faced panel
Plate 84. Stone faced panels, office building,

Canary Wharf, London, UK
Plate 86. Stone faced panels, office and apartment

Plate 85. Stone faced panels hotel, Gothenburg, Sweden building, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Fig. 8.13 Example of bolted connections
Ir
-4-4-
facade
panel
steel beam
-4-4-
=l
vertical sections
1-
Jfloor
Spandrel
unit
Fig. 8.12 Example of connection with projecting

reinforcement and in situ concrete
Al1 fixings, of whatever type. should allow for three-way Fig. 8.14 Example of weldingJucing
adjustment to enable the panels to be lined and levelled.
Allow adequate clearance between the cladding and the
8.8 Physical building properties 1
structurai elements, normally a minimum of 25 to 30 mm.
These clearance gaps will not normally be visible in the In the design of facades in precast architecturai concrete, serious
finished building and so, within sensible limits, they can considerationshould be given to the physical building properties.
be made as large as practical consideration demands. Questions concerning thermal insulation, water tightness and

interior
leaf :xterior leaf
Fig. 8.15 Fixings should allow for three-way adjustment

-1 insuiation iayers
Fig. 8.16 Principle of a sandwich facade construction in
weathering should be studied carefully during the design phase. architectural concrete
Al1 these aspects are not exclusive to architectural concrete and
apply for al1 facade materials. Some specific solutions are given
for architectural concrete in the following sections. Common light cladding does not attenuate sound from
environmental activities. Normal traffic has a noise leve1 of at
8.8.1 Thermal insulation least 70 dB(A). Indoor noise should not exceed 30 dB(A). The
There are several possible solutions to insulate precast facade soundproofingrequired on the exterior wall is approximately40
elements, depending on the architectural design of the facade. A dB(A) and this can only be obtained with heavy exterior wall
first solution is the ‘sandwich’ construction shown in Fig. 8.16. cladding. Fig. 8.18 shows the influence of heavy materials e.g.
The concrete panels have an intemal insulation layer over the concrete, and light cladding materials on the total sound
whole surface. To be effectively applicable, the elements should insulation of facades with different types and dimensions of
be relatively flat and provide a sufficient concrete surface at any windows.
part of the panels in order to be able to produce the double leaves.
In the case of load-bearing sandwich elements, only the 8.8.3 Weatherproof joints
intemal leaf will be designed to be load-bearing and the exterior The shape and dimensions of the joint profile should be chosen
leaf should be fixed in such a way that it is free to expand. A in such a way that they do not constitute local weak points in the
variant of the sandwich facade construction is the ‘split-wall’ elements and give a risk of damage to the comers. Joints which
method. The principle of the system has been described in section are too complicated in shape are also difficult to construct and
8.2.3,and is illustrated in Fig. 8.17. this may reduce the watertightness of the structures.
The system offers many advantages with respect to the It is advisable to design elements with recessed extemal joints
sandwich facade panels, e.g.: as this enables easy and correct placing of the joint filling
The precast facade elements are simple, i.e. both the inte- material and also facilitates the correct vertical alignment of the
joints.
rior and exterior leaf.
The interior surface of the facade is perfectly smooth and Types of joints
ready for painting or wall papering. Two types of watertight joints have been used successfully, Le.:
The insulation is continuous over the whole surface, even
at the location of the joints between the facade panels. Face-sealedjoints - in this type of joint the penetration of
both air and water is prevented by a single seal. The best
There is a ventilated cavity between the interior leaf with results are obtained with polysulphide or silicone sealants.
.the insulation and the exterior leaf. In this way the insula- Open-drainedjoints, also called a two-stagejoint - this type
tion is always kept dry.
of joint has separate features to prevent the penetration of
The system is extremely flexible, both with respect to air and water.
shape of the facade and with respect to the material used
for the exterior cladding. Face-sealed joints are in principle more susceptible to ageing
than open drained joints because of the fact that the seal is
A second possible solution to insulate the architectural concrete exposed to wind, rain and ultraviolet light. The effectiveness of
facades consists of the application of an insulating layer on the these joints depends on the continuity of adherence to the
whole inside surface of the cladding elements. Aftenvards, a concrete and the elasticity of the sealant material. This implies
lining is constructed against the insulation, e.g. in plasterboard, that the joint edges should be regular and plain, and certainly not
brick masoruy, etc. washed out with retarder or similar additives. It is also
recommended that the seal be set back in the joint to obtain better
8.8.2 Acoustic insulation protection against wind, rain and ultraviolet light.
Concrete facades are well suited for airbome sound insulation. Ageing of the mastic and movements of the joint edges due to
It is important to know that demands for sound insulation will temperature and hygrometric changes are the most common
gain more importance in the future because it is one of the most causes of failure of the face-sealed joints. The failure occurs
important features with respect to comfort and health. It is because of the loss of adherence or elasticity of the mastic.
generally accepted that noise from outer sources should not be However, experience has shown that face sealed joints behave
louder than 30 dB(A) (decibels) in apartments, hotels, perfectly, even after 20 years of age, when a good sealant
kindergartens, hospitals or schools. material has been used with correct proportioning of resins and

a
1st floor
Floor plan
First phase
Erection of the internal facade
panels which are erected with the
smooth as cast side inwards.
After erection of al1 the storeys
the thermal insulation is fixed
to the outside of the panels with
the help of mechanical anchors.
Second phase
Erection of the exterior leaf
of the architecutral concrete
facade.
The cladding units are going
over different storeys. They Vertial cross-section
are partially in transparent The precast floor
and partially in opaque glass, elements are supported
according to the place by the interior panel.
in the facades. The exterior leaf is
also supported on the
'interior panel by means
of metal U-profiles.
The horizontal fixing
is done by means of
push and pul1 anchors.
Fig. 8.17 Principle of the split-wall

R 1
Plate 87. Split facade with architecturai concrete cladding during erection - interna1 load bearing elements
Plate 88. As ahove, placing of thermal insulation and erection of ciadding panels
FIP Handbhook m i precnst hitilding striictures 129

Light Heavy
walls walls
1. Sound proof windows

2. Speciai insulated two pane
windows
3. Normal tow pane windows
-25% window area
-_-______
50% window area
Caiculation example
Sound reduction wall: 45 dB

50% window area - specially
insulated two pane window
' 30 40 4g 50 dB
Sound reduction of the wall
Fig. 8.18 Resulting soundproofingfor heavy and light wall cladding with different types of windows
inert material when the application has been satisfactory,namely Face-sealed joints are easily inspectable and can be
sufficient width and depth of the joint filling and with sound repaired when needed. The superficial closing of cracks in
joint edges. the seal or between seal and joint edges makes no sense.
Lack of watertightness is often caused by bad quality The seal surface is exposed to the weather. It is recom-
workmanship, both with respect to the composition of the mended that the seal be set back in the joint for protection
sealant, and insufficient dimensions of the joints. The from wind, rain and ultraviolet light.
watertightness of an open-drained joint depends critically upon
the integrity of the air seal at the rear of each joint. Experience Open drained joints
has shown that most open-drainedjoints give little trouble. The placement of the different joint stages is carried out
Failures in the air seals can be caused by movement of the during erection and is not always easy to perform. Special
panels, failed grouting at the rear of the joint or loss of adhesion care is needed at the intersection of vertical and horizontal
of an air-seal membrane. Loss of baffle protection can be the joints because these are the weak points of the system.
result of vandalism or lack of support causing the baffle to fa11
out of the joint. The inciined grooves in the joint edges should be suffi-
Finally, attention must be paid to inspection and maintenance ciently parallel to enable the insertion of the baffie.
of weatherproof joints. The expense of damage and repair will Movements due to variations in temperature and hygro-
never counter-balance the small expense of maintenance. Faults metry of the panels do not generally affect the effectiveness
also OCCUT at ihe inteísection of vedcal and horizontal joints. of h e joints.
Here, instances have been reported of baffies lapping the wrong
way so that water is directed into the building and of flashing The joint materials are less exposed to the weather condi-
being omitted or damaged. In some cases, the upstands or tions than face-sealed joints.
horizontal joints have been insufficient to prevent the ingress of Inspection of open-drainedjoints is rather difficult, espe-
driving rain. cially at the intersection of horizontal and vertical joints.
In conclusion, both types of joints show advantages. A brief Repair of leaking joints is not so easy. Flashing at the
summary is given below:
intersection of horizontal and vertical joints is usually
. inaccessible, and thus irreplaceable. The same often
Face sealed joints appiies for the baffies. Repairs to those parts of the joints that
The placement of the sealant is rather simple, but should are accessible from the outside may be possible with seal-
be done by specialisís. The weather should be dry and the ants or adhesive strip flashing.
temperature of the concrete at least 2" C .
Tolerances with respect to joint openings can be taken up In spiit stnictures, the weathmjmmf joints are sometimes placed
by the sealant on condition that the joint width remains in at the leve1 of the interior facade leaf before erection of the
between the maximum and minimum acceptable values. exterior cladding. The above mentioned types of joints can be

elastic ioint or mortar
drained and ventilated airspace
horizontal section
Fig. 8.20 Example of face-sealed joint

