ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION AND MAGNETISM

CHARGE CARRIER
In Metals – Charge Carriers are electrons
The free electrons are referred to as conduction electrons.

In Electrolytes - charge carriers are ions

- which are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons so they are electrically
charged
- Anions- Atoms that have gained electrons. ( Negatively Charge )
- Cations- Atoms that have lost electrons. ( Positively Charge )

In Plasma - an electrically charged gas which is found in electric arcs through air, neon signs, and the sun
and stars, the electrons and cations of ionized gas act as charge carriers.

In Vacuum - free electrons can act as charge carriers

In Electrical - charge carrier is a particle free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially the particles
that carry electric charges in electrical conductors
Examples are electrons, ions and holes

Two Types of Charge Carrier

Majority Charge Carrier - charge carriers that are present in large quantity.

- Mainly responsible for electric current flow.

Minority Charge Carrier - charge carriers that are present in small quantity.

Resistivity – is the degree to which a conductor opposes the flow of electricity through itself.

- The unit of resistivity is ohms.

Conductivity - is the degree to which a conductor allows the flow of electricity through itself.

- The Unit of conductivity is Siemens (S)

Relationship of Resistivity and Conductivity

 Conductivity is resistivity’s reciprocal.

 A number and its reciprocal’s product is always one.
 Conductivity increases, resistivity decreases or vice-versa
 In practical terms, a material cannot have high conductivity and high resistivity but can have one or the
other.

Hund’s Rule (FRIEDRICH HUND)

Hund's rule states that

 - Every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.
- All of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin (to maximize total spin).

Conductors- are materials with large values of conductivity.

Example of Conductors – Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Iron, Brass

THERMOCOUPLES - is an electrical device consisting of 2 dissimilar conductors forming electrical junctions at

differing temperatures.

- it produces a temperature dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect,

wherein this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature.
- used as temperature sensor.

Thermocouples Advantages

*Durable
*Compact
*Inexpensive
*No power required

Disadvantages
*Electrical output is weak
*Produces non-linear relationship with the temperature differential it reflects

Applications
Temperature measurement for:
 Gas turbine exhaust
 Diesel engines
 Other industrial processes
*Example: Oven temperature profiling
- Temperature sensors in safety devices for gas powered major appliances

Superconductors
A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or transport electrons from one atom to
another with no resistance.
- 1ST discover superconductor is MERCURY.

Types of Superconductor

Type I Superconductors
- A type I superconductor consists of basic conductive elements that are used in everything
from electrical wiring to computer microchips.
At present, type I superconductors have temperatures between 0.000325 °K and 7.8 °K at standard
pressure.
Some type I superconductors require incredible amounts of pressure in order to reach the
superconductive state.

Type II Superconductors
- A type II superconductor is composed of metallic compounds such as copper or lead. They
reach a superconductive state at much higher temperatures when compared to type I
superconductors.

Applications of Superconductors
 MRI Machines

Insulators
- An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely; very
little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an electric field. This
contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric
current more easily.
- The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity
than semiconductors or conductors.

Parallel Plate Capacitor

-has two metal plates separated by an insulator that keeps them to touch each other and allows them to
hold opposite charges maintaining electric fields.
-used for storing and discharging electricity

PIEZOELECTRIC AND FREZOELECTRIC

Bohr’s atomic model
  According to model proposed by Bohr, an atom is composed of a number of electrons moving in circular
or elliptical orbits around a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and neutrons.
 The atom has a massive positively charged nucleus.
 The electron revolves around their nucleus in circular orbits. It is balance by the electrostatic pull
between the nucleus and electrons.
 An electron cannot revolve around the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in just certain definite discrete
orbit.
 Revolving electron does not radiate out any electromagnetic energy.
 It only radiates when it jump from one orbit to another.

Energy levels

 Within the atomic structure of each and every isolated atom, there are specific energy levels associated
with each shell and orbiting electron. The energy levels associated with each shell will be different for
every element


Valence band

- The outermost electrons of an atom, those in the shell furthermost from the nucleus are called valence
electron and have the highest energy.

Note: in the algebraic sense only. Their binding energy is the least.

- The band of energy occupied by the valence electron is called valence band and is, obviously, the highest
occupied band. It may be completely filled or partially filled with electron but never empty.
Conduction band

- The next higher permitted energy band is called the conduction band and may be either be empty or
partially filled with electrons.

- In conduction band, electrons can move freely and hence are known as conduction electrons. The gap
between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap.

Semiconductors

- A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of conductor and
insulators. Examples are: germanium and silicon.

Type of semiconductor

- Intrinsic semiconductor – is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.

- In pure semiconductors, electric conduction is due to the thermally-generated electron-hole pairs.

Drift – direct motion of charge carriers in semiconductors occurs through two mechanism:

Charge under the influence of applied electric field and

Diffusion of charge from a region of high charge density to one of low charge density.

Diffusion – it is the gradual flow of charge from a region of high density to a region of low density. It is a force-
free based on non-uniform distribution of charge carriers in a semiconductor crystal. It leads to an electric
current without the benefit of an applied field.

Recombination – this results from the collision of an electron to a hole. The process is essentially the return of
free conduction electron to the valence band and is accompanied by the emission of energy.

PIEZOELECTRICS

Piezo-Electricity

FERRO-ELECTRICS is a property of certain materials that have a spontaneous electric polarization that can be
reversed by the application of an external electric field. The term is used in analogy to ferromagnetism, in which
a material exhibits a permanent magnetic moment.

The most common application of ferro-electrics stem from a closely related phenomenon, piezo-electricity.
Pierre Curie discovers it in 1880 in quartz crystals. A French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism,
piezo-electricity and radioactivity.
 - The prefix “piezein” comes from the Greek word means “to press”. Piezoelectric materials give an
electrical response to mechanical pressure application.
- Conversely, electrical signals can be make them pressure generators. This ability to convert electrical to
mechanical energy and vice versa is a good example of a transducer.

Transducer is a device that is in general, used for converting one form of energy to another form.

Schematic illustrations of piezo-electric transducers

Figure a.) Illustration of the dimension of piezo-electric crystal

Figure b.) This is the inverse effect called “reverse piezo-electric effect”, wherein an applied voltage changes the
dipoles and, thereby, produces a measurable dimensional change.

Figure c.) The dimension of the unit cells in a piezo-electric crystal are changed by an applied stress, thereby
changing their electrical dipoles. The result is a measurable voltage change, thus is called “piezo-electric effect”.

What is Piezo-electricity?

Piezo-electricity is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials in response to applied
mechanical stress. The word Piezo-electricity means electricity resulting from pressure.

Commonly used piezo-electric material is Silicon Dioxide (SiO2). The larger circles represent silicon atoms, while
the smaller ones represent oxygen.
Common Piezo-electric Materials

Motion of Piezo-electric Actuators

- Shear actuators
- Disk bimorph
- Bimorph blenders

Configuration

Common Application of Piezo-electric

 Power Generating Sidewalk

 Gyms and workplaces
 Mobile keypads and keyboards
 Amplifiers etc.

Artificial Materials

- Polycrystalline, piezo-ceramics are man-made materials which are forced to become piezo-electric by
applying large electric field
- High charge sensitivity
- Materials available which operate at 540 celcius
- Characteristics may vary with temperature
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

- are those semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent or Dopant has been added
in extremely small amounts.
*DOPANTS – Impurity additions

*DOPING – process of adding the components

*Usual doping agents are:

 Pentavalent atoms having five (5) valence electrons (As, Sb, P).

 Trivalent atoms having three (3) valence electrons (Ga, Al, B).

- An Extrinsic semiconductor is one in which impurities contribute a significant fraction of the

conduction band electrons and/or valence band holes.
- When impurity atoms are added to a semiconductor crystal, to increase either the number of free
electrons or the number of holes, the process is referred to as Doping.
- Impurities that contribute to the carrier density of a semiconductor are called donors if they supply
additional electrons to the conduction band, and acceptors if they supply additional holes to (i.e.
capture electrons from) the valence band.

Acceptor and Donor atoms

 Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one electron to the
conduction band of pure materials (intrinsic materials).
 Trivalent atom, is called acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the other.

TWO TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

N-TYPE – negative carriers dominate

P-TYPE – positive carriers dominate

N-type Semiconductor – this type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material is added to a pure
material (Silicon or Germanium).

- This forms a covalent bond with the surrounding atoms with the help of four of its five valence
electron. The fifth electron is loosely bound. Hence it can easily be excited from the valence band by
the application of electric field or increase in thermal energy

P-type Semiconductor – this type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of trivalent atoms (e.g. Boron) are
added to a pure material (e.g. Germanium or Silicon).

- In this case the three valence electrons of boron form a covalent bonds with four surrounding silicon
crystal, but one bond is left incomplete and give rise to a hole (positive charged ion)
-
COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTOR

- In contrast to a semiconductor composed of a single element, one composed of two or more elements
is called a compound semiconductor.
- Electronically, these compounds average to group IVA character. The III-V compounds are MX
compositions, with M being a 3+ valence element and X being a 5+ valence element. The same goes
with II-VI compounds, combining a 2+ valence element to a 6+ valence element.

Typical examples of compound semiconductors include gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), indium
phosphide (InP), zinc selenide (ZnSe), and silicon carbide (SiC).

SOME COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTOR

GROUP COMPOUND GROUP COMPOUND

III-V BP II-VI ZnS

AlSb ZnSe

GaP ZnTe

GaAs CdS

GaSb CdSe

InP CdTe

InAs HgSe

InSb HgTe

AMORPHOUS SEMICONDUCTORS

 These materials have yet to replace traditional, crystalline semiconductors on a large scale.
 Commercial development of amorphous semiconductors appears to be on the threshold of a wide market,
with unit energy costs approaching those from conventional fossil and nuclear fuels, amorphous
semiconductors could eventually account for a practical energy source in Third World Countries where
long distance power grids are lacking.

Some Amorphous Semiconductors

GROUP SEMICONDUCTOR GROUP SEMICONDUCTOR

IVA Si III-V GaAs

Ge

VIA S IV-VI GeSe

 Se GeTe

Te V-VI As2Se3

SIMPLE DEVICES

- Miniaturized electrical circuits are the reuslt of creative combination of p-type and n-type
semiconducting materials. An especially simple example is the rectifier, or diode. This contains a
single p-n junction, that is, a boundary between adjacent regions of p and n type materials.
- When voltage is applied to the device, the charge carriers are driven away from the junction. This
reverse bias quickly leads to polarization of the rectifier.

The field-effect transistor (FET) functions similarly with the BJT but with p-n channels, and regions termed source,
drain, and gate ( corresponding to emitter, base, and collector, respectively).

• In summary, semiconductor devices have revolutionized modern life by providing for the miniaturization
of electronic circuits. The replacement of diodes and transistors started a revolution. The development of
integrated microcircuits accelerated this revolution.

• Miniaturization is continuing by reducing the size of microcircuit elements. In addition to the amplification
of electrical signals discussed previously, transistors and diodes can also serve as switching devices. This
application is the basis of the computational and information storage functions of computers.

MAGNETISM

- Magnetism is one aspect of the combined electromagnetic force. It refers to physical phenomena
arising from the force caused by magnets, objects that produce fields that attract or repel other
objects.

• An electrical current loop generates a region of physical attraction, or Magnetic Field, represented by a
set of magnetic flux line. The magnitude and direction of magnetic field at any given point is given by H, a
vector quantity.

• Simple illustration of magnetism shows the magnetic field generated around an electrical current loop

• Simple illustration of magnetism shows the magnetic field generated around an electrical current loop
 Simple illustration of magnetism shows the magnetic field generated
around an electrical current loop

A magnetic material can generate a magnetic field without an electrical current.

As we all know opposite attracts and same poles repel

For free space surrounding a magnetic field source, we can define an Induction, B, whose magnitude is the flux
density The induction is related to magnetic field strength, H, by B = μ₀H

Where μ₀ is the permeability of the vacuum

When solid is inserted to magnetic field, where μ is the solid permeability B = μH

It is useful to note that this basic equation is for magnetic behavior is a direct analog of the more commonly
expressed relationship for electronic behavior, Ohm’s law

V = IR
RA I
And combine with it the definitions of resistivity and conductivity. ρ = 𝑙
and σ = ρ

We obtain an alternative form for Ohm’s law:

I V
𝐴
=σ l

I/A is the current density and V/l is the voltage gradient.

- We then see that the magnetic induction is analogous to current density and the magnetic field
strength is analogous to voltage gradient, with permeability corresponding to conductivity. The
presence of the solid has changed the induction. The separate contribution of solid is illustrated by:

B = μH = μ₀(H+M)

Where “M” is called magnetization of the solid and the μ₀M represents the “extra” magnetic field associated
with the solid.
UNITS

B = webers*/m2
μ = webers/ampere-meter
H and M = amperes/m

Relative permeability is the ratio of the magnetic permeability of a medium to that of free space or air.
μ
μr = μ₀

Diamagnetism - occurs when material’s structure respond to an applied magnetic field by setting up a slight
opposing field.

Paramagnetism - is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are weakly attracted by an externally
applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field.

Ferromagnitism – in this form of magnetism, the induction increases dramatically with field strength.

Saturation

is the state reached when an increase in applied

external magnetic field H cannot increase
the magnetization of the material further.
Remanent Induction

The magnetic induction that remains in a material after removal of the magnetizing field.
FERRIMAGNETISM

- The crystal structure of the most common magnetic ceramics leads to some antiparallel spin
pairing, thereby reducing the net magnetic moment below that possible in metals. This similar
phenomenon is distinguished from ferromagnetism by the sligthly different spelling ferrimagnetism.
- The most commercially important ceramic magnets are associated with the spinel(MgAl2O4) crystal
structure.

Metallic Magnets

- The commercially important metallic magnets are ferromagnetic. In general,these materials are
categorized as either soft or hard magnets. Ferromagnetic materials with domain walls easily moved
by applied fields are termed soft magnets. Those with less mobile domain walls are termed hard
magnets.

Soft Magnets

- The largest use of magnetic materials is in power generation. A common example is the
ferromagnetic core in a tranformer.

CERAMIC MAGNETS
 80% of this are used in electronic or magnetic behavior
 divided into two categories --- traditional & advance
 much less expensive
 composed of iron oxide and strontium carbonate

LOW-CONDUCTIVITY MAGNETS

- commercially important ceramic magnets are ferrimagnetic

- the dominant example of this is, FERRITES, GARNETS, MAGNETOPLUMBITES, PERMANENT MAGNETS

FERRITES - Ferrite is a ceramic-like material with magnetic properties, which is used in many types of electronic
devices

GARNET - is usually thought of as a gemstone but most garnet is mined for industrial uses.

MAGNETOPLUMBITE - gray mineral containing aluminum, calcium, iron, lead, manganese, oxygen, and titanium

SUPER-CONDUCTIVITY MAGNETS

- is an electromagnet made from coils of superconducting wire.

- they must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation.

- wire can conduct much larger electric currents than ordinary wire
- can produce greater magnetic fields

APPLICATION

 MRI machines in hospitals, and in scientific equipment such as NMR spectrometers, mass
spectrometers and particle accelerators.

SOFT MAGNETS
 Can be simply magnetized and demagnetized
 Magnetism is temporary
 Used in electromagnets

Hard Magnets

 Difficult to magnetized and demagnetized

 Do not lose their magnetism
 Used as Permanent Magnet

What is Hyteresis Loop?

- A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing
force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop.