Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnic Foods

journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net

Original article

Efficacy of ginger for treating Type 2 diabetes: A systematic review

and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials
James W. Daily a, Mini Yang b, Da Sol Kim b, Sunmin Park b, *
a
Daily Manufacturing Inc., Vitamins and Supplements Store, Rockwell, NC, USA
b
Department of Food and Nutrition, Obesity/Diabetes Research Center, Hoseo University, Asan, South Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background/Purpose: Few clinical trials have investigated the antidiabetic effects of ginger to date.
Received 13 January 2015 Several recent clinical trials published in 2013 and 2014, although small, have added contradictory but
Received in revised form compelling new evidence about the use of ginger in treating diabetes in humans. Therefore, a systematic
20 January 2015
review and meta-analysis was conducted to clarify the evidence for using ginger to treat diabetes.
Accepted 10 February 2015
Available online 26 February 2015
Methods: Five randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were identified and included in the meta-analysis. Four of
the RCTs were considered high quality and lasted
8 weeks; one lasted only 30 days and was considered
low quality. Outcomes measured included fasting blood glucose and insulin, homeostatic model
Keywords:
ginger
assessment (HOMA)-insulin resistance (IR), and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels, and were assessed as
hemoglobin A1c mean differences in the meta-analysis.
randomized clinical trials Results: Ginger supplementation significantly lowered fasting blood glucose concentrations and HbA1c
serum glucose levels levels, but did not significantly lower fasting blood insulin or HOMA-IR.
Type 2 diabetes Conclusion: Ginger root supplementation significantly lowers blood glucose and HbA1c levels. When
combined with dietary and lifestyle interventions it may be an effective intervention for managing Type
2 diabetes mellitus.
Copyright © 2015, Korea Food Research Institute, Published by Elsevier. This is an open access article
under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction global prevalence of diabetes was reported to be 382 million people