elastic joint or mortar
I
Horizontal section
1- - drained and
Fig. 8.19 Examples of recessed joints ventilated airspace
baffle
, used for the interior leaves, but the conclusions with respect to
their application might be different. The joints between the a
exterior cladding units are left open. The insulation material has
of course to be water tight.
8.8.4 Changes in appearance with time
Al1 building materials exposed to the elements change in
’ appearance with the passage of time. Such changes are the result
of three influences:
environmental grime
the degree to which the surface of the material encourages
organic growth
flashing
the ageing of the material, caused by chemical changes
resulting from the atmosphere and its pollutants.
However, not al1 weathering is detrimental. It can add a quality
l of mellowness to materials, like stone and brick, a quality which
is equally imparted to architectural cladding composed of these
materials.
Architectural concrete cladding, too, can enjoy this same
mellowing effect, provided two factors are assured:
the quality of the concrete - its mix design, uniformity and
the care with which it is cast and cured is of the highest b
standard,
the rainwater flow over its surface is successfuliy control-
led by the architectural detailing.
Fig. 8.21 Example of open drained joints
Every building deteriorates over time. This ageing pmess goes
hand in hand with a gradual darkening of the wall colour through
deposition of small particles from the atmosphere. affected by rain that virtually al1 the dried-on particles are
If a large roof overhang prevents walls from being affected by washed away by the water. These areas are completely cleaned.
rain, the surface of the wall will gradually become covered with Other areas receive much lower quantities of rain, or none at all,
a patina, and darken uniformly. Often there is no overhang, or it with the consequence that they are cíeaned to a much lesser
is inadequate, and this means that the surface is affected by rain. extent, or not at all. It also happens that the water, running off
The quantity of water which then comes into direct contact with the very exposed parts of the wall, deposits the particles it is
the wall is unevenly distributed. Some areas are so intensely carrying further down the wall, which means that the staining of

the wall is uneven. This results in a pattem of lighter and darker
patches, possibly separated by a jagged, darker line.
There are two possible outcomes to this. Either the pattem
emphasizes the texture and the shape of the facade, and can be
reconciled with the design of the facade, or it is realistically
incompatible. In the fmt case, this can be described as a desirable
staining pattem and patina formation, and in the second case, this
is an undesirable staining pattem.
A short walk through the city should suffice to find examples
of both desirable and undesirable wall soiling. In both categories
buildings made of brick, stone, concrete, etc. can be seen, so it
is not so much the materials used, but rather the design of the
wall which determines whether the staining of the facade is 5mk-
.
undesirable or not. Fortunately there are a large number of tools
which enable the designer to predict more or less how the
building will age. Naturally, in doing this, he has to take climatic
factors into account and make optimal use of the properties of
the facade material.
Climatic factors
b
The wind direction and speed define the direction in which the
rain falls. Obstacles, such as buildings which lie in the path of
the wind, deflect the airflow. Depending on the variation of the above: Path followed by raindrops falling against buildings
wind direction and speed in the vicinity of the obstacle, the
direction of falling rain also changes (see Fig. 8.22). This is the
reason why the rainfall on the facades is not spread in a uniform
way. The sun also plays an important role. A wall which receives
a great deal of sunlight will dry out a lot faster, and will be less
likely to attract airbome particles. Fig. 8.22 Direction of weather effects
A few guidelines are listed below:
The pattem of stainingvaries depending on the direction in A coarse texture often stains in a way which is not that
which the wall faces. As an example, in West Europe, a striking. The naturally present surface contrasts are
South-West facing wall is always exposed to more rain and usually enhanced.
sun than a North-East facing wall. In a structure with vertical grooves, it is normally the ribs
The rainfall on the edges of a wall is greater than in the which are washed clean by rainwater. Shadow effects can
middle. It is only true on paper that an extensive, uniform disguise possible uneven cleaning pattems in the grooves
area will remain unaltered over time. In practice, an unde- and heighten the contrast.
sirable pattem will be produced. Design
The direction of rainfall varies from diagonally at the top The architect has the following options:
of the wall to almost vertical from halfway down the walls
of high buildings. From that point, a small air buffer can prevent the surfaces getting wet - a large roof overhang can
prevent contact between rain and the wall. Any projecting solve a lot of problems.
element would naturally be drenched. channel and direct rain run-off.
As a rule of thumb, the angle of rainfall direction from the camouflage staining with colours, texture and shadow
vertical is 11.3" (gradient 15). effects (see above).
cleaning walls efficiently.
Wall materials
Concrete, &e any material with a very fine pore structure,reacts The following deals only with the possibilities of controlling the
slowly to water. It absorbs water slowly and dries slowly. During run-off of the water.
the absorption phase, the particles which are aiready on the A large number of basic design guidelines can be derived from
surface are drawn onto and into the upper surface layer. This studying the staining pattem on a projecting component.If a wall
explains why architectural concrete should be well compacted, with a projecting component abc., as shown in Fig. 8.23, is
limiting the porosity as much as possible, so that when it is wet assumed, the concentration of dirt particles on the horizontal
the water runs off almost immediately and the suríace dries very plane a is greater than on planes b and c. Using the design rule
quickly. The designer must take these characteristics of the that the rain drops fall at an angle of 11.3", plane a receives five
material into account when designing the walls. times the rainfall per unit of area than plane b. This angle also
As mentioned earlier, the possible variations in colour and marks out the rain shadow zone, plane c, which never gets wet
texture are almost limitless. The following may be helpful: with an adjoining section of wall undemeath.
From the moment the intensity of the driving rain on plane a
It is advisable to build walls in a darker material where is greater than the volume of water which can be absorbed per
undesirable staining effects are to be expected. This will unit of time, water will start to collect and then spill over onto b.
make staining less noticeable. This extremely dirty water washes the vertical plane and,
A staining pattem on the area of wall which is uniform in dependingon the amount of rain and the absorption capacity, will
flow over onto part or al1 of b.
colour is much more striking than one where there are great In the first case, a jagged dark line will be the tell-tale sign of
variations in colour. the edge of the area covered by the water and where it dumped
The texture influences the adhesion of particles and how its load of dirt. This forms the separation between a light
easily they can be washed off again. The particles will find (washed) zone and a dark (unwashed) zone.
it easier to adhere to a rough, uneven surface, than on a In the second case, the water has partly fallen down from the
smooth, polished area which is easy to wash. edge and has partly been moved by absorption. It may reach the

