Wat. Res. Vol. 31, No. 12, pp.

2979-2988, 1997
Pergamon © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
PIh S0043-1354(97)00161-9 0043-1354/97 $17.00 + 0.00

KINETICS OF PNEUMATIC FLOCCULATION

I. S H O L J I @* and N. M. K A Z I
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Studies,
The Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham NG1 4BU, U.K.

(Received March 1996; accepted in revisedform April 1997)

Abstract--A mathematical model has been established to describe the kinetics of pneumatic flocculation
in terms of the process variables: energy of agitation, volume of turbid water, temperature, water viscosity,
amount of synthetic turbidity, flocculating time, amount of air flow, depth of water column and size of
orifice. The mathematical model tested for both normal and taper types of flocculation. The experimental
data vindicated the model relationship between the concentration ratio and the rate of air flow for the
air flow rate above 50 cm 3min -*. Accordingly, the developed mathematical model was then linearised.
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Key words---Pneumatic flocculation, mathematical model, air bubble, turbidity concentration removal, air
flow rate

NOMENCLATURE The mechanical and hydraulic types of agitation are

Co = initial volume concentration of floc
C, = instantaneous volume concentration of floe
Cd = drag coefficient
d~ = diameter of Nt number particle, m
d2 = diameter of N2 number particle, m
G= temporal mean velocity gradient, s-
h= depth of the diffuser's orifice below the water
surface, m
JJ2 = number of contact between N~ and N2 particle
N~ = number of d~ particle
N2 -- number of d2 particle
No = suspended matter originally present
N, = remaining "free" or unflocculated matter
P = power dissipated in fluid motion, watt or N.m s -)
o r J s -I
Pa -- pressure of air at free state, N m -2
Pah = atmospheric pressure in water column at Mean
Sea Level, m
Q. = volumetric', flow rate of air, m 3 s-
R = Reynolds number
VF = the volume of the floe per unit volume of water,
m 3m-3
Vw= volume of water, m 3
t = the floccu)ation time
= the sticking ratio, the portion of suspended
matter adhered upon collision
/~ -- dynamic viscosity of water, N.s m -2
INTRODUCTION
The removal of turbidity by flocculation is based on
the amount of the temporal mean velocity gradient.
*Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed
[Tel: +44(0)115-9418418 Ext. 2438; Fax: +44(0)115-
9486450].
widely used, and the other type that is rarely used is
pneumatic flocculation. In this process, pressurised
air is used to induce the required size of air bubbles
through a diffusion pad. The detached air bubbles in
turn generate the required velocity gradient, which
can be controlled by regulating the rate of air flow.
Although little information was known about this
process, research and development have been
achieved by some investigators in the past (Camp,
1955; McConnachie, 1984; AI-Hiary, 1988). Recently,
extensive experiments were conducted by Kazi
(1995) using a pneumatic model treatment unit. He
showed that compressed air can be used in
flocculating and removing the suspended impurities.
The objective of this research was to establish a
mathematical relationship to describe the kinetics of
the pneumatic flocculation in terms of the process
variables.
BACKGROUND
The work of Camp and Stein (1943) established a
design criterion based on the concept of the mean
temporal velocity gradient in the coagulation-floccu-
lation process. They derived equation (1) for the
mean temporal velocity gradient in a reactor
containing fluid undergoing mixing:
G = ( e / V ~ F 2. (1)

2979
2980 I. Sholji and N. M. Kazi

They also demonstrated that the rate of floccula-
tion is directly proportional to the velocity gradient
at any point. The rate of flocculation is determinedby
the number of contacts between floc particles (or
between suspended particles and floc particles) in unit
time and can be expressed by equation (2):
J,2 = N = G / 6 N t N 2 ( d ,
between N, particles of size d, and N2 . particles of
size d2. This equation is useful to study the speed with
which small floc particles join to form larger floc
particles. It can be used also to analyse the speed at
which suspended particles in the raw water are
entrapped by the floc particles.
Hudson (1965) developed a mathematical model
based on equations (1) and (2) describing the kinetics
+ d2)3. (2) of flocculation as follows:

This equation shows the relationship between the

velocity gradient, that is the energy input and the ] ,3,
number of contacts per unit volume per unit time, N,

