Winemaking

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Winemaking, or vinification, is the production of wine, starting with selection of the grapes or other
produce and ending with bottling the finished wine. Although most wine is made from grapes, it may
also be made from other fruit or non-toxic plant material. Mead is a wine that is made with honey being
the primary ingredient after water.

Winemaking can be divided into two general categories: still wine production (without carbonation) and
sparkling wine production (with carbonation).

The science of wine and winemaking is known as oenology (in American English, enology).Contents
[hide]

1 Process

2 The grapes

3 Harvesting and destemming

4 Crushing and primary fermentation

4.1 Pressing

4.2 Pigeage

5 Cold and heat stabilization

6 Secondary fermentation and bulk aging

7 Malolactic fermentation

8 Laboratory tests
9 Blending and fining

10 Preservatives

11 Filtration

12 Bottling

13 Winemakers

14 References

15 See also

16 External links

[edit]

Process

Anatomy of a grape, showing the components extracted from each pressing.

After the harvest, the grapes are crushed and allowed to ferment. Red wine is made from the must
(pulp) of red or black grapes that undergo fermentation together with the grape skins, while white wine
is usually made by fermenting juice pressed from white grapes, but can also be made from must
extracted from red grapes with minimal contact with the grapes' skins. Rosé wines are made from red
grapes where the juice is allowed to stay in contact with the dark skins long enough to pick up a pinkish
color, but little of the tannins contained in the skins.

During this primary fermentation, which often takes between one and two weeks, yeast converts most
of the sugars in the grape juice into ethanol (alcohol). After the primary fermentation, the liquid is
transferred to vessels for the secondary fermentation. Here, the remaining sugars are slowly converted
into alcohol and the wine becomes clear. Wine is then allowed to age in oak barrels before bottling,
which add extra aromas to the wine, while others are bottled directly. The time from harvest to drinking
can vary from a few months for Beaujolais nouveau wines to over twenty years for top wines. However,
only about 10% of all red and 5% of white wine will taste better after five years than it will after just one
year.[1] Depending on the quality of grape and the target wine style, some of these steps may be
combined or omitted to achieve the particular goals of the winemaker. Many wines of comparable
quality are produced using similar but distinctly different approaches to their production; quality is
dictated by the attributes of the starting material and not necessarily the steps taken during
vinification..[2]

Variations on the above procedure exist. With sparkling wines such as Champagne, an additional
fermentation takes place inside the bottle, trapping carbon dioxide and creating the characteristic
bubbles. Sweet wines are made by ensuring that some residual sugar remains after fermentation is
completed. This can be done by harvesting late (late harvest wine), freezing the grapes to concentrate
the sugar (ice wine), or adding a substance to kill the remaining yeast before fermentation is completed;
for example, high proof brandy is added when making port wine. In other cases the winemaker may
choose to hold back some of the sweet grape juice and add it to the wine after the fermentation is done,
a technique known as süssreserve.

The process produces wastewater, pomace, and lees that require collection, treatment, and disposal or
beneficial use.

[edit]

The grapes

Harvested Cabernet Sauvignon grapes.

The quality of the grapes determines the quality of the wine more than any other factor. Grape quality is
affected by variety as well as weather during the growing season, soil minerals and acidity, time of
harvest, and pruning method. The combination of these effects is often referred to as the grape's terroir.

Grapes are usually harvested from the vineyard in the autumn (fall), in the northern hemisphere from
early September until the beginning of November, or the middle of February until the beginning of
March in the southern hemisphere.[2]

The most common species of wine grape is Vitis vinifera, which includes nearly all varieties of European
origin.[2]
[edit]

Harvesting and destemming

Main article: Harvest (wine)

Harvest is the picking of the grapes and in many ways the first step in wine production. Grapes are either
harvested mechanically or by hand. The decision to harvest grapes is typically made by the winemaker
and informed by the level of sugar (called °Brix), acid (TA or Titratable Acidity as expressed by tartaric
acid equivalents) and pH of the grapes. Other considerations include phenological ripeness, berry flavor,
tannin development (seed colour and taste). Overall disposition of the grapevine and weather forecasts
are taken into account.