neighbouring section of wall and move further down. Once the
water has reached the rain-shadow area, the separation between
light and dark will be more jagged and more striking.
The following guidelines can be derived from this:
Avoid horizontal planes - they collect the most dirt and
are the most exposed to rain. + f c-- f Ir ir
Use sloping rather than flat upper surfaces - the advantage
of a rather sloping upper surface is that the dirty water is
immediately drained away (see the detail of the eaves Fig.
8.24). Here it is best to adopt a steep slope and a limited
height to encourage fast run-off of rain and completing
washing. If there is a risk of an uneven staining pattem,
then opt for a darker colour andor a complex surface tex-
ture, e.g. deep grooves.
Avoid run-off into the elements in the rain shadow.
Avoid run-off from horizontal or gently sloping upper Fig. 8.23 Staining pattem on projecting components
surfaces on vertical sections of walls. Investigate whether
the combination of the two surfaces cannot be replaced by
a slope. The pattem of the spandrel under the windows is
influenced by this (Fig. 8.25).
Every inclined or vertical surface with underside edges
must be provided with a well-profiled drip-moulding in
order to prevent the rain running off into the rain-shadow
area. For windows or recesses, it is desirable that the
profiling should continue on the sides (Fig. 8.26).
Lintels, kerbs or horizontal ribs should be considered as
projections of reduced height. They protect the sections of wall
undemeath them and therefore create a shadow area. Continuous
horizontal ribs provide an horizontal ageing pattem to the wall.
If they are projecting and are washed, they form a stark contrast
to the areas of wall undemeath them which also stain. The
staining process increasingly emphasizes the horizontal areas of
walls. The pre-condition for this is that the ribs should be
properly profiled, i.e. project sufficiently, with a sloping upper
surface and drip-groove, and be continuous.
Vertical ribs can be used to channel the run-off and prevent it Fig. 8.24 Detail of soiling pattem at comice
spreading to neighbouring areas of wall. They provide a vertical
ageing pattem to the wall. The wind flow around a vertical rib
means that the edges are especially subject to rain. If the rib is
too wide, e.g. a column, then there will be a staining pattem in
the middle. A solution for this problem is to make the column
U-shaped. In order to prevent uncontrolled run-off along the
neighbouring sections, edge-profiling is required, as shown in
Fig. 8.27.
Su$ace treatment
If there is undesirable staining of a wall, it will need to be cleaned
more frequently than if the staining is acceptable. Regular
cleaning will be simpler and cheaper if the wall has been given
a suitable surface treatment. Usually this means applying water
repellant products, which also prevent dirt particles adhering to
the pores of the concrete surface which would be difficult to
remove. The treatment cannot be a film because that would
prevent the necessary vapour transport from the inside to the
outside. There are severa1 reliable surface treatment products on
the market which have been specially developed for concrete and Fig. 8.25 Inclined su$aces are better than vertical and
which have proved effective over at least 10 years. horizontal ones
If there is a risk of unsightly graffiti on the ground floor walls,
these are best treated with anti-graffiti products. These are often The ideal solution is to treat the ground floor with anti-graffiti
applied in two coats and are generally films. There are two types: products and the upper floors with a damp-proofing product
from the same product family. This prevents the wall ageing
permanent, i.e. after the graffX is removed, the product unevenly due to the use of incompatible products. This
does not need to be applied again to that area, because the short-term investment pays off in terms of future maintenance
solvent does not remove the second layer. costs, which are of course inherent in any building.
non-permanent, i.e. after the graffiti is removed, the pro- It is advisable to contact the precasting manufacturer when
duct does have to be applied again to that area because the choosing these products for assistance in deciding which is suit-
solvent removes the top coat. able for the type of architectural concrete and finishing.

