Dr Patrick JAMES <pj221>

Part 1B – The Language of Greek Literature – Athenian Drama 12 March 2018

Formalities
Distinguish (?), both for form and for dialect, between:
(1) dialogue in iambic trimeters
Aristotle, Poetics 1449a 24ff. μάλιστα γὰρ λεκτικὸν τῶν μέτρων τὸ ἰαμβεῖόν ἐστιν· ...
(λέγομεν ἐν τῇ διαλέκτῳ τῇ πρὸς ἀλλήλους...)
(trochaic tetrameters catalectic elsewhere: 3¾ trochaic metra ˘ ˉ ˘ ˉ )
‘Mute + liquid’: (often) heavy in epic, (usually) light in Attic drama, especially in Comedy.
(a) extended speeches
(b) antilabe and stichomythia
(c) messenger speeches:
more epic colouring, including optional omission of the augment.
(2) lyric in various meters:
See D.S. Raven, Greek Metre (London: Faber and Faber, 1962), 107–109 (Persians), 117
(Medea), 122 (Acharnians), and 125–127 (others including Ion).
M.L. West, Greek Metre (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), 98–137 (esp., A.Pers.: 122, 124, and
125; E.Ion: 110, 113, 121, 122, 123 n. 110, and 124).
(a) Marching Anapaests: ‘Attic’
(b) Lyric Anapaests: like other lyrics (see below)

‘A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away,…’

All tragedies (except Aeschylus’ Persae) concern tales from the (distant) past and outside
Athens (except Aeschylus’ Eumenides, Sophocles’ Oedipus of Kolonus, and Euripides’
Heracleidae).
Contrast that with Old and New Comedy, all at Athens or in Attica (Corinth: Menander’s
Periceiromene 125 and 129) and dealing with current affairs (‘Old’: Ar.Ach. and Lys., e.g., the
Peloponnesian War) or contemporary situation comedy (‘New’: in Men.Sam.628 a son speaks
of going to Bactr(i)a or Caria as a mercenary).

On the other hand,… Colloquialism:

See: P.T. Stevens, “Colloquial Expressions in Euripides.” CQ 31.3/4 (1937): 182–191.
“Colloquial Expressions in Aeschylus and Sophocles.” CQ 39.3/4 (1945): 95–105.
Colloquial Expressions in Euripides (Wiesbaden: 1976).
Aristotle, Rhetoric 1404b: Euripides was the first to conceal his art by using everyday words.
See also: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, De Imitatione, p. 206 Usener-Radermacher.

-1-
Long and Short Datives Plural
As in Homer, in Tragedy and Comedy alike, both
(1) –αισι and –οισι (exclusively in Herodotus’ Ionic, but as –ῃσι) and
(2) –αις and –οις (‘exclusively’ in Attic prose literature: Antiphon 3.2.9, Lys.12.26 both
τουτοισ–ί; several (!) in Plato) are used, for metrical convenience.

Until the mid 5th c. BCE, Attic inscriptions have –οισι (inherited from the locative); then –αις
also replaced both –ησι/–ᾱσι (the inherited locative: Ἀθήνησι and θύρᾱσι) and –αισι
(analogically created: –οισι).
[–οις was the inherited instrumental ending for O-stems only: other stems, even
<ᾱ>/η-stems, had –φι (as in Homer: e.g. Od.6.6 βίηφι, as a dative)]

Tragedy, like Old Comedy, differs from contemporary Attic prose and spoken Attic, as far as
we know it from inscriptions and literary prose.
A.Pers. 153–154: καὶ προσφθόγγοις δὲ χρεὼν αὐτὴν | πάντας μύθοισι προσαυδᾶν. (182, 227, 239, etc.)
619: χοαῖσι ταῖσδε νερτέρων
Ar.Ach. 144: ἐν τοῖσι τοίχοις ἔγραφ’ “Ἀθηναῖοι καλοί.” (166, [225,] 329, 634, 716, 806)
1197: κᾆτ’ ἐγχάνοι ταῖς ἐμαῖς τύχαισιν.
E.Ion 1: Ὁ χαλκέοισιν οὐρανὸν νώτοις Ἄτλας (295, 477, 502, 674, 871, 891, 922, 1007, etc.): Ἀ. ὁ χ. ν. οὐ.
399–400: κἀν ταῖς κακαῖσιν ἁγαθαὶ μεμειγμέναι | μισούμεθ’· (1505)

Aristophanes may use the long forms as a marker of more conservative varieties of Attic.
Clouds: Strepsiades uses more long forms and Pheidippides uses no long forms, but Socrates
uses more long forms still. See Clackson 2015: 111–112 and Willi 2003: 241–242.

New Comedy:
A:-stems: Theophoroumene 25 ταῖς ἀληθείαισιν, and fr. 541 διαβολαῖσι
O-stems: Perikeiromene 268 (θεοῖσιν ἐχθρός, Hes.Th.779 and Ar.Ach.933–934; contrast 294,
Ar.Eq.34, Pax 1172, D.19.95, etc.)
O-stem definite article: Samia 516 (unique, but perhaps in fr. 681, and if Menandrean, and in
fr. 711; also P.Ghoran ΙΙ 134, if Menandrean):
Nikeratos: ἀλλ’ ἐγὼ πρὸς τοῖσιν ἄλλοις τὴν τὰ δείν’ εἰργασμένην
εἰσεδεξάμην μελά̄θροις τοῖς ἐμοῖς.
Note λέκτρον (Sam.507), a poetic word for ‘bed’ (e.g. Il.22.503, Od.8337, and E.Med.140, 286,
436, 443, 594, 640, and 1348), unique in Menander and never in Aristophanes.

Comedy: Linguistic Realism?

Reconsider Comedy (but also Tragedy) as evidence for female speech: oaths, diminutives,
forms of address, etc.

-2-
Representation of non-Attic Greek dialects and non-Greek languages in Comedy
Menander, Aspis 431–464 (‘Doric’ from a ‘Doctor’)
×
[ΙΑΤΡΟΣ] ˉ˘
(Δα) “δυσάρεστον οἱ νοσοῦντες ἀπορίας ὕπο.”
… querulous’.
(Ια) αὐτῶ τὰν χολὰν
[ ]ι̣μ̣ε̣[..].δη φερομένωι
[ ] διὰ τὰν παρεῦσαν ἀπορίαν.
(Σμ) ταῦτα δήπου μανθάνω.
(Ια) [ α]ὐτὰς τὰς φρένας δή μοι δοκῶ
[ ]. ὀνυμάζειν μὲν ὦν εἰώθαμες
[ φ]ρενῖτιν τοῦτο.
(Σμ) οὐκ ἔστ]ιν ἐλπὶς οὐδεμία σωτηρίας;
(Ια)
καίρια] γάρ, αἰ μὴ δεῖ σε θάλπεν διὰ κενᾶς,
τὰ τοια]ῦτα.
(Σμ) μὴ θάλπ’, ἀλλὰ τἀληθῆ λέγε.
(Ια) οὐ πάμπαν οὗτός ἐστί τοι βιώσιμος.
ἀνερεύγεταί τι τᾶς χολᾶς· ἐπισκοτεῖ
[ ]εντ̣.[..] καὶ τοῖς ὄμμασι
[ ]υ̣κνον ἀναφρίζει τε καὶ
[ ]. ας ἐκφορὰν βλέπει.
[Ια] [ ]. προάγωμες, παῖ.
431 Doctor(?) [Sae I do (?).]
Daos ‘By their distress the sick are
43 Doctor: [.. . . . . .] maister’s (?) bile. [. . .
9 .] carrying awa’ (?) the noo. [. . . . ]
44 through his present distress.
0
44 Smikrines: That I quite understand.
3
Doctor: [. . . . . . . . . .] the diaphragm
44 itself, I’m thinkin’, [Has intumesced
5 (?).] We normally ca’ this The phrenic
oedema.
Smikrines [Is there] no hope of his
recovery?
Doctor:
[Sic] maladies are [fatal]. I maun nae
Cheer ye wi’ vanities.
44 Smikrines: No cheering! Speak The
9 truth.
Doctor: He willna live at a’, I say. He’s
vomitin’ bile. [The affliction] dims
[his sight], [. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .] and
for (?) his een [. . . . . . . . . . .] he aften
faims at the mooth, an’
[. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .] his look’s
funereal.
45 Doctor: Let’s gang awa’, lad.
5

Aristophanes, Acharnians 729–835 (Megarian) [also non-IG 860–958 (Boeotian)]

‘Doric’ in Lysistrata, ‘a Scythian Archer’s Greek’ in Thesmophoriazusae, ‘Triballian’ in Birds,
‘Persian’ in Acharnians 100, a Persian’s Greek 104.
Otherwise: Timotheus, Persae (Greek Lyric Loeb V, no. 781, pp. 94–111), The Greek Anthology
(Gothic: 6.85),… ?
ΜΕΓΑΡΕΥΣ
ἀγορὰ ’ν Ἀθάναις, χαῖρε, Μεγαρεῦσιν φίλα.
ἐπόθουν τυ, ναὶ τὸν φίλιον, ᾇπερ ματέρα. (730)

-3-
ἀλλ’, ὦ πόνηρα κορίχι’ ἀθλίου πατρός, πόνηρα (recessive) ‘pitiable’;
ἄμβατε ποττὰν μάδδαν, αἴ χ’ εὕρητέ πᾳ. apocope; ποτί; μάζα ‘barley cake’
ἀκούετε δή, ποτέχετ’ ἐμὶν τὰν γαστέρα· ποτί + ἔχω
πότερα πεπρᾶσθαι χρῄδδετ’ ἢ πεινῆν κακῶς; χρῄζετε ‘you want’, πεινᾶν

-4-
Με. ἐγώνγα καὐτός φαμι. τίς δ’ οὕτως ἄνους ἄνοoς
ὃς ὑμέ κα πρίαιτο, φανερὰ̄ν ζᾱμίᾱν;
ἀλλ’ ἔστι γάρ μοι Μεγαρικά τις μαχανά, ‘Never mind about all that!’
χοίρους γὰρ ὑμὲ σκευάσας φασῶ φέρειν. dial(ect) fut., cf. 742, 743,
περίθεσθε τάσδε τὰς ὁπλὰς τὼς χοιρία. (740) ‘hooves’; τὼς cf. 762
ὅπως δὲ δοξεῖτ’ ἦμεν ἐξ ἀγαθᾶς ὑός· ὅπως + fut. cf. 746
ὡς ναὶ τὸν Ἑρμᾶν, αἴπερ ἱξεῖτ’ οἴκαδις
ἄπρατα, πειρασεῖσθε τᾶς λιμοῦ κακῶς.
ἀλλ’ ἀμφίθεσθε καὶ ταδὶ τὰ ῥυγχία, ῥυγχία ‘snouts’
κἤπειτεν ἐς τὸν σάκκον ὧδ’ ἐσβαίνετε. (745)
ὅπως δὲ γρυλιξεῖτε καὶ κοΐξετε κοΐξετε is fut., but not dial.
χἠσεῖτε φωνὰν χοιρίων μυστηρικῶν. 2pl.dial.fut. ἱήμι
ἐγὼν δὲ καρυξῶ Δικαιόπολιν ὅπᾳ·
Δικαιόπολι, ἦ λῇς πρίασθαι χοιρία; λῶ ‘I want’, cf. 772, 814
Δι. τί; ἀνὴρ Μεγαρικός; Με. ἀγορασοῦντες ἵκομες. (750)
Δι. πῶς ἔχετε; Με. διαπεινᾶμες ἀεὶ ποττὸ πῦρ.
…
Με. οὐ δεινά; θᾶσθε· τοῦδε τᾶς ἀπιστίας· (770) 2pl.imperatv. θᾱέομαι
οὔ φατι τάνδε χοῖρον ἦμεν. ἀλλὰ μάν, φασι; ἦ-μεν dial.inf. for εἶ-ναι
αἰ λῇς, περίδου μοι περὶ θυμιτιδᾶν ἁλῶν, -ιδᾶν gen.pl., cf. patronymics.
αἰ μή ’στιν οὗτος χοῖρος Ἑλλάνων νόμῳ.
…
ἀλλ’ αἰ τράφεν λῇς, ἅδε τοι χοῖρος καλά. (798) dial.inf., cf. Leg.Gort. 3.49
‘Boeotian’ θερίδδειν Ar.Ach.947, for Attic (etc.) θερίζειν, should be θερίδδεμεν.

Tragedy
σεμνότης ‘revered remoteness’ and words that are σεμνά.

Lyrics
Choral lyric is a ‘Doric’ tradition: Alcman of Sparta, Stesichorus, Ibycus (both from Ionian
Chalcis), … Pindar (of Boeotian Thebes), Bacchylides (of Ionian Ceos),…
Contrast: ‘personal’ lyric: Sappho and Alcaeus.

Replacement of Attic-Ionic <η> by <ᾱ> to some extent:

νί̄κᾱ, ἆγον, μά̄τηρ (Latin māter), τλᾱ–, φά̄μᾱ (Latin fāma), δᾱμο–,
but not so in γῆρυς, ἡδύς (Latin suāu–is), ἦμαρ (from Homer)
nor so in hybrids: μηχάνᾱ (Latin, māchina; mech– in English is from Greek), πηγά̄, φήμᾱ,…

A:-stem genitive singulars: –ᾱ (not –ου), cf. Ionic –εω (Homer, Herodotus,…) and –ᾱo (Homer
and Boeotian)

-5-
A:-stem genitive plurals: –ᾶν (not –ῶν), cf. Ionic –έων (Homer, Herodotus,…) and –ά̄ων
(Homer)
< **persāsōm >
< *persāsom Περσά̄(s)ων >
Latin Persārum Attic-Ionic Περσέων >
Attic Περσῶν

O-stem genitive singulars: –ου < –οιο (Homer and Thessalian –οι(o); Mycenaean/Linear B
–o–jo) < *–osyo.
A.Pers.865 (lyr.): πόρον οὐ διαβὰς Ἅλυος ποταμοῖο
E.Hipp.850 (lyr.) φέγγος θ’ ἁ̄λ ίοιο καὶ νυκτὸς ἀ|στερωπὸν σέλας. (not ἡελίοιο)
Third person accusative pronoun νιν: Α.Pers.848; E.Med.39, 92, 180, 209, 1258, 1285, 1296,
1312, 1365; Ion 49, 81, 270, 291, 367, 793, 842, 954, 991, 1108; Ar.Ach.775 (Megarian).

Syntax: widespread absence of the definite article and ‘emphatic’ word orders used
routinely (typical: preposing within a phrase or clause).

‘Traditional’ vocabulary (from epic and lyric), especially elaborate compounds,…

ὦ τᾶς ἑπταφθόγγου μέλπων
κιθάρας ἐνοπάν, ἅτ’ ἀγραύλοις
κεράεσσιν ἐν ἀψύχοις ἀχεῖ
μουσᾶν ὕμνους εὐαχήτους,
σοὶ μομφάν, ὦ Λατοῦς παῖ,
πρὸς τάνδ’ αὐγὰν αὐδάσω.
ἦλθές μοι χρυσῶι χαίταν
μαρμαίρων, εὖτ’ ἐς κόλπους
κρόκεα πέταλα φάρεσιν ἔδρεπον
†ἀνθίζειν† χρυσανταυγῆ·
λευκοῖς δ’ ἐμφὺς καρποῖσιν
χειρῶν εἰς ἄντρου κοίτας
κραυγὰν Ὦ μᾶτέρ μ’ αὐδῶσαν
θεὸς ὁμευνέτας
ἆγες ἀναιδείαι (895)
Κύπριδι χάριν πράσσων.
τίκτω δ’ ἁ δύστανός σοι
κοῦρον, τὸν φρίκαι ματρὸς
βάλλω τὰν σὰν εἰς εὐνάν,
ἵνα μ’ ἐν λέχεσιν μελέαν μελέοις
881 O you that cause the voice of the seven-stringed lyre
to resound, which on the rustic lifeless horn echoes
forth the Muses lovely hymns,
885 to you, O son of Leto, by the light of day I utter my
reproach!
You came to me with your hair gold-gleaming as into
the folds of my gown I was plucking flowers of
saffron hue reflecting the golden light.
892 Seizing me by my pale white wrists as I cried out
“Mother!” into the cave that was your bed you took
me, divine ravisher, without pity, doing what
gladdens Cypris’ heart.
I, the unblest, bore to you a son whom, in fear of my
mother, I cast upon your couch where in sorrow
upon a bed of sorrow

-6-
 ἐζεύξω τὰν δύστανον.
οἴμοι μοι· καὶ νῦν ἔρρει
πτανοῖς ἁρπασθεὶς θοίνα
παῖς μοι καὶ σοί.
τλᾶμον, σὺ δὲ <καὶ> κιθάραι κλάζεις
παιᾶνας μέλπων.
ὠή, τὸν Λατοῦς αὐδῶ,
ὅστ’ ὀμφὰν κληροῖς
†πρὸς χρυσέους θάκους†
καὶ γαίας μεσσήρεις ἕδρας.
ἐς φῶς αὐδὰν καρύξω·
Ἰὼ <ἰὼ> κακὸς εὐνάτωρ,
ὃς τῶι μὲν ἐμῶι νυμφεύται
χάριν οὐ προλαβὼν
παῖδ’ εἰς οἴκους οἰκίζεις·
ὁ δ’ ἐμὸς γενέτας καὶ σὸς †ἀμαθὴς†
οἰωνοῖς ἔρρει συλαθείς,
σπάργανα ματέρος ἐξαλλάξας.
μισεῖ σ’ ἁ Δᾶλος καὶ δάφνας
ἔρνεα φοίνικα παρ’ ἁβροκόμαν,
ἔνθα λοχεύματα σέμν’ ἐλοχεύσατο
Λατὼ Δίοισί σε κάποις.
A ‘Doric’ (or, at least, not Attic) veneer, gloss, patina, or thin whitewash, not ‘West Greek’.
No third person plural in –οντι (for –ουσι), no first person plural in –μες (for –μεν), etc.
901 you yoked my wretched self. Ah me! And now he is
gone, seized by creatures of the air for their feast, my
son—and yours, hard-hearted one! Yet you <forever>
with your lyre go on playing “O Paian”!
907 You there, I mean the son of Leto, who allot your
oracles to those <who come> to your golden seat and
to the earth’s midmost resting place!
911 To the light of day I make this proclamation: Oh,
ungrateful lover! Though you had no previous favor
from my husband you gave him a child for his house;
yet my son and yours, unfeeling <god,> has vanished
taken as prey for birds, leaving his own mother’s
swaddling bands behind.
919 You are hated by Delos and the shoots of laurel that
stand beside the palm tree’s delicate fronds, there
where in holy childbed Leto bore you in the bower
sent by Zeus.
Euripides, Ion 881–922

Lexicon
What makes a word ‘poetic’, beyond its presence in ‘poetry’ and its absence in ‘prose’ ?
Dover’s Triangle: Comedy, the Orators, Attic epigraphy.
Unmarked/‘prose’ Marked/‘poetic’
ἀνήρ πόσις
γυνή δάμαρ
υἱός γόνος
ἀδελφός ὅμ–αιμος [αἷμα]; κάσις; καςίγνητος
ἱππεύς ἱππότης
σῶμα δέμας
ὀφθαλμός ὄμμα (dual ὄσσε)
στῆθος στέρνον
θρίξ τριχός [Th. X.; ἔθειρα [3x E.Hel., 1x IA;
A.Pers.1056]; κομή (only pl., not in Od.; sg. hHom.+) A.Pers.1062]

-7-
ἱμάτιον εἷμα
κλί̄νη λέχος; λέκτρον
ἔχθρᾱ ἔχθος
προῖξ φερνή
οἰκία δόμος
γῆ γαῖα; αἶα
νεός νεοχμός
βαδίζειν στείχειν
ὁρᾶν λεύσσειν
ἑόρακα/ἑώρακα ὄπωπα
ἀκούειν κλύω
εἶμι ἐλεύσομαι
ἦλθον, ἐλθεῖν ἔμολον, μολεῖν (βλώσκω)
ἐρωτάω ἱστορέω
θηρεύω ἀγρεύω
τυγχάνω κυρέω (κυρησ–)/κύ̄ρω (κύρσ–)
σφόδρα κάρτα
Sources are Homer(ic) and Ionic verse and prose
Nouns in –μα: παρα– or ὑπ–αγκάλισμα ‘darling, squeeze’ S.Ant.650; S.Tr.540, E.Tr.757.
‘Philosophical’ abstract nouns in –σύνη: E.Ion 1100 ἀμνημοσύνᾱ.
Compounds: See Rutherford (2010) 443.
Earp, F. The Style of Sophocles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944).
The Style of Aeschylus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948), especially 21–23
(Persae).

From Lexicon to Morphology and Phonology

Non-Attic-Ionic words with *ᾱ (*/a:/; < ‘Doric’ ?):
δᾱρός ‘long’ (N/A), ὀπᾱδός ‘attendant’ (N/A), κυνᾱγός ‘dog-leader, hunter’ (N/A).
Non-Attic words without Quantitative Metathesis ( < non-Attic-Ionic):
νᾱός ‘sanctuary’ (Attic νεώς): 17x E.Ion (never νεώς)
λᾱός ‘people’ (Attic λεώς): E.Ion 29, 1140, 1578, and 1594; A.Pers. 91, 593, 729, 770, and 1025 (λεω- 126, 383,
and 789).
ἕκᾱτι: A.Pers. 337, E.Ion 1357
Genitive plural ‘ships’:
νεῶν A.Pers. 334, 352, 366, 413, 419, 450 but νᾱῶν 340, 359, 383, 455, 457, 478, 480.
Non-Attic words with Compensatory Lengthening (Third Wave thereof):
δουρός and δούρατος alongside δορός (Attic δόρατος): *doru/dorw– (not in A.Pers. or E.Ion)
μοῦνος (μόνος): *monwos – no instances in A.Pers. or E.Ion
ξεῖνος (ξένος): *xenwos – no instances in A.Pers. or E.Ion
Also, Ionic:
πολλός, πολλόν (for πολύς, πολύ) – no instances in A.Pers. or E.Ion

-8-
Combinations of these phenomena: novelty, foreignness, place in poetic tradition(s),
obsolescence, compounding,…

φάσγανον: Myceneaen/Linear B pa-ka-na (neut.pl. KN261/Ra1540 and KN262/Ra1548, Docs,

p. 60) ‘swords’ (as in Homer) or ‘daggers’? a cutler or sawyer pi-ri-je-te (*πριετήρ)
25x in Homer, 5x in Pindar, 1x in Aeschylus, 4x in Sophocles, 2x Bacchylides, 2x in
Theocritus. 47x (!) in Euripides

Tragic Phonology
Preference for Common Greek –σσ– and –ρσ– over the –ττ– and –ρρ– of Attic (not to
mention Boeotian…)
ξυν– and συν–:
Hybrids
κρείσσων: –σσ– is not Attic, but Ionic would have κρέσσων (Old Attic script ΚΡΕΣΟΝ ?);
κρείσσονα vs. Attic κρείττω.

Morphology
First person plural in –με<σ>θα (: –σθε, –σθαι):
Third person plural optatives in –οίατο and –αίατο: none in E.Ion or Med.; A.Pers. (2/4 in A.):
360 ἐκσωσοίατο and 451 ἐκσῳζοίατο.
Apocope (from epic and lyric):
A.Pers.1052 ἀμ-με_μείξεται (for ἀνα–) [μείγνῡμι] s.v.l.
E.Ion 1008 κείνου δὲ κατθανόντος (for κατα–)

Reading
Buck, C.D. The Greek Dialects. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955.
Clackson, J. Language and Society in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Key Themes in Ancient History. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2015, 108–113.
Colvin, S. Dialect in Aristophanes and the Politics of Language in Ancient Greek Literature. Oxford: Clarendon, 1999.
—A Historical Greek Reader: Mycenaean to the Koiné. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, 57–59, 241–243 (no. 80
Aeschylus), 243–245 (no. 81 Aristophanes), and 245–247 (no. 82 Euripides).
—A Brief History of Ancient Greek. Chichester: Wiley-Blackell, 2014, 152–155.
Horrocks, G.C. Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 56–59 and
101–105 (Menander, with a sample passage).
Maslov, B. “The Dialect Basis of Choral Lyric and the History of Poetic Languages in Archaic Greece.” Symbolae
Osloenses, 87, no. 1 (2013): 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1080/00397679.2013.822726.
Olson, S.D. Aristophanes: Acharnians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Palmer, L.R. The Greek Language. London: Faber and Faber, 1980, 130–141.
Rutherford, R. “The Greek of Athenian Tragedy.” In The Blackwell Companion to the Ancient Greek Language, edited
by E.J. Bakker, 441–454. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
Willi, A. The languages of Aristophanes: Aspects of Linguistic Variation in Classical Attic Greek. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2003.

-9-