Ginger, the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, is indigenous
to Southeast Asia where its cultivation dates back about 3,000 years
in India. Today its use has spread to most of the inhabited world [1].
Ginger remains an integral part of Indian cuisine where it is
commonly used in many popular dishes. In Korea, ginger has been
used to season foods for the last 1,000 years approximately. Sliced
ginger with sugar added is used to make tea, pickled ginger slices
(Gari) are frequently used as a condiment in Japan, and ginger is
commonly used to flavor cookies and cakes in Western countries
[2]. Almost simultaneous with its cultivation as a spice, ginger was
incorporated into Indian traditional Ayurvedic medicine and today
it is used a common herbal treatment for nausea in both Asian and
Western countries.
The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is high and rising worldwide
due to the global increases in obesity and unhealthy lifestyles. The
* Corresponding author. Department of Food and Nutrition, Obesity/Diabetes
Research Centre, Hoseo University, 165 Sechul-Ri, BaeBang-Yup Asan-Si, Chung-
Nam-Do, 336e795, South Korea.
E-mail address: smpark@hoseo.edu (S. Park).
in 2013 and is expected to rise to 592 million by 2035. Type 2
diabetes makes up about 85% of cases of diabetes, with the other
15% attributed to Type 1 diabetes mellitus and gestational diabetes
[3]. Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by
hyperglycemia in the context of insulin resistance and relative lack
of insulin [4,5]. Several types of drugs such as sulfonylurea, thia-
zolidinedione, incretin, and dipeptidyl-peptidase 4 inhibitors have
been prescribed for treating hyperglycemia in Type 2 diabetic pa-
tients. These drugs work by reducing insulin resistance and
improving insulin secretion capacity [5]. However, each drug has
adverse side-effects, so there is great interest in developing natural
interventions for managing diabetes and its symptoms [5].
Ginger contains various potentially bioactive substances such as
gingerols, shogaols, zingerone and paradol. It also includes volatile
oils such as sesquiterpenes [b-bisabolene and ()-zingiberene],
geranial, and neral [6]. Among gingerols and shogaol the major
pungent components in the rhizome are 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol
[6]. Ginger has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat
various symptoms including vomiting, pain, and cold symptoms,
and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic,
anticlotting and analgesic properties [7]. The data for the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2015.02.007
2352-6181/Copyright © 2015, Korea Food Research Institute, Published by Elsevier. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43
bioavailability of ginger are limited. The major components of
ginger, 6-shogaol, 10-gingerol, 6-gingerol, and 8-gingerol, can be
detected in the plasma of rats and humans 1 hour after its oral
consumption [8,9]. At 48e60 hours after oral consumption of
ginger, 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol are excreted, mainly into the bile
and some into the urine [8]. Thus, the components of ginger are
absorbed into the body where they can exert various activities. The
safety of ginger has been investigated. Acute and chronic toxicity
studies have demonstrated the broad safety of ginger [10e12]. The
LD50 of methanol and water extracts of ginger was 10.25 g/kg and
11.75 g/kg body weight by oral administration in mice [11].
Administration of ginger powder up to 2 g/kg body weight/day did
not cause mortality or abnormal changes in hematological pa-
rameters in rats [12]. Thus, if ginger is shown to be effective in
alleviating hyperglycemia it can be safely used for its treatment.
As several randomized clinical trials (RCTs) examining ginger
supplementation have been recently conducted in Type 2 diabetic
patients, this study aims to carry out a systematic review of the use
of ginger for alleviating hyperglycemia.
2. Methods
2.1. Data sources and selection criteria
The following electronic databases were searched: PubMed,
EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, Korean database such as: DBpia, the
Research Information Service System, and the Korean Studies Infor-
mation Service System, Chinese medical databases such as: the China
National Knowledge Infrastructure and the Chinese Scientific Jour-
nals Database, the Indian Medical Journals, and Indian Journals.