L---l
Fig.8.26 At bottom edges water must be made to drip 08The

groove should be as close to the outer edge of the sofJit as
possible, and it is desirable to continue the profile on the sides
Fig. 8.27 Examples of edge profiling

References and literature
This section gives not only references of publications from FIP State of the art report Prefabricated thin-walled concrete
which text and drawings are used in this Handbook, but also units, Thomas Telford, London, 1984, 32 pp.
information concerning useful complementary literature on tlie
subject of precast construction. The latter list is certainly not General information about the technical properties and production
methods of thin-walled products reinforced with different types of
complete, since so many articles, brochures and books have been fibres and ferro-cement.
published on the subject. We have made an attempt to mention
as much as possible interesting documents know by the FIP Technical report Precast concrete piles, Thomas Telford,
members of the FIP Commission on Prefabrication. London, 1984,49 pp.
The report deals with important aspects of the manufacture, design
and use of precast reinforced and prestressed concrete piles. It
References contains technical niles, recommendations, advice, selected Dutch
FIP Recommendations Precast prestressed hollow core floors, standards and description of execution procedures.
Thomas Telford, London, 1988, 3 1 pp.
Design recommendations and calculation methods for precast
FIP Technical report Ductility of tie connections f o r concrete
prestressed hollow core units and floors. components inprecast structures, FIp/9/9, London, 1982,40pp.
The report is based on experimentalwork on the theme ‘Progressive
FIP Recommendations Design of multi-storey precast concrete collapse’. It aims to establish the deformation capacity of
structures, Thomas Telford, London, 1986, 26 pp. conventional tie connections and new types. It provides calculation
methods for evaluating the displacement capacity in a specific
Design recommendations for precast apartment buildings, office situation..
buildings and car parks.
Elliot K.S. and Tovey A.: Precast concrete frame buildings,
FIP Guide to good practice Precast composite floor structures British Cement Association, Slough, 1992,88pp. ISBN O 7210
(in preparation). 1416X.
Design guidelines for structures where precast and cast in-situ Design guide, providing a detailed review of precast concrete frame
concrete are working together to form an integral structural buildings in an effort to promote greater awareness and understanding
component. The document contains 3 parts: Theoretical design of the subject. Gives details of the design, manufacture and erection
aspects, Beam-block floor systems, Composite action between floors of precast concrete frame buildings and their components.
and toppings, and between floors and supporting beams.
Handbook, Architectural Cladding Association; ACA,
FIP Guide to good practice Quality assurance of hollow core slab Leicester, 1990, 52 pp.
floors, SETO, London, 1992,30 pp.
A guide to the design, detailing and economics of modern precast
Manual for quality assurance and quality control for the design, concrete cladding. Covers architectural design and procedures,
manufacture, transport and erection of extruded and slipform includes guidance on a variety of finishes and gives information on
hollow-core units. buildability and economics. Concludes with technical aspects of panel
design, joints, fixing and manufacturer involvement.
FIP Guide to good practice The design, manufacture and
erection of architectural concrete elements, FIP/9/5, London, Eléments en Béton Architectonique, Precast Concrete Federation
1982,56 pp. FéBé, Belgium, 1992, 107 pp. FrenchDutch.
The document provides basic knowledge and experience on design, Technical guide bringing together existing basic knowledge and
manufacture and erection of architectural precast concrete cladding. experience about the design, manufachm and erection of architectural
concrete for building elements, especially for facade claddings. Deals
FIP Guide to good practice Shear at the interface of precast and with structural systems, capabilities with regard to shape, colour,
in-situ concrete, FIP/9/6 London, 1982, 3 1 pp. texture and finishes. Includes detailed guide specifications about
dimensioning, tolerances, connections, thermal and acoustical
Guidelines how to design, detail and construct the interface isolation. Gives guidelines on weathering.
connection between the precast components and the in-situ concrete
in order to achieve composite action. PCI Design and typical details of connections for precast and
prestressed concrete, 2nd Edition, MNL- 123-88,270 pp.
FIP Guide to good practice Acceleration of concrete hardening
by thermul curing, FIP/9/7, London, 1982, 16 pp. Design manual for connections: concepts, materials, design
procedures with examples, and a full spectrum of typical connection
Overview of current knowledge on accelerated hardening of concrete details.
by means of increased temperatures.
Betongelementjioreningen:Betongelement, Swedish Association
FIP Guide to good practice for The design of thin walledfibre for Concrete Building Components, Box 14104, S-161 14
reinforced units (in preparation). Bromma, 1985, Swedish.
Design guidelines for fibre reinforced thin-walled panels especially A guide of precast concrete structures,consisting of 15 volumes with
for glass fibre reinforced cement, but also for various other types of the following titles: Planning, Economy, Columns, Floors and Roofs,
discontinuous fibre reinforced materials made with carbon fibres, Walls and Facades, Foundation elements, Stairs, Balconies,
polymer fibres, natural fibres, ferro-cement, and weather resistant Complementary details, Connections, Dimensioning, Building
glass fibre reinforced gypsum. Besides the strength and stiffness, acoustics, Thermal capacity, Fire resistance.
strain of the composite material is also introduced as an important
design critenon.