2
. OVBqR.OW U
3
WATER LEVIL

? . OV~RR.OW PIPE

4
AIR ~ , M ~ J N G PORT
C~'UNOER
• . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ~. . . . . AIR

<
R.OW. COkOmJkTINO
MErER9 R.OCCUl.kl'INO
CHAMBER

NR COMPRESBOR:
ANO
°1 RJgtNG
AIR 6UBW.E9

frORAGE TANK

I N R O~-.FUMON pAD

U ~ L U N G BOl~'W

BUPPL~I I

PUMP

Key: 1 2558 mm long cylindrical chamber

2 287 mm internal diameter
3 2400 mm water operating height
4 spaced 200 mm throughout

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the pneumatic coagulation-flocculation and settling apparatus.

 Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2981

Two assumptions were made in developing Hudson's From equation (3), it can be noted that the rate of
mathematical rood:el: entrapment of suspended matter in the floc is
dependent upon the volume of the floe, not the
(i) The size of the fine particles was considered
number or the size of the floc particles.
very small in comparison to the floc particles, based
Combining equations (I) and (3), one obtains
on the studies of Robeck (1963) and Riddick
(unpublished data). Therefore, the effect of d, on
equation (2) was c~msidered to be very small, and the
term was omitted with little error.
(ii) The floc particles were spherical in shape.
ln(~,) =-~$ v~,~-~)
{ p ,~,12 . (4)

3 A
& 'A
r - -

o o
2
o

t~pe: Tepee Q~c:e: t J 0 m

Q ~
0 S 10 15 20 :IS

(Air Flow Rate, cc/min)%

Fig. 2. Relationship between concentration ratio and air flow rate.

Calculations of the co-ordinates for Fig. 2

A~FtoW ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rate,Q~ Time, 30 60 90 120

cc/min, min. , ...........
((2a~ Cjo In(CJC~O C~ In(C.C~ C~o ln(C]C~ Cz~o l.(CdCn.~
• $0 7.07 29.97 1.898 i7.20 2.453 12.21 2.796 9~99 2.996
100 i0.00 27.75 L975 15.54 2354 9.43 3.054 [ 7.77 3.248
200 14;14 26.64 2.0i5 "'I i2.76 2.752 8.88 3A14 6.66 3.402
~ 17J2 ....2,i~42 2.i02 14.43 2.629 8.88 3.114 1 7.77 3~8
, ,,,
20.00 26;64 2.0f5 13.32
,,
2.709
,, ,,
8.32 3a79 5.55 ,,
3.584
2982 1. Sho~i and N.M. Kazi

The above equation, describing the speed of floc Substituting the value of P from equation (5) into
formation, can be considered in the process of equation (4), one obtains
pneumatic flocculation. When air is diffused into
water from a compressed state, it normally expands ~" (~)m(p'InP'p+h)'/2] (Q°)''"
ln(~--~°,)=[~ (~w)'/2
isothermally. Based on isothermal conditions during
the process, Fair et al. (1968) stated that the
(6)
dissipated power due to the work done by the
expansion of the air bubbles from a compressed state Combining all the parameters in the first term of the
to a free state in water is given by equation (5): right hand side of equation (6) and designating this
as a single constant, K, it becomes:

P = paQ~ ln(p~). (5) In ~,, = K(Qa) '/2. (7)

O
2
O
¢I

Turbidlt~. Kaolin Ooagulan~ F~ric oulldlU~ I

FI~tYPe'. ~ ~ 1.H
s ~ p b g ~p~a: 2oo w I
, o , , , k ,af,,~ , , e a c , . , , t l te,,t,.,xtl~ lee,,~,.,mer~

0 ! ! 1 I I
0 S I0 ~[5 20 25

(Air Flow Rate, cc/min) 'h

Fig. 3. Relationship between concentration ratio and air flow rate.

Calculations of the co-ordinates for Fig. 3

Air Flow Settling

Rate, Q~, Time, 30 60 90 120
cc/min, min.