Dissertations were also included. The following search strategy was
used: (“ginger” or “Zingiber officinale”) and (“diabetes” or “hyper-
glycemia” or “insulin”). All RCTs that studied the effects of ginger on
diabetic symptoms including serum glucose and insulin levels, he-
moglobin A1c (HbA1c), and homeostatic model assessment (HOMA)-
insulin resistance (IR) index in Type 2 diabetic patients were
included. Studies that investigated the antidiabetic effects of complex
herbal remedies that included ginger as an ingredient were excluded.
2.2. Data extraction, quality and validity assessment
The data search was conducted in English, Korean, and Chinese
language databases using the following keywords of mesh termi-
nology: ginger, serum glucose levels, serum insulin levels, and Type
2 diabetes. Three independent reviewers screened the papers. In
the first screening the related papers were identified by the titles
and abstracts of the papers and the relevant articles were retrieved
in full text and validated for inclusion in the systematic review. The
fourth reviewer independently validated the selected the papers.
2.3. Eligibility criteria for studies in this review
All prospective RCT studies about using ginger consumption for
the treatment of hyperglycemia in Type 2 diabetic patients were
included in this systematic review. Although no language barriers
were imposed, all studies included in this review were written in
English. Dissertations were included. Case studies, case series,
qualitative studies, and uncontrolled trials were excluded.
2.4. Patients and intervention
This systematic review included all RCTs that investigated the
effects of ginger powder on the treatment of hyperglycemia in Type
2 diabetic patients. The eligibility of participants was somewhat
different among individual studies; however, in all of the studies
37
the participants had Type 2 diabetes for at least 2e10 years and had
no serious diabetic complications. Furthermore, they did not have
acute inflammatory diseases, did not smoke or drink, and none
were pregnant or lactating. In all RCTs powder of dried ginger was
orally consumed at different dosages (1.6e3 g/day) and for different
durations (30e84 days).
2.5. Quality assessment of the articles
The Cochrane tool was used to assess quality of the RCT articles
included in this systematic review by determining the risk of bias
(ROB) [13]. This validated tool consisted of the following six cate-
gories: (1) random sequence generation; (2) allocation conceal-
ment; (3) blinding of participants; (4) incomplete outcome data;
(5) selective outcome reporting; and (6) other bias. Each category
was scored as high ROB, uncertain ROB, or low ROB. Three inde-
pendent reviewers performed the quality assessment and dis-
agreements on scores were resolved through discussion.
2.6. Data analysis
The mean difference (MD) was used with 95% confidence in-
tervals (CI) and standard deviation (SD). A meta-analysis was
conducted with simultaneous use of fixed-effect and random-effect
models. All statistical analyses were performed using RevMan V.5.1
(Cochrane Collaboration, Oxford, UK) software. The meta-analysis
included data from parallel-group design studies. Although the
studies contained multiple time point observations and different
dosages, the intervention dosages were relatively similar: three
studies used 3 g/day and one study used 1.6 g/day. However, the
duration of studies was substantially different and the RCTs were
subdivided into shorter versus longer periods (30 days or > 30
days). Since the data used for the meta-analysis were continuous
variables such as fasting serum glucose and insulin levels, HbA1c,
and HOMA-IR, the MD and SD were used for meta-analysis. Het-
erogeneity of the included studies was tested with the Higgins I2
test and meaningful heterogeneity was determined by 50% of the I2
value. When the I2 value was >50, a random-effect model was used
for the meta-analysis. Funnel plots were used to detect reporting
biases for this systematic review since the number of studies
induced was <10 studies.
2.7. Subgroup analysis
The duration of the studies was as follows: one study (30 days);
two studies (8 weeks); and two studies (12 weeks). RCTs were
subdivided into shorter versus longer periods (30 days
versus > 30 days). However,  30 days was only one group;
therefore the analysis was conducted without the RCT of 30 days
duration.
3. Results
3.1. Summary of included studies