Complementary literature Stupre (Dutch study association for the development of precast
concrete), The Netherlands: Precast concrete connection details,
Design guides and recommendations 2nd edition; Dusseldorf, Beton-Verlag GmBH, 1987; 215 pp.
PCI Design Handbook - Precast and Prestressed Concrete 4th Structural design manual on connections for precast structures. A
Edition; MNL-120-92; 540 pp. wide choice of connection details are shown systematically, each
with a pertaining text in which recommendations for the use of each
Design guide for both prestressed and non-presaessed structural and connection are given. In addition it also provides recommendations
architectural precast concrete: materials, product information and for the design of a connection, for the detailing the element in respect
capability, analysis and design of products and stnictures, product of the connection and erection, and for the site operations.
handling and erection, connections, tolerances, thermal and acoustical
properties, fire resistance and guidance for specifiers. Betongelementer under bakkeniva; Betongindustriens
Landsforening, Box 53 - Blindem, N-0313 Oslo, Norway, 1991;
PCI Manual for the Design of Hollow-Core slabs; MNL-126-85; Norwegian.
120 pp.
A study of the behaviour of precast structures below ground level,
Guidelines for the design and execution of hollow-core floor and roof mainly focusing on establishing the design parameters for precast
systems. slabs with large axial loads in two directions. The results are
condensed in a design program for personal computers.
Brochure Technique “Eléments de plancher alvéoles en béton
précontraint”; Precast Concrete Federation FéBé, Belgium, Design and execution of Connections
1989; 36 pp. French/Dutch. Betongelementboken; Betongindustriens Landsforening, Box 53
Design guide for hollow core floors and roofs. Blindern, N-0313 Oslo Nonvay, 1994; Norwegian; ISBN
82-991880-3-2.
Weber H.: Decke und Dach, Wirtschaftliches bauen mit A comprehensive precast stnictural design handbook consisting of six
Spannbeton-Hohlplatten; VMM, 1993; 118 pp. German. volumes with the following titles: Building with concrete elements
Design guide for hollow core floors and roofs. (ISBN 82-991880-4-2), Theoretical basis for stabilizing and force
transfer (ISBN 82-99180-5-9),Design of elements and joints (ISBN
82-991880-6-7), Fire resistance, durability and sealing (ISBN
Walraven J. and Mercx W.: The bearing capacity of Prestressed 82-991880-7-5), Thermal and sound insulation (ISBN
Hollow-Core Slabs; Heron, 28, N$ 3, University of Delft, The 82-991880-8-3), Tolerances (ISBN 82-991880-9-1).
Netherlands, 1983; 46 pp.
Calavera J.; Design, Construction and Pathology of slabs for Brandenburg: Verbindungen ohne MortelverguJ bei
Buildings, 4th Edition; Intemac, Madrid, 1989; 678 pp. Stahlbeton-GroJtafel-Bausystemen;(Connections without grout
in reinforced large panel structures), 1973; German.
The book covers in details the different types of prefabricated and
in-situ reinforced and prestressed slabs used in building structures. Examples of welded connections, dowel connections,
glue-connections, their design and detailing.
Gerwick, B.C.: Construction ofprestressed concrete structures,
2nd edition, John Wiley, 1993. Progressive collapse
Cholewicki A.: Analysis of shear walls, 1985; Swedish CEB Bulletin 191: General Principles on Reliability f o r
Structures; Box 88, CH-1015 Lausanne; 1988.
Council for Building Research, Stockholm D4;
CEB Bulletin 169: Drajl Guide for design of precast wall
Calculation methods of precast multistorey buildings subjected to connections; Box 88, Ch-1015 Lausanne.
vertical and horizontal loads.
CEB/FIP Model Code 1990, chapter 14 - Precast Concrete
Sarja A.: Rotational model for the determination of the shear Elements and Structures; see below “Standards”.
capacity of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, FIP Recommendations: Design of Multi-storey Precast Concrete
Espoo 1982, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Research Structures; see above “References”.
Report 76,19 pp.
PCI : Considerations for the Design of Precast Wall Buildings
Sarja A.: Analysis of non-linear statical properties of reinforced to withstand abnormal loads; JR-170; 1976, 36 pp.
concrete slabs, Espoo 1979, Technical Research Centre of
Finland, Building Technology and Community Development, Portland Cement Association Reports: Philosophy of Structural
Publication 16, 100 pp.+ app. 29 pp. Response to Normal and Abnormal Loads; PCA, 5420 Old
Orchard Road, Skokie, Illinois 60076, USA; 1976; 133 pp.
Sarja A.: Analysis of-the statistical in-plane behaviour of
prefabricated hollow core slab $elds, Espoo 1978, Technical Portland Cement Association: A design Approach to General
Research Centre of Finland, Concrete Laboratory, Report 51, Structural Integrity; PCA, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie,
Illinois 60076, USA.
36 PP-
New Zealand Concrete Society: Guidelines f o r the use of Cholewicki A.: Prevention of multistorey large panel buildings
structural precast concrete in buildings, 1992; ISBN against progressive collapse; Sofia 1983; International
0-9598002-2-0 conference on Tal1 Buildings erected in industrialized way,
IABSE and Research-Technical Association of Bulgaria.
Report of a Study Group of the New Zealand Concrete Society and Sarja A.: Prevention of the progressive collapse in the buildings
the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineenng.
constructed with prefabricated concrete units according to the
BES system, Otaniemi 1975, Technical Research Centre of
Steinle A.: Bauen mit Betonfertigteilen im Hochbau, Finland, Concrete Laboratory, Report 36, 61 pp.
Beton-Kalender 1988 11, p.343-5 13 (Construction with precast
elements), German.
Design niles, details and many pictures of applications. Architectural concrete
Comprehensive list of German references (270 books and articles)
concerning precasting technique. PCI Architectural Precast Concrete, 2nd Edition; MNL- 122-89;
352 pp.
Guidelines for the design and execution of precast architectural
concrete.

Taylor H.P.J.: Precast concrete cladding; Edward Amold, Drafting, production and erection
London, 1992; 307 pp. PCI: Recommended practice for erection of precast concrete;
The book gives an overview of the different forms of cladding that MNL-127-85; 96 pp.
are available, and covers the design, manufacturing and erection Basic guidelines to erection and related field services in the precast
processes. Details design for weathenng, the practica1 aspects of concrete industry. The document emphasises the methods for the
manufacture, testing methods, fixings, sealants, and site work. rapid and efficient erection of precast structures. These methods
include effective connections, orderly transportation, and accurate
Sarja A.: Developoment of reinforecement of sandwich facade product, erection and interfacing tolerances. In addition, this
element, Espoo 1981, Technical research Centre of Finland, document covers rigging, handling and installation procedures and
Research Notes 19/1981, 85 pp. equipment; post installation considerations; sealants and protective
coatings.
Betongens Yta: A handbook f o r architects published by
Coordinator; Svensk Byggtjanst, Box 1403, S-11484
Stockholm; Swedish. Quality control-certification
PCI: Manual f o r quality control for plants and production of
Description of vanous possibilities to create different surfaces with precast prestressed concrete products, 3rd Edition;
concrete. MNL-116-85; 123 pp.
Betongelementer i fasader; Betongindustriens Landsforening, Practical guide for quality supervision. It describes current practice
Box 53, Blindern, N-0313 Oslo, Nonvay, 1990; Nonvegian. in detailing, producing and erecting precast concrete structures, and
provides details on precast principles specifications, accuracy and
A handbook dealing with precast facades, for architects and project appearance.
planners.
PCI: Manual f o r quality control for plants and production of
Fassaden: Konstruktion und Gestaltung mit Betonfertigteilen; architectural precast concrete products, h4NL-117-77; 226 pp.
Beton-Verlag, Dusseldorf, 1988; 96 pp; German; ISBN
3-7640-0242-5. Manual for the every-day use of plant production and quality control
personnel.
A handbook dealing with precast facades for architects aiid project
planners. PCI: Manual for quality control for plants and production of
glassfibre reinforced concrete products, MNL-130-91; 184 pp.
Soiling and Cleaning of Building Facades, Report of Technical Specification reference document for quality control in the
Committee 62 SCF, Rilem; L.G.W. Verhoef, London, 1988; manufacture of GFRC products. Also useful information for
187 pp. ISBN 0-412-30670 O.. transportation and erection.
Study of the complex systems by which surfaces are changed by the
natural and unnatural elements in the enviornment. PCI: Tolerances for precast and prestressed concrete; JR 307;
Recommendations for the design of building facades and suitable 87 PP.
methods of cleaning.
Working reference for the dimensional control of precast
components, covering product tolerances, erection tolerances and
Beijer O.F.: Weathering on extemal walls of concrete; Swedish interfacing tolerances.
Cement Concrete Research Institute, Stockholm, 1980.
Carrieé C., More1 D.: Salissures de facades; Editions Eyrolles, Richardson J.G.: Quality in precast concrete - design -
Paris, 1975; 116 pp. French. production - supervision; Longman Group, Harlow, UK; 1991,
395 pp.
Glass Fibre Reinforced Concrete Special topics

PCI: Recommended practice f o r glass fibre reinforced PCI: Design f o r jire resistance of precast and prestressed
concrete panels, 3rd Edition; MNL-128-93; 92 pp.. concrete, 2nd Edition; MNL- 124-89; 96 pp.
Information on the planning, preparation of specifications, design, Analytical method of evaluating fire endurance of precast and
execution and supervision of the manufacture and installation of glass prestressed concrete. Procedures for redesigning structural
fibre reinforced concrete panels. assemblies for improved fire resistance.
Stupre (Dutch study association for the development of precast Anderberg Y. and Pettersson O.: Brandteknisk dimensionering
concrete): Glass fibre reinforced cement; Study group 30 Glass av betongkonstruktioner, 1981; Svensk Byggtjast Box 1403,
reinforced cement, Stupre, The netherlands, 1988, 8 1 pp. S-11484 Stockholm; Swedish
Overall view of the factors which influence the structural behaviour Precast Concrete Frame Association: Frames for multi-storey
of GRC panels, and design guidelines based on strength, stiffness and buildings. An economic comparison. BPCF 73.341 Leicester,
strain properties of the material. 1985; 16 pp.
Provides an economic comparison between steel and precast
multi-storey buildings. Practical guide for those responsible for
Building types supervising various stages of precast concrete construction.
Sarja A.: Principles and solutions of the new system building
technology (TAT), Espoo 1989, Technical Research Centre of Saja A., Hanus, Mattie: New systematics for the system buildings
Finland, Research Report 662; 61 pp. and information process. Manuscript to be published in 1994.
Technical Research Centre of Finland.
PCI: Parking structures: recommended practice f o r design and
construction; MNL-129-85; 141 pp.
Research
Concepts in design and construction including many details and Engstrom B.: Ductility of tie connections in precast structures;
design examples with pictures. Chalmers University of Technology, Division of concrete
structures, Goteborg, Sweden, 1992; 368 pp. and 7 appendices.
Dardare J.: Structures réalisées a partir de composants
manufacturés en béton, 1975; Monography N$6 CERIB, BP 59, PhD thesis conceming the ductility of tie connections in precast
F-28231 Epernon, France. French. floors. The aim of the research was to develop a method for the

prediction of the load-displacement characteristics of tie connections Standards
in the plastic stage. CEN: ENV 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
Prefabrication of Concrete Structures; Intemational seminar, CEN: ENV 1992-1-3:Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands; Delft - Part 1B: Precast concrete elements and structures.
University Press, Oct. 1990, 214 pp. CEN: PrEN 1168 - Floors of precast prestressed hollow core
Menegotto M.: Seismic resistant extruded hollow core slab; elements.
Intemational Symposium on noteworthy Developments in CEB/FIP Model Code 1990, Chapter 14: Precast concrete
Prestressed and Precast Concrete, Singapore, November 1989. elements and structures; Bulletin D’Information N$ 213/214;
Full scale tests on diaphragm action of hollow core slab floors with Box 88, CH-1015, Lausanne.
undulated shear key and various types of periphed tie configurations. BS 8110: Part 1: 1985; Section Three. Design and detailing:
reinforced concrete.
Cholewicki A. and others: Correction of interna1 forces for
coupled shear wall structures at postelastic state; Conference of Swedish Building Code: Load-bearing Structures, Section 2A of
AFPC Paris 1991 ‘Buildings with load-bearing walls in seismic the Swedish Building Code, SBN 1980; ISBN 91-7332-253-9.
zones’. Available through: AB Svensk Byggtjanst, The Swedish
Building Centre, Box 1403, S-11484 Stockholm.
Methods of analysis of prefabricated shear walls with account of non
linear characteristic of shear connections.

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Acknowledgements ........................ ...................... :6 5.2 Types of frames

1 Suitability of precast construction ....................... 8

1.3.2 Optimum use of materials .......

1.3.6 Building services............................ 5.5 Elements .........

2.3.1 General ..........

7 Bearing walls ...... ..................................

FIP Handbook on precast building structures 3

4 FIP Hmrihook oti preccist hirilditig strirctirres

The main task of the FIP Commission on Prefabrication is to promote research,

Arnold Van Acker

Oberndorfer Beton - und Fertigteilwerk, Austria

6 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

1.1 General Irregular ground lay-outs are on rnany occasions equally

1.2 When to use precast concrete

1.3.2 Optimum use of materials

FIP Haridhook o i i precast building structures 9

10 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

FIP Handbook on precast building structures 11

2.3.2 Frame and skeletal systems

12 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

rypes of buildings Precast stri :turalsvstem

2.3.5 Cell systems 2.4 Mixed construction

FIP fiandbook on precast building structures 13

14 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

3.1 1General sports arenas

Fig. 3.1 Examples of 'Casco' housing system

Handbook on precast building structures 15

Plate 2. Family house, Germany

3.3 Apartment buildings 3.3.2 Load bearine facades

16 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

thickness = outer concrete 50 - 80mm+

Hollow core floor elements

Fig. 3.5 Precast components used in apartment buildings

18 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

Plate 5. Apartment buildings, as above, finished with brick masonry facades

Plate 6. Apartment building facades, Helsinki, Finland

'P Handbook on precast building structures 19

Plate 8. Apartment building, Brussels, Belgium

Plate 9. Apartment building, Norway

20 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

#.4Utility buildings A column-beam solution is normally preferred when an

'IP Handbook on precast building structures 21

Inner wall units

Fig. 3.8 Precast components used in utility buildings

22 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

Plate 11. Office centre, Birmingham, UK

Plate 12. Office building, Trondheim, Norway

‘landbook on precast building structures 23

Plate 14. Office building, Gothenburg, Sweden

Plate 15. Ofice building, San Donato, Italy

24 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

Plate 17. Cultural centre, Mikkelin, Finland

Plate 18. Opera, Helsinki, Finland

FIP Handbook on precast building structures 25

Plate 20. Prison, Spoleto, Italy

Plate 21. University, Helsinki, Finland

26 FIP Handbook on precast building structures

,J:. & ...

Saddle roof beams

Saddle roof elements