(Q2'/" Cjo In(C,/C,o) C~ I.(C,.C~ C~ l.(C/CW Cl~ l.(C/C1~

50 7.07 29.97 1.898 17.20 2.453 12.21 2.796 9.99 2.996

{o~q IERt~I IZT ~ ~I)Si I P ~ L ~Yl I ~I RIEI I,~, ~[ayJ

", [
 Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2983

No and N, can be .'replaced by Co and C, to represent
the initial volumetric concentration and also the
volumetric concet~tration of any settled flocculated
suspension with a detention time of t. Thus, equation
(7) c a n be rewritt~,m as:
EXPERIMENTAL
Experiments were conducted under various initial
conditions in order 1o verify the mathematical relationship
developed in equation (8). A pneumatic model treatment
unit was designed and constructed as shown in Fig. 1, and
was used in this investigation. The details of the apparatus
can be found elsewhere (Kazi, 1995).
Four different diffusion pads were used, each having one
size of orifice; these were either 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 or 3.0 mm in
diameter, and each pad provided a uniform loading of air
per unit cross-sectional area of cylindrical column. The
velocity of a rising air bubble depends on the bubble
characteristics, the liquid properties surrounding
the swarm of air bubbles, the state of the attached and
detached air bubble and its subjected distance of the
unsteady motion from the centre line of orifice before it
becomes steady. The state of the flow, under which the
travelling air bubble is moving, influences the shape and the
path it follows.

. . . . . l ;)

CI 0
0
(3
g 2
0
,m

WIPe: Tq~r Orifice: 1.50m m

s.mF~ d.~: :m...

0 ~ -'2 .~

O ~
o s lo 15 20

(Air Flow Rate, cc/min) 'A

Fig. 4, Relationship between concentration ratio and air flow rate.

Calculatlions of the co-ordinates for Fig. 4.

Air Flow Settling

Rate,, Q~, Time, 30 60 90 120
cc/mb, min.

(Qa)~ C3o In(C,/Cja) Cso In(C, COO C9o In(Co~CoO Cj~o In(Co/Cs~

50 7.07 26.64 2:015 15.54 2.554 12.21 2.796 II.I 2.891

I00 I0.00 20.53 2.276 12.21 2.796 8.32 3.179 6.66 .3.402
200 14.14 24.97 2.080 13.32 2.700 10.54 2.943 8.32 3.179
300 17.32 19.98 2.303 10.54 2.943 7.77 3.248 5.55 3.584
400 20.00 22.75 2.170 i I1.10 2.890 8.88 3.114 6.66 3.402
2984 I. Sholji and N. M. Kazi

In brief, accounting for the gas-liquid interface of
the moving bubble, the observed shapes of the air
bubbles were oblate ellipsoidal cap and sinusoidal,
within the depth of water column under steady motion. The
path of the oscillating and rocking air bubbles was
rectilinear.
During the course of this investigation, 284 experimental
runs were conducted, and each run repeated three times
for a reproducibility check. The used air flow was
between 50and 1000 cm 3 min-L Three synthetic turbidities
were used: kaolin, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and Ly-
copodium.
The kaolin particles of size 253/~m (2/~m 80% and up to
53#m 20%) were irregular in shape with a density of
2600 kg m -3. The polyvinyl chloride (PVC) particles of size
0.5-1.5#m were spherical in shape with a density of
1400kgm -3. The Lycopodium particles are cells of a
dead fungus with very uniform sizes of around 35/~m
with a density of 1180 kg m -3. The three types of turbidity
used were at a constant concentration of 200 mg I-L
Calibration curves were produced for each type
of synthetic turbidity, correlating the FTU vs. concentration
in mg I-L A homogeniser with a speed of 8000-24,000 rpm
was used to disperse the synthetic turbidity material
discretely, without adding any dispersing agent. All the
sizes of the different types of suspension were verified
under the electronic scanning microscope. Two chemical
coagulants were used, aluminium sulphate and ferric
sulphate.
Experiments were conducted on both types of normal
and taper (step-down) flocculation, and the characterised
dimensionless values Gt (Camp number) and the

4 4

41
o .o

---y o

o o
~-~ .2
O
m

TurUid~. P ~ Ooagulant: h n 4 c sulpl~te

Flocctdatlon type: Nonmd Orifice: t.S0 mm
Samnlino d e . h : 200 mm

oOa~n, , d i n g OOmln.**lin~l # a / n . a l i a 0 l~Oa~n.**tlrmO

o! J t t I I
0 5 10 15 20 2s

(Air Flow Rate, cc/min) 'h

Fig. 5. Relationship between concentration ratio and air flow rate.

Calculations of the co-ordinates for Fig. 5

Air Flow Settling

Rate, Q,~ Time, 30 60 90 120
cc/min, min.

(Q.)'/" Cjo ln(CdC3a) C6o ln(C~.C~ C9o In(CdCge) Ctzo In(CdCs2o)

50 7.07 35.50 1.728 20.62 2.272 1 1 . 9 0 2.821 933 3.065
100 10,00 34.47 1.758 12.92 2.739 739 3.245 5.74 3.550
200 14.14 24.72 2,090 10.36 2.960 6,25 3.465 4.72 3.746
300 17.32 24.21 2.111 13.95 2.662 8.31 3,180 5.74 3.550
i ,

il
400 20.00 26.77
i , i
2,0,11
,,,i]l i
9.33
•
3~0(iT5 6:25i i
3.465 i i ,,
3J59
,, ,
3.992
 Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation 2985

Vv x G x t Ives criterion (1978 and 1968) were standardised
at 20°C for comparison under the two types of
flocculation.
The assimilation of the optimum chemical dose of
any of the coagulants used was determined by the
jar test. Laboratory tap water was used for the preparation
of turbid water, and the amount of dissolved oxygen,
pH, temperature, nitrate nitrogen, aluminium and
alkalinity were mea:;ured at the initial and final stages
of each run, as well as other essential data. The iron and
nitrate nitrogen concentrations were measured after each
stage of the treatment (coagulation, flocculation and
settling).
The laboratory tap water analyses of the used water over
the length of the research period matched those data
provided by Severn Trent Water Limited for the same
district.
The coagulating, flocculating and settling chamber was
normally filled with tap water to the pre-determined level
and the purging of air from the diffuser system preceded
the addition of the homogenised prepared synthetic
suspension.
The coagulation process was achieved over a 2-run
detention time using rapid pneumatic agitation at a constant
rate of air flow of 38,000 cm3min -~ across all experiments.
The slow pneumatic agitation followed for a further 20 min

0
,A,

2
0
P_
m

I Turbidity:.PVC Coq.b.¢ Fen~ sulplU~

Flocculatkm type: Taper Odflce: 1.50 mm
s , . w ~ d,~: 2oO...

~mh. ~ ee aia. mte~ m aCa.s*af~ 't~ aCa.aaaf~

(] ! i
0 5 10 15 20 25

(Air Flow Rate, cc/min) 'h

Fig. 6. Relationship between concentration ratio and air flow rate.

Calculations of the co-ordinates for Fig. 6

Air Flow SeUling

Rate, Qo, Time, 30 60 90 120
cc/min, rain.

(Q,~" C3o In(CJC3a) C~ ln(C~.C~ C9o ln(CJC~) Cl~o ln(Co/C,M

50 7.07 29.34 1.919 21.13 2.247 13.44 2.700 10.36 2.960
100 10.00 25.75 2.049 14.98 2.591 9.85 3.010 6,77 3.385
200 14.14 17.03 2.463 8.82 3.121 6.25 3.465 4.72 3.746
300 17.32 32.42 1.819 16.00 2.525 7.28 3.313 6.00 3.506
400 20.00 23.18 2.155 10.36 2.960 8.82 3.121 5.74 3.355
2986 I. Sholji and N. M. Kazi

Table 1. Average values of K (slopes) and K~ (interceptions)

Time (min) 30 60 90 120
Figure no. K (cm3rain- i)- tl2 Ki * KI Kt KI
2 0.008 1.78 2.60 3.00 3.30
3 0.007 1.84 2.50 2.93 3.26
4 0.009 2.04 2.63 2.95 3.26
5 0.010 1.78 2.78 3.15 3.54
6 0.010 1.91 2.63 3.06 3.36
Average 0.010 1.90 2.50 3.00 3.30
values
• K] is dimensionless.