An initial electronic search found a total of 869 studies. A total of
853 studies were excluded (177 in vitro experiments, 376 animal
experiments, and 300 ginger and similar plant related studies). Of
the remaining 15 studies five duplicate studies were removed.
Finally, five RCTs met the inclusion criteria after removing two RCTs
not related to ginger and three RCTs in which participants did not
have Type 2 diabetes mellitus (Fig. 1). The five remaining RCTs were
used for meta-analysis [12e16]. The main data from the included
RCTs were summarized in Table 1. Surprisingly, four RCTs were
conducted in Iran and one in India although ginger is commonly
38 J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43
Fig. 1. Selection process of the randomized clinical trials (RCTs).
consumed worldwide (Table 1). Four RCTs had a two-arm parallel
design (ginger powder and placebo groups) and one RCT adopted a
four-arm parallel design including ginger powder, two other herbs,
and a placebo group.
3.2. Risk of bias
The ROB assessment for the included RCTs is presented in
Table 2. Of the five RCTs identified for analysis in this study, four
were classified as high quality and one as low quality [12e16]. Four
studies used a proper randomization of participants such as coin
flipping and computer generated random numbers [12e14,16] but
one study was considered low quality as it did not describe how the
participants were randomized [15]. In addition, four RCTs used
blinding of participants and practitioners [14e16,18], blinding was
not mentioned in the one low quality RCT. Drop-out rates were not
high in any of the RCTs, four RCTs recorded the reasons for with-
drawal where applicable [14e16,18].
3.3. Outcomes
Type 2 diabetes statuses were determined by fasting serum
levels of glucose, HbA1c (the index of long-term serum glucose
control), insulin, and HOMA-IR (the index of insulin resistance).
Three RCTs determined all four variables [14e16,18] and one RCT
measured fasting serum glucose levels and HbA1c in Type 2 dia-
betic patients [17]. In the one remaining RCT, only fasting serum
glucose levels were measured. The pooled summary effects of
fasting serum glucose levels for all five RCTs and then for the four
RCTs with longer periods are provided in Fig. 2A and Fig. 2B. Four
RCTs reported lower fasting serum glucose levels in the ginger
supplemented group in comparison to the placebo group. However,
RCTs showed no improvement in the glucose levels in the ginger
group. The MDs of the levels observed tended to be lower in the
ginger group (n ¼ 123) than the placebo group (n ¼ 120) but it was
not significantly different in meta-analysis (p ¼ 0.07). However, the
MDs were significantly lower in the ginger group for all five RCTs
(n ¼ 131) than the placebo group (n ¼ 128) (p ¼ 0.009).
HbA1c levels in the circulation of Type 2 diabetic patients were
significantly decreased in all four RCTs in which the levels were
measured. The 95% CI of MDs of four RCTs were [2.04, 1.29]
(p < 0.001) (Fig. 2C). This indicated that there was a significant
difference between the ginger (n ¼ 123) and placebo (n ¼ 120)
groups, suggesting that ginger had a long-term serum glucose
lowering effect.
When pooling the three RCTs that measured fasting serum in-
sulin levels, the MDs were not significantly different between the
ginger (n ¼ 101) and placebo groups (n ¼ 101) (p ¼ 0.17) (Fig. 2D).
Furthermore, the MDs of HOMA-IR, when pooling three RCTs were
also not significantly different between the ginger and placebo
groups (p ¼ 0.17) (Fig. 2F). Ginger supplementation may prevent
increased fasting serum insulin levels and HOMA-IR, this could be
determined if the sample size was as large as it was for fasting
serum glucose levels. Therefore, it is possible, but not well estab-
lished, that ginger improves fasting serum glucose levels
and HbA1c by decreasing insulin resistance in Type 2 diabetic
patients.
3.4. Adverse events
Four RCTs did not report any adverse effects; one RTC did report
an adverse event. Arablou et al [14] reported that one patient out of
33 in the ginger treated group had heartburn after taking the
supplement.
4. Discussion
This review found that studies administering 1,600e3,000 mg of
ginger powder per day for 8e12 weeks lowered fasting serum
glucose levels and HbA1c levels in patients with Type 2 diabetes.
Table 1
The Summaries of Five Randomized Clinical Trials to Investigate the Effects of Ginger Supplementation on Type 2 Diabetic patients.