The corkscrew shaped feed auger sits on top of a mechanical crusher/destemmer. Grape clusters are
then fed into the machine where they are first crushed, then destemmed. Stems exit at the end while
juice, skins, seeds and some debris exit the bottom.

Mechanical harvesters are large tractors that straddle grapevine trellises and, using firm plastic or rubber
rods, strike the fruiting zone of the grapevine to dislodge the grapes from the rachis. Mechanical
harvesters have the advantage of being able to cover a large area of vineyard land in a relatively short
period of time, and with a minimum investment of manpower per harvested ton. A disadvantage of
mechanical harvesting is the indiscriminate inclusion of foreign non-grape material in the product,
especially leaf stems and leaves, but also, depending on the trellis system and grapevine canopy
management, may include moldy grapes,canes, metal debris, rocks and even small animals and bird
nests. Some winemakers remove leaves and loose debris from the grapevine before mechanical
harvesting to avoid such material being included in the harvested fruit. In the United States mechanical
harvesting is seldom used for premium winemaking because of the indiscriminate picking and increased
oxidation of the grape juice. In other countries (such as Australia and New Zealand), mechanical
harvesting of premium winegrapes is more common because of general labor shortages.

Central component of a mechanical destemming. Paddles above the small circular slots rotate to remove
the larger chunks of stems. Grapes are pulled off the stems and fall through the holes. Some small
amount of stem particles are usually desired to be kept with the grapes for tannin structure.
Manual harvesting is the hand-picking of grape clusters from the grapevines. In the United States, grapes
are traditionally picked into 30 pound boxes, and in many cases these boxes are consolidated into ½ ton
bins or two-ton bins for transport to the winery. Manual harvesting has the advantage of using
knowledgeable labor to not only pick the ripe clusters but also to leave behind the clusters that are not
ripe or contain bunch rot or other defects. This can be an effective first line of defense to prevent inferior
quality fruit from contaminating a lot or tank of wine.

Destemming is the process of separating stems from the grapes. Depending on the winemaking
procedure, this process may be undertaken before crushing with the purpose of lowering the
development of tannins and vegetal flavors in the resulting wine. Single berry harvesting, like what is
done with some German Trockenbeerenauslese, avoids this step altogether with the grapes being
individually selected.

[edit]

Crushing and primary fermentation

Main article: Fermentation (wine)

Crushing is the process of gently squeezing the berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate the
contents of the berries. Desteming is the process of removing the grapes from the rachis (the stem which
holds the grapes). In traditional and smaller-scale wine making, the harvested grapes are sometimes
crushed by trampling them barefoot or by the use of inexpensive small scale crushers. These can also
destem at the same time. However, in larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is used. The
decision about desteming is different for red and white wine making. Generally when making white wine
the fruit is only crushed, the stems are then placed in the press with the berries. The presence of stems
in the mix facilitates pressing by allowing juice to flow past flattened skins. These accumulate at the edge
of the press. For red winemaking, stems of the grapes are usually removed before fermentation since the
stems have a relatively high tannin content; in addition to tannin they can also give the wine a vegetal
aroma (due to extraction of 2-methoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine which has an aroma reminiscent of green
bell peppers.) On occasion, the winemaker may decide to leave them in if the grapes themselves contain
less tannin than desired. This is more acceptable if the stems have 'ripened' and started to turn brown. If
increased skin extraction is desired, a winemaker might choose to crush the grapes after destemming.
Removal of stems first means no stem tannin can be extracted. In these cases the grapes pass between
two rollers which squeeze the grapes enough to separate the skin and pulp, but not so much as to cause
excessive shearing or tearing of the skin tissues. In some cases, notably with "delicate" red varietals such
as Pinot noir or Syrah, all or part of the grapes might be left uncrushed (called "whole berry") to
encourage the retention of fruity aromas through partial carbonic maceration.
Crushed grapes leaving the crusher.

Most red wines derive their color from grape skins (the exception being varieties or hybrids of non-
vinifera vines which contain juice pigmented with the dark Malvidin 3,5-diglucoside anthocyanin) and
therefore contact between the juice and skins is essential for color extraction. Red wines are produced
by destemming and crushing the grapes into a tank and leaving the skins in contact with the juice
throughout the fermentation (maceration). It is possible to produce white (colorless) wines from red
grapes by the fastidious pressing of uncrushed fruit. This minimizes contact between grape juice and
skins (as in the making of Blanc de noirs sparkling wine, which is derived from Pinot noir, a red vinifera
grape.)