for both normal and taper flocculation. The range of applied
air flow rates for the slow agitation was between 50 and
1000 cm 3min -~.
The Lycopodium powder, when coagulated with alum,
exhibited unique isoconcentration curves (removal et~ciency
at various times vs. settling depth) owing to the light
mass density of the formed floc. This phenomena was
attributed to the flotation of the light Lycopodium alum floc
and their attachment to micro air bubbles as a result of
pneumatic flocculation and the carbon dioxide gas
generated from the chemical reaction of both natural
alkalinity and the added alum. Some of this type of floc
started to float.
At the end of the pneumatic flocculation process and
before the start of the settling process, the settling column
demonstrated three distinctive layers (Kazi, 1995).
One layer, at the middle depth at equilibrium and at
stand still, trapping the descending Lycopodium-alum
floe particles from the upper layer and preventing the
ascending lightweight formed floc from the lower layer
from reaching the top water level. As a result of this
phenomenon, post-flocculation started to advance at
the middle layer at the middle depth, causing a
sludge blanket to become denser and this layer started
to move downward sweeping and trapping the flocs below
it. The resulting experienced settling time, under the
behaviour explained, took a longer time and was nearly
doubled to 240 min, thus producing the desired rate of
removal.
The main aims of this investigation were:
(a) to check the viability of pneumatic flocculation; (b)
to investigate the verification of the mathematical
model;
(c) to evaluate the optimum air loading;
(d) to find the most effective size(s) of orifice to
generate the most effective mean equivalent
bubble size and to give the least economical input
power;
(e) to evaluate the efficiency of removal;
(f) to access the economical viability of the pneumatic
process.
Samples were collected from a depth of 200 mm in
the coagulation-flocculation and settling chamber
and at intervals of 30 min over a settling period of
120 min.
In this analysis, the turbidity of settled water was
considered as representing the particles that escaped
flocculation. The settled water might include poorly
flocculated small flocs that have a settling velocity of less
than 200/30 = 6.7 (for 30 minutes' settling) to 200/
120 = 1.6 mm min -I (for 120 minutes' settling). However,
these settling velocities are extremely low in comparison to
that of the settling basin employed in water treatment
industries. In addition, therefore, the poorly flocculated
portion of turbidity in settled water is considered to be
negligible.
ANALYSIS
The verification of the mathematical model was
based on the results of the most efficient size of
orifice that produced the best calculated equivalent
bubble diameter, and generated the most effective
temporal mean velocity gradient G for both types
of pneumatic flocculation. The majority o f the
experimental results revealed that the 1.5-mm orifice
produced the most efficient flocculation and removal.
The average observed major and minor lengths of
air bubble were 10 and 5 m m , respectively.
The calculated mean equivalent diameter of the air
bubble at the steady stage was 6.22mm, based
on Bhaga and Weber's drag coefficient relation-
ship(Bhaga and Weber, 1981) for Reynolds number
greater than 100 and as shown in the following
equation:
CD = [ (2.67) 0.9 + (_~)o.9],.,,,. (9)
The initial values of R were based on the solid-
liquid interface evaluation to give some idea o f
the state of hydraulic flow, calculating the CD
value from equation (9) and the general settling
or rising velocity. The generally accepted
approximation, that the general rising velocity of the
bubble under the solid-liquid interface equals
one and a half times the rising velocity o f the
bubble under that of the air-liquid interface, was
applied.
When plotting equation (8) for In(Co~C,) vs. Q~a,
the curve should pass through the origin theoretically
at zero air flow rate [i.e. In(Co~C,) = 0 or Co~C,= 1].
However, experimental data indicated an intercep-
tion on the ln(C0/C,) axis, even at zero air flow rate.
 Kinetics of pneumatic flocculation
Experimental curves were found not to pass through
the origin. The 2 min of rapid pneumatic agitation
could be too long with a possibility of the formation
of micro flocs, although not substantiated, and this is
worth future inw:stigation. The practicability of
collecting samples for a period less than 5 min is
impossible.
The graphs for In(Co~C,) vs. Q~12 show a
semi-logarithmic relationship. The curves
become linear after a value of Q]/2 of about 7
(cm 3 min-~)~t2, producing the following mathematical
model:
l n ~ ! = K, + K(Q.) 't:. (10)
The plotted curves, as shown in Figs 2-6, are found
to be almost parallel to each other. This indicates
that the lines are of constant slope, which is
foundto be 0.01 (cra 3 min-~) -~/2 on average, irrespec-
tive of the type of synthetic turbidity, coagulant, size
of orifice and type of flocculation (normal and taper)
used. As the concentration of the suspension
decreases with inc:reasing settling time, the value of
the interception on In(Co~C,) axis of these curves
increases. The average value for each of these
interceptions is found to be 1.9, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.3,
corresponding to the settling times of 30, 60, 90 and
120min, respectively. These values are shown in
Table 1.
Close examination of Figs 2-6 relating In(Co~C,)
vs. Q]/2 reveals that, at the rate of applied air flow
between 0 and 100 cm ~min -t, a rapid promotion of
flocculation is taking place, with steep curves for
various times. For higher rates of over 100 cm ~min -~,
the flocculation process reached its climax and
showed a steady gentle linear relationship. It
was evident that the increase in the rate of applied
air did not produce any significant improvement in
the removal or justify the economical advantages.
Any excessive increase in the amount of air flow
could reduce the bonding forces between the floc
particles and increase the shearing forces. It was
noticed by the authors during the experiments
that when determining the optimum air flow, more
than one optimum rate of flow was shown on the
graphs.
'CONCLUSIONS
The experimental work demonstrated the validity
of the pneumatic flocculation and the enhancement
of the water quality with regard to the amount
of dissolved oxygen. The increase in the amount of
D.O. was between 6 and 55% with a weighted
average of 16%. The rate of nitrate nitrogen removal
was in the range of 66-100%, and the weighted
2987
average was 88%. The amount of iron removed was
between 80 and 92%, with a weighted average of
87%.
The calculated power input required, based
on the minimum optimum amount of air
loading, was 4-30 times lower than the calculated
power input for itsrival, the slow mechanical
mixing,with an overall weighted average of 16 times
lower.
The pneumatic flocculation process demonstrated
its effectiveness and to a considerable degree of
removal, tested with different characteristics of
synthetic turbidities and types of pneumatic floccula-
tion (normal and taper).
The most effective orifice sizes over the range tested
under pneumatic flocculation were the 1.5 and
2.00 mm sizes.
There were insignificant differences in the rate of
removal between the performances of pneumatic
normal and taper flocculation. The former demands
a lesser degree of skill with its application in a hot
climate for both developing and under-developed
countries.
Acknowledgements--Both authors wish to record their
thanks to Emeritus Professor K. J. Ives, University
College, London, for his advice, encouragement and
direction in this investigation and in his capacity as
External Supervisor for this research work. The
generosity of both the Overseas Development Adminis-
tration of the U.K. Government and The Nottingham Trent
University for funding the project is acknowledged with
appreciation.
REFERENCES
A1-Hiary S. M. (1988) Pneumatic flocculation. M.Sc. Eng.
thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Jordan.
Bhaga D. and Weber M. E. (1981) Bubbles in viscous
liquids: shape, wake and velocities. J. Fluid Mechanics 54,
167-173.
Camp T. R. and Stein P. C. (1943) Velocity gradients and
internal work in fluid motion. J. Boston Soc. Civil Eng.
30, 219-237.
Camp T. R. (1955) Flocculation and fiocculation basins.
Trans. ASCE, 120, paper no. 2722, 1-16.
Fair G. M., Geyer J. G. and Okun D. A. (1968) Water
and Wastewater Engineering, Vol. 2. Wiley, New
York.
Hudson H. E. (1965) Physical aspects of flocculation. J.
A WWA 57, 885-892.
Ives K. J. (1968) Theory of operation of sludge blanket
clarifiers. Proc. Inst. Cir. Eng. 39, 243-260.
Ives K. J. (1978) The Scientific Basis of Flocculation.
Sijthoff and Noordhof, Alphen aan den Rijn, Nether-
lands.
Kazi N. M. (1995) Pneumatic flocculation in water
treatment. Ph.D. thesis, The Nottingham Trent Univer-
sity, U.K.
2988 I. Sholji and N. M. Kazi

McConnachie G. L. (1984) Flocculation and turbulence from Robeck G. G. (1963) High rate filtration study at Gatfney,
bubble-induced mixing. J. Inst. War. Eng. Scientists 38, South Carolina, Water Plant, USPHS, R.A. Taft. San.
33%347. Eng. Centre, Cincinnati.