First author (y) [Ref.] Study design No. & characteristics Eligibility criteria of Exclusion criteria Included Experimental Control FPG result Effect size Author's Adverse
(country to conduct of patients / FPG subjects of subjects intervention / use intervention / use 1. FPG 1. FPG conclusions events
the study) level / treatment level / treatment 2. HbA1c 2. HbA1c
duration duration 3. Insulin 3. insulin
4. HOMA 4. HOMA

Arablou et al (2014) RCT with two 70 DM2 patients / Treated with oral Ginger (n ¼ 2) 1. Ginger Ginger powder Wheat flour 1. (p ¼ 0.02) 1. 9.1 Ginger can reduce (n ¼ 1)
[14] (Iran) parallel groups FPG 88.5~191.2 mg/dL hypoglycemic agents, Heartburn (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 33) capsule before powder capsule 2. (p ¼ 0.001) 2. 1.0 blood glucose and heartburn
30e70 y HbA1c between 7% and Unwilling to 2. Placebo lunch & dinner before lunch & 3. (p ¼ 0.001) 3. 3.7 insulin levels and
10%, BMI between cooperate (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 30) 800 mg 12 wks dinner 4. (p ¼ 0.001) 4. 1.7 improve insulin
20 kg/m2 and 35 kg/m2, Placebo (n ¼ 5) 800 mg 12 wks sensitivity in DM2
no pregnancy or 1. Unwilling to patients.
lactation, no use of cooperate (n ¼ 3)
tobacco or alcohol, no 2. Pregnancy
renal, liver, thyroid and(n ¼ 1)
parathyroid disorders, 3. Recurrence of
cancer, infection, disease and the
inflammation and fever need for insulin
therapy (n ¼ 1)
Mozaffari-Khosravi RCT with two 88 DM2 patients / Having DM2 for at least Ginger 1. Ginger Ginger powder Microcrystalline 1. (p < 0.005) 1 .18.17 Ginger lowered FBS nr