Most white wines are processed without destemming or crushing and are transferred from picking bins
directly to the press. This is to avoid any extraction of tannin from either the skins or grapeseeds, as well
as maintaining proper juice flow through a matrix of grape clusters rather than loose berries. In some
circumstances winemakers choose to crush white grapes for a short period of skin contact, usually for
three to 24 hours. This serves to extract flavor and tannin from the skins (the tannin being extracted to
encourage protein precipitation without excessive Bentonite addition) as well as Potassium ions, which
participate in bitartrate precipitation (cream of tartar). It also results in an increase in the pH of the juice
which may be desirable for overly acidic grapes. This was a practice more common in the 1970s than
today, though still practiced by some Sauvignon blanc and Chardonnay producers in California.

In the case of rosé wines, the fruit is crushed and the dark skins are left in contact with the juice just long
enough to extract the color that the winemaker desires. The must is then pressed, and fermentation
continues as if the wine maker was making a white wine.

Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery appearance of the grapes.
The fermentation can be done with this natural yeast, but since this can give unpredictable results
depending on the exact types of yeast that are present, cultured yeast is often added to the must. One of
the main problems with the use of wild ferments is the failure for the fermentation to go to completion,
that is some sugar remains unfermented. This can make the wine sweet when a dry wine is
desired.Frequently wild ferments lead to the production of unpleasant acetic acid (vinegar) production
as a by product.

A cap of grape skins forms on the surface of fermenting red wine.

During the primary fermentation, the yeast cells feed on the sugars in the must and multiply, producing
carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The temperature during the fermentation affects both the taste of the
end product, as well as the speed of the fermentation. For red wines, the temperature is typically 22 to
25 °C, and for white wines 15 to 18 °C.[2] For every gram of sugar that is converted, about half a gram of
alcohol is produced, so to achieve a 12% alcohol concentration, the must should contain about 24%
sugars. The sugar percentage of the must is calculated from the measured density, the must weight, with
the help of a saccharometer. If the sugar content of the grapes is too low to obtain the desired alcohol
percentage, sugar can be added (chaptalization). In commercial winemaking, chaptalization is subject to
local regulations.

During or after the alcoholic fermentation, malolactic fermentation can also take place, during which
specific strains of bacteria convert malic acid into the milder lactic acid. This fermentation is often
initiated by inoculation with desired bacteria.

[edit]

Pressing

Ancient winepress in Migdal HaEmek, with the pressing area in the center and the collection vat off to
the bottom left.

Pressing is the act of applying pressure to grapes or pomace in order to separate juice or wine from
grapes and grape skins. Pressing is not always a necessary act in winemaking; if grapes are crushed there
is a considerable amount of juice immediately liberated (called free-run juice) that can be used for
vinification. Typically this free-run juice is of a higher quality than the press juice. However, most
wineries do use presses in order to increase their production (gallons) per ton, as pressed juice can
represent between 15%-30% of the total juice volume from the grape.

Presses act by positioning the grape skins or whole grape clusters between a rigid surface and a
moveable surface and slowly decrease the volume between the two surfaces. Modern presses are able
to follow a pressing program which dictates the duration and pressure at each press cycle, usually
ramping from 0 Bar to 2.0 Bar. Sometimes winemakers choose pressures at which they wish to separate
the streams of pressed juice, which is called making "press cuts." As the pressure increases on the grape
skins so too increase the amount of tannin extracted into the juice, often rendering the pressed juice
excessively tannic or harsh. Because of the location of grape juice constituents in the berry (water and
acid are found primarily in the mesocarp or pulp, whereas tannins are found primarily in the pericarp, or
skin, and seeds), pressed juice or wine tends to be lower in acidity with a higher pH than the free-run
juice.

Before the advent of modern winemaking, most presses were basket presses made of wood and
operated manually. Basket presses are composed of a cylinder of wooden slats on top of a fixed plate,
with a moveable plate that can be forced downward (usually by a central ratcheting threaded screw.)
The press operator would load the grapes or pomace into the wooden cylinder, place the top plate in
place and begin to lower it until juice began to flow from the wooden slats. As the juice flow decreased
to a minimum, the plate was ratcheted down again until a similar flowrate was achieved. This process
would continue until the press operator determines that the quality of the pressed juice or wine is below
standard, or all liquids have been pressed from the grape skins. Since the early 1990s, modern
mechanical basket presses have seen a resurgence amongst higher-end producers seeking to replicate
the gentle pressing of the historical basket presses. Because basket presses have relatively compact
design, the press cake offers a longer relative pathway through which the juice must travel before
leaving the press. It is believed by advocates of basket presses that this relatively long pathway through
the grape or pomace cake serves as a filter to solids that would otherwise negatively impact the quality
of the press juice.

With red wines, the must is pressed after the primary fermentation, which separates the skins and other
solid matter from the liquid. With white wine, the liquid is separated from the must before fermentation
. With rose, the skins may be kept in contact for a shorter period to give color to the wine, in that case
the must may be pressed as well. After a period in which the wine stands or ages, the wine is separated
from the dead yeast and any solids that remained (called its lees), and transferred to a new container
where any additional fermentation may take place.

[edit]

Pigeage

Pigeage is a French winemaking term for the traditional stomping of grapes in open fermentation tanks.
To make certain types of wine, grapes are put through a crusher and then poured into open
fermentation tanks. Once fermentation begins, the grape skins are pushed to the surface by carbon
dioxide gases released in the fermentation process. This layer of skins and other solids is known as the
cap. As the skins are the source of the tannins, the cap needs to be mixed through the liquid each day, or
"punched," which traditionally is done by stomping through the vat.
[edit]

Cold and heat stabilization

Cold stabilization is a process used in winemaking to reduce tartrate crystals (generally potassium
bitartrate) in wine. These tartrate crystals look like grains of clear sand, and are also known as "wine
crystals" or "wine diamonds". They may appear to be sediment in the wine, but they are not. During the
cold stabilizing process, the temperature of the wine, after fermentation, is dropped to close to freezing
for 1-2 weeks. This will cause the crystals to separate from the wine and stick to the sides of the holding
vessel. When the wine is drained from the vessels, the tartrates are left behind.

During "heat stabilization", unstable proteins are removed by adsorption onto bentonite, preventing
them from precipitating in the bottled wine.[2]

[edit]

Secondary fermentation and bulk aging

During the secondary fermentation and aging process, which takes three(3) to six(6) months, the
fermentation continues very slowly. The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the wine from
oxidation. Proteins from the grape are broken down and the remaining yeast cells and other fine
particles from the grapes are allowed to settle. Potassium bitartrate will also precipitate, a process which
can be enhanced by cold stabilization to prevent the appearance of (harmless) tartrate crystals after
bottling. The result of these processes is that the originally cloudy wine becomes clear. The wine can be
racked during this process to remove the lees.

The secondary fermentation usually takes place in either large stainless steel vessels with a volume of
several cubic meters of wine, or oak barrels, depending on the goals of the winemakers. Unoaked wine is
fermented in a barrel made of stainless steel or other material having no influence in the final taste of
the wine. Depending on the desired taste, it could be fermented mainly in stainless steel to be briefly put
in oak, or have the complete fermentation done in stainless steel. Oak could be added as chips used with
a non-wooden barrel instead of a fully wooden barrel. This process is mainly used in cheaper wine.
Amateur winemakers often use glass carboys in the production their wine; these vessels (sometimes
called demijohns) have a capacity of 4.5 to 54 liters (1.2–14.3 US gallons). The kind of vessel used
depends on the amount of wine that is being made, the grapes being used, and the intentions of the
winemaker.

[edit]

Malolactic fermentation

Malolactic fermentation is carried out by bacteria which metabolize malic acid and produce lactic acid
and carbon dioxide. The resultant wine is softer in taste and has greater complexity. The process is used
in most red wines and is discretionary for white wines.

[edit]

Laboratory tests

Whether the wine is aging in tanks or barrels, tests are run periodically in a laboratory to check the
status of the wine. Common tests include °Brix, pH, titratable acidity, residual sugar, free or available
sulfur, total sulfur, volatile acidity and percent alcohol. These tests are often performed throughout the
making of the wine as well as prior to bottling. In response to the results, a winemaker can then decide if
more sulfur needs to be added or other slight adjustments before it is bottled.

°Brix is a measure of the soluble solids in the grape juice and represents not only the sugars but also
includes many other soluble substances such as salts, acids and tannins, sometimes called Total Soluble
Solids (TSS) However, sugar is by far the compound in greatest quantity and so for all practical purposes
Brix is a measure of sugar level. The level of sugar in the grapes is important not only because it will
determine the final alcohol content of the wine, but also because it is an indirect index of grape maturity.
Brix (Bx for short) is measured in grams per hundred milliliters, so 20Bx means that 100ml of juice
contains 20gm of dissolved compounds. There are other common measures of sugar content of grapes,
Specific gravity, Oechsle (Germany) and Beaume (France). The French Beaume (Be for short) has the
benefit that one Be gives approximately one percent alcohol. Also one Beaume is equal to 1.8 Brix, that
is 1.8 grams of sugar per one hundred milliliters. This helps with deciding how much sugar to add if the
juice is low in sugar; to achieve one percent alcohol add 1.8 grams per 100 ml or 18 grams per liter. This
is the process of chaptalization, legal in some countries illegal in others. However, perfectly acceptable
for the home winemaker. Generally, for the making of dry table wines a Bx of between 20 and 25 is
desirable, this is equivalent to Be of 11 to 14.

A Brix test can be ran either in the lab or out in field for a quick reference number to see what the sugar
content is at. Brix is usually measured with a refractometer whilst the other methods use a hydrometer.
Generally, hydrometers are a cheaper alternative. For more accurate use of sugar measurement it
should be remembered that all measurements are affected by the temperature at which the reading is
made, suppliers of equipment generally will supply correction charts.

Volatile acidity test verifies if there is any steam distillable acids in the wine. Mainly present is acetic acid
but lactic, butyric, propionic and formic acids can also be found. Usually the test checks for these acids in
a cash still, but there are new methods available such as HPLC, gas chromatography and even enzymatic
methods. The amount of volatile acidity found in sound grapes is negligible. It is a by-product of
microbial metabolism. It's important to remember that acetic acid bacteria require oxygen to grow.
Eliminating any air in wine containers as well as a sulfur dioxide addition will limit their growth. Rejecting
moldy grapes will also prevent possible problems associated with acetic acid bacteria. Use of sulfur
dioxide and inoculation with a low-V.A. producing strain of Saccharomyces may deter acetic acid
producing yeast. A relatively new method for removal of volatile acidity from a wine is reverse osmosis.
Blending may also help—a wine with high V.A. can be filtered (to remove the microbe responsible) and
blended with a low V.A. wine, so that the acetic acid level is below the sensory threshold.

[edit]

Blending and fining

Different batches of wine can be mixed before bottling in order to achieve the desired taste. The
winemaker can correct perceived inadequacies by mixing wines from different grapes and batches that
were produced under different conditions. These adjustments can be as simple as adjusting acid or
tannin levels, to as complex as blending different varieties or vintages to achieve a consistent taste.

Fining agents are used during winemaking to remove tannins, reduce astringency and remove
microscopic particles that could cloud the wines. The winemakers decide on which fining agents are used
and these may vary from product to product and even batch to batch (usually depending on the grapes
of that particular year)[3].
Gelatin has been used in winemaking for centuries and is recognized as a traditional method for wine
fining, or clarifying. Generally no gelatin remains in the wine because it reacts with the wine
components, as it clarifies, and forms a sediment which is removed by filtration prior to bottling.

Besides gelatin, other fining agents for wine are often derived from animal and fish products, such as
micronized potassium casseinate (casein is milk protein), egg whites, egg albumin, bone char, bull's
blood, isinglass (Sturgeon bladder), PVPP (a dairy derivative protein), lysozyme, and skim milk powder[3].

Some aromatized wines contain honey or egg-yolk extract.[3]

Non-animal-based filtering agents are also often used, such as Bentonite (a volcanic clay-based filter),
Diatomaceous Earth, cellulose pads, paper filters and membrane filters (thin films of plastic polymer
material having uniformly sized holes).

[edit]

Preservatives

The most common preservative used in winemaking is sulfur dioxide. Another useful preservative is
potassium sorbate.

Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant. In
the making of white wine it can be added prior to fermentation and immediately after alcoholic
fermentation is complete. If added after alcoholic ferment it will have the effect of preventing or
stopping malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage and help protect against the damaging effects of
oxygen. Additions of up to 100 mg per liter (of sulfur dioxide) can be added, but the available or free
sulfur dioxide should be measured by the aspiration method and adjusted to 30 mg per liter. Available
sulfur dioxide should be maintained at this level until bottling. For rose wines smaller additions should be
made and the available level should be no more than 30 mg per liter.

In the making of red wine sulfur dioxide may be used at high levels (100 mg per liter) prior to ferment to
assist stabilize color otherwise it is used at the end of malolactic ferment and performs the same
functions as in white wine. However, small additions (say 20 mg per liter) should be used to avoid
bleaching red pigments and the maintenance level should be about 20 mg per liter. Furthermore, small
additions (say 20 mg per liter) may be made to red wine after alcoholic ferment and before malolactic
ferment to over come minor oxidation and prevent the growth of acetic acid bacteria.

Without the use of sulfur dioxide, wines can readily suffer bacterial spoilage no matter how hygienic the
winemaking practice.

Potassium sorbate is effective for the control of fungal growth, including yeast, especially for sweet
wines in bottle. However, one potential hazard is the metabolism of sorbate to geraniol a potent and
very unpleasant by-product. To void this either the wine must be sterile bottled or contain enough sulfur
dioxide to inhibit the growth of bacteria. Sterile bottling includes the use of filtration.

[edit]

Filtration

Filtration in winemaking is used to accomplish two objectives, clarification and microbial stabilization. In
clarification, large particles that affect the visual appearance of the wine are removed. In microbial
stabilization, organisms that affect the stability of the wine are removed therefore reducing the
likelihood of re-fermentation or spoilage.

The process of clarification is concerned with the removal of particles; those larger than 5–10
micrometers for coarse polishing, particles larger than 1–4 micrometers for clarifying or polishing.
Microbial stabilization requires a filtration of at least 0.65 micrometers. However, filtration at this level
may lighten a wines color and body. Microbial stabilization does not imply sterility. It simply means that
a significant amount of yeast and bacteria have been removed.

[edit]

Bottling

A final dose of sulfite is added to help preserve the wine and prevent unwanted fermentation in the
bottle. The wine bottles then are traditionally sealed with a cork, although alternative wine closures such
as synthetic corks and screwcaps, which are less subject to cork taint, are becoming increasingly
popular.[4]

[edit]

Winemakers

A winemaker or vintner is a person engaged in making wine. They are generally employed by wineries or
wine companies, where their work includes:

Cooperating with viticulturists

Monitoring the maturity of grapes to ensure their quality and to determine the correct time for harvest

Crushing and pressing grapes

Monitoring the settling of juice and the fermentation of grape material

Filtering the wine to remove remaining solids

Testing the quality of wine by tasting

Placing filtered wine in casks or tanks for storage and maturation

Preparing plans for bottling wine once it has matured

Making sure that quality is maintained when the wine is bottled[5]

Today, these duties require an increasing amount of scientific knowledge, since laboratory tests are
gradually supplementing or replacing traditional methods. Hence the vast[citation needed] majority of
winemakers have, or are studying for, a Bachelor of Science degree (or similar) majoring in oenology.
Winemakers can also be referred to as oenologists as they study oenology - the science of wine.

[edit]

References

^ Jancis Robinson (2003). Jancis Robinson's WINE COURSE, A guide to the world of wine. BBC worldwide
Ltd.. pp. 39.

^ a b c d e Estelle Platini. "How to make homemade wine". Retrieved on 2008.

^ a b c The Vegan wine guide, retrieved December 25, 2007.

^ Wine Business Monthly 06/15/2006

^ Echikson, Tom. Noble Rot. NY: Norton, 2004

[edit]

See also

Glossary of wine terms

Acids in wine

Champagne production

Bottle closures

Governo

Homebrewing

Kilju

Natural wine

Polyphenol antioxidant

Precision viticulture

Sugars in wine

Vintage

Viticulture