J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43

et al parallel groups FPG 95.64~226.21 10 y, Fasting blood 1. Lost to follow- (n ¼ 40) capsule cellulose capsule 2. (p < 0.005) 2. 0.4 and HbA1c mean
(2014) [15] (Iran) mg/dL glucose <180 mg/dL up (n ¼ 2) 2. Placebo Three meals / Three meals / 3. (p < 0.005) 3. 7.4 values as well as
and 2h blood-sugar 2. Discontinued (n ¼ 41) 1,000 mg 8 wks 1,000 mg 8 wks 4. (p < 0.005) 4. 1.02 variation in fasting
<250 mg/dL, no intervention insulin, insulin
pregnancy or lactation, (n ¼ 2) resistance, increase
no autoimmune Placebo of sensitivity to
disorder, no cardiac 1. Lost to follow- insulin and the
ischemic or renal up (n ¼ 2) QUICKI
diseases, no thyroid and 2. Discontinued
chronic inflammatory intervention
diseases, peptic ulcer (n ¼ 1)
and infection, no
regular consumption of
ginger or other herbal
drugs, no sensitivity to
ginger, BMI <40 kg/m2,
no consumption of
triglycerides or
cholesterol-, estrogen-,
or progesterone-
lowering drugs, and no
consumption of any
supplements such as
vitamin C, vitamin E,
and omega 3 for 2 m
before starting the
research.
Mahluji et al (2013) RCT with two 64 DM2 patients / Insulin therapy at Ginger Ginger Ginger powder Cornstarch tablet. 1. (p ¼ 0.425) 1. 6.1 Oral ginger nr
[16] (Iran) parallel groups FPG 106~200 mg/dl baseline or throughout Treatment failure (n ¼ 28) capsule. Three Three 2. (p ¼ 0.664) 2. 3.5 supplementation
38e65 y the study, no smoking, (n ¼ 2) 2. Placebo meals / 1,000 mg meals / 1,000 mg 3. (p ¼ 0.001) 3. 13 decreased the
pregnancy or Travel (n ¼ 1) (n ¼ 30) 8 wks 8 wks 4. (p ¼ 0.002) 4. 8.1 levels of insulin in
breastfeeding, no Medication patients with DM2
taking any herbal changing (n ¼ 1) without a
plants as a home Placebo significant effect on
remedy or as a 1. Treatment fasting plasma
supplement within the failure (n ¼ 1) glucose and HbA1c.
previous 3 w or 2. Travel (n ¼ 1)
throughout the study,

39
(continued on next page)
Table 1 (continued )

40
First author (y) [Ref.] Study design No. & characteristics Eligibility criteria of Exclusion criteria Included Experimental Control FPG result Effect size Author's Adverse
(country to conduct of patients / FPG subjects of subjects intervention / use intervention / use 1. FPG 1. FPG conclusions events
the study) level / treatment level / treatment 2. HbA1c 2. HbA1c
duration duration 3. Insulin 3. insulin
4. HOMA 4. HOMA

no acute illnesses or
having kidney, liver,
gallbladder or thyroid
disorders,
inflammatory intestinal
diseases and
immunodeficiency
diseases.
Andallu et al (2001) RCT with four 32 DM2 Diabetics and nr 1. Ginger Ginger powder Six corn starch 1. p < 0.01 1. 12 Aswagandha, nr
[17] parallel groups hypercholesterolemic hypercholesterolemic (n ¼ 8) capsules. Six capsules (two ginger and
(India) patients / FPG 2. Placebo capsules (two after a meal)/ mulberry appear to
106~200 mg/dL (n ¼ 8) after a meal) / 500 mg/30 d be effective in
40e60.5 y 500 mg/30 d lowering blood
glucose and serum

J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43

lipid levels.
Khandouzi et al RCT with two 64 DM2 patients / Disease duration at Ginger 1. Ginger Per 1g Ginger Per 1g Lactose p ¼ 0.000 1. 19 Ginger nr
(2015) [18] (Iran) parallel groups FPG 73.17~237.3 mg/dL least 2 y, HbA1c level of 1. Lost to follow- (n ¼ 22) powder capsule / powder capsule / p ¼ 0.000 2. 0.77 supplementation
20e60 y 6e8%, taken with no up (n ¼ 1) 2. Placebo twice daily / 12 w twice daily / 12 w significantly
antioxidant 2. Discontinued (n ¼ 19) reduced the levels
supplements such as intervention of FBS, HbA1c,
selenium, zinc and (n ¼ 1) Apo B, Apo B /
beta-carotene for at 3. Excluded from Apo A-I and
least 3 m prior to the analysis (n ¼ 1) malonyldialdehyde
study, no smoking or Placebo (MDA), and
drinking. 1. Lost to follow- increased the level
up (n ¼ 1) of Apo A-I in DM2
2. Discontinued patients.
intervention
(n ¼ 2)
3. Excluded from
analysis (n ¼ 3)

Apo, apolipoprotein; BMI, body mass index; bw, body weight; DM2, type 2 diabetes mellitus; FBS, fasting blood sugar; FPG, Fasting plasma glucose; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c; HOMA, homeostatic model assessment; MDA; nr, not
reported; QUICKI, quantitative insulin sensitivity check index; RCT, randomized controlled trial.
 J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43 41

Table 2
Risk of Bias in Included Trials.

Random Allocation Patient & Assessor Reporting Intention-to Selective Other potential
sequence concealment practitioner blinding drop-out or treat analysis outcome bias
generation blinding withdrawal reporting

Arablou et al (2014) [14] L L L L L U U U

Mozaffari-Khosravi et al (2014) [15] L L L L U L U U
Mahluji et al (2013) [16] L L L L U L U L
Andallu et al (2001) [17] H H H H U U U U
Khandouzi et al (2015) [18] L L L U L L U U

H, high risk of bias; L, low risk of bias, U, uncertain risk of bias.

Fig. 2. Forest plot of ginger showing its effectiveness in treating Type 2 diabetes mellitus. (A) For fasting serum glucose levels with short-term study. (B) For fasting serum glucose
levels without short-term study. (C) For hemoglobin A1C levels in four studies. (D) For fasting serum insulin levels in three studies. (E) For HOMA-IR in three studies.
42 J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43
The supplementation of ginger tended to lower fasting serum in-
sulin levels and HOMA-IR, an index of insulin resistance, but they
were not significantly different in Type 2 diabetic patients. Thus,
ginger supplementation improves glucose homeostasis in Type 2
diabetic patients possibly by lowering insulin resistance although
the mechanism remains uncertain since neither the decreased in-
sulin levels nor HOMA-IR reached statistical significance. This could
be due to insufficient power of the meta-analysis since only four
relatively small studies were available.
The studies included in the meta-analysis were quite homoge-
neous. All studies were conducted in Iran and all participating pa-
tients had Type 2 diabetes. Most of studies were conducted for
8e12 weeks and one study was conducted over 30 days. In this
study, only fasting serum glucose levels were measured so this
study was not included with longer duration studies, only fasting
serum glucose levels were reviewed and reported. The Andallu et al
[17] study supports the current evidence base from the human,
animal, and cellular studies that suggest a therapeutic benefit of
ginger for lowering fasting serum glucose levels in Type 2 diabetic
patients. The mechanism by which ginger improves glucose toler-
ance remains uncertain and even which bioactive compound in
ginger is responsible for its antidiabetic efficacy is unknown,
although it likely that 6-gingerol, the predominant pungent com-
pound in ginger, is responsible for its benefits [2,6]. Some studies
have also shown that Type 2 diabetic rats fed ginger or gingerol
exhibit improved glucose regulation, insulin secretion, and lipid
profiles [19,20]. However, there are numerous bioactive com-
pounds in ginger, many of which may be responsible for the
numerous health benefits attributed to ginger [20]. Many of the
putative activities of ginger (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hep-
atoprotective, antiobesity) are often associated with the etiology
and pathophysiology of Type 2 diabetes, which suggests the pos-
sibility that ginger may not have a direct effect on diabetes but acts
indirectly by suppressing factors that lead to impaired glucose
control. This was supported by a study showing that ginger root
powder (200 mg/kg body weight) in a Type 2 diabetic rat model
reversed symptoms of metabolic syndrome, blood glucose, blood
lipids, and decreased oxidative stress [21].
The indirect methods by which ginger might protect against
diabetes would be mostly applicable to Type 2 diabetes; however,
there is evidence to support direct efficacy of ginger in Type 1
diabetes as well [22]. Ojewole [23] found that a ginger extract
(100e800 mg/kg body weight) lowered blood glucose levels by
24e58% in Type 1 diabetic rats. Another study of streptozotocin-
induced Type 1 diabetic rats found that 500 mg/kg body weight
per day of an aqueous ginger extract experienced decreased blood
glucose levels by 38% and 68% after 15 days and 30 days, respec-
tively [24]. In that study ginger also increased muscle and liver
glycogen stores in the diabetic rats and increased the activities of
glucokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase. Finally,
insulin-independent gingerol stimulation of glucose uptake was
demonstrated in L6 rat skeletal muscle cells, which was attributed
to an increased translocation of the GLUT4 glucose transporter the
plasma membrane surface of the cells [25]. These studies strongly
suggest a direct effect of ginger and gingerols in the treatment of
diabetes.
This meta-analysis along with the supporting evidence from
animal and cellular studies strongly suggests that ginger has effi-
cacy for the management of blood glucose levels and that the ef-
fects are both preventive and therapeutic for Type 2 diabetes.
Findings also suggest that ginger can directly increase glucose up-
take in an insulin-independent manner that may be beneficial in
the management of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
The major limitation of this study was the relatively few clinical
trials available for the meta-analysis and the modest number of
participants in each trial. However, that was offset by the consis-
tency of the results in which, regardless of the statistical signifi-
cance of the individual studies, none of them showed an increase in
blood glucose levels due to ginger consumption and all of them
showed a least a modest decrease in blood glucose levels. The po-
wer of the combined data clearly demonstrated that ginger can
lower blood glucose and HbA1c levels in humans. Also of impor-
tance was the demonstration that a manageable dose of ginger
powder can be effective. However, further studies carefully evalu-
ating dose-dependency are needed to clearly establish what dosage
provides the greatest efficacy for the treatment of diabetes. The
safety of long-term ginger consumption may need to be further
evaluated; however, the safety of ginger use for treating nausea
during pregnancy has been evaluated in human studies at doses up
to 2,500 mg/day, and demonstrated to be safe for use during
pregnancy [10,26].
In conclusion, this meta-analysis provides convincing evidence
to support the efficacy of ginger in the management of Type 2
diabetes.
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest.
References
[1] Ensminger AH, Ensminger ME, Kondale JE, Robson JRK. Foods & nutrition
encyclopedia. Clovis; California, USA: Pegus Press; 1983.
[2] Ginger [Internet]. Wikipeida: Available from: http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Ginger. Modified in 5 March 2015.
[3] Guariguata L, Whiting DR, Hambleton I, Beagley J, Linnenkamp U, Shaw JE.
Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2013 and projections for 2035.
Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014;103:137e49.
[4] Halban PA, Polonsky KS, Bowden DW, Hawkins MA, Ling C, Mather KJ, et al. b-
cell failure in type 2 diabetes: postulated mechanisms and prospects for
prevention and treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99:1983e92.
[5] Kahn SE, Cooper ME, Del Prato S. Pathophysiology and treatment of type 2
diabetes: Perspectives on the past, present, and future. Lancet 2014;383:
1068e83.
[6] Choudhari SS, Kareppa BM. Identification of bioactive compounds of zingiber
officinale roscoe rhizomes through gas chromatography and mass spectrom-
etry. Int J Pharm Res Dev 2013;5:16e20.
[7] Rahmani AH, Shabrmi FM, Aly SM. Active ingredients of ginger as potential
candidates in the prevention and treatment of diseases via modulation of
biological activities. Int J Physiol Pathophysiol Pharmacol 2014;6:125e36.
[8] Chen H, Soroka DN, Hu Y, Chen X, Sang S. Characterization of thiol-conjugated
metabolites of ginger components shogaols in mouse and human urine and
modulation of the glutathione levels in cancer cells by [6]-shogaol. Mol Nutr
Food Res 2013;57:447e58.
[9] Chen H, Soroka DN, Zhu Y, Hu Y, Chen X, Sang S. Cysteine-conjugated
metabolite of ginger component [6]-shogaol serves as a carrier of [6]-shogaol
in cancer cells and in mice. Chem Res Toxicol 2013;26:976e85.
[10] Heitmann K, Nordeng H, Holst L. Safety of ginger use in pregnancy: results
from a large population-based cohort study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2013;69:
269e77.
[11] Shalaby MA, Hamowieh AR. Safety and efficacy of Zingiber officinale roots on
fertility of male diabetic rats. Food Chem Toxicol 2010;48:2920e4.
[12] Rong X, Peng G, Suzuki T, Yang Q, Yamahara J, Li Y. A 35-day gavage safety
assessment of ginger in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009;54:118e23.
[13] Higgins JP, Altman DG, Sterne JA. Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In:
Higgins JP, Green S, editors. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of
interventions. Oxford (UK): Cochrane Collaboration; 2011. p. 187e241.
[14] Arablou T, Aryaeian N, Valizadeh M, Sharifi F, Hosseini A, Djalali M. The effect
of ginger consumption on glycemic status, lipid profile and some inflamma-
tory markers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Int J Food Sci Nutr
2014;65:515e20.
[15] Mozaffari-Khosravi H, Talaei B, Jalali BA, Najarzadeh A, Mozayan MR. The
effect of ginger powder supplementation on insulin resistance and glycemic
indices in patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-
controlled trial. Complement Ther Med 2014;22:9e16.
[16] Mahluji S, Attari VE, Mobasseri M, Payahoo L, Ostadrahimi A, Golzari SE. Ef-
fects of ginger (Zingiber officinale) on plasma glucose level, HbA1c and insulin
sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2013;64:682e6.
[17] Andallu B, Radhika B, Suryakantham V. Effect of aswagandha, ginger and
mulberry on hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia. Plant Foods Hum Nutr
2003;58:1e7.
 J.W. Daily et al. / Journal of Ethnic Foods 2 (2015) 36e43
[18] Khandouzi N, Shidfar F, Rajab A, Rahideh T, Hosseini P, Mir Taheri M. The
effects of ginger on fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin a1c, apolipoprotein B,
apolipoprotein a-I and malondialdehyde in type 2 diabetic patients. Iran J
Pharm Res 2015;14:131e40.
[19] Islam MS, Choi H. Comparative effects of dietary ginger (Zingiber officinale)
and garlic (Allium sativum) investigated in a type 2 diabetes model of rats.
J Med Food 2008;11:152e9.
[20] Singh AB, Akanksha SN, Maurya R, Srivastava AK. Anti-hyperglycemic, lipid
lowering, and anti-oxidant properties of [6]-gingerol in db/db mice. Int J Med
Med Sci 2009;1:536e44.
[21] Madkor HR, Mansour SW, Ramadan G. Modulatory effects of garlic, ginger,
turmeric and their mixture on hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and oxidative
stress in streptozotoxcin-nicotinamide diabetic rats. Br J Nutr 2010;105:
2010e7.
[22] Li Y, Tran VH, Duke CC, Roufogallis BC. Preventive and protective properties of
Zingiber officinale (ginger) in diabetes mellitus, diabetic complications, and
43
associated lipid and other metabolic disorders: a brief review. Evid Based
Complement Alternat Med 2012:516870.
[23] Ojewole JAO. Analgesic, antiinflammatory and hypoglycaemic effects of
ethanol extract of Zingiber officinale (roscoe) rhizomes (zingiberaceae) in mice
and rats. Phytother Res 2006;20:764e72.
[24] Abdulrazaq NB, Cho MM, Win NN, Zaman R, Rahman MT. Beneficial effects of
ginger (Zingiber officinale) on carbohydrate metabolism in streptozotocin-
induced diabetic rats. Br J Nutr 2011;108:1415e28.
[25] Li Y, Tran VH, Duke CC, Roufogallis BC. Gingerols of Zingiber officinale enhance
glucose uptake by increasing cell surface GLUT4 in cultured L6 myotubules.
Planta Medica 2012;78:1549e55.
[26] Viljoen E, Visser J, Koen N, Musekiwa A. A systematic review and meta-
analysis of the effect and safety of ginger in the treatment of pregnancy-
associated nausea and vomiting. Nutr J 2014;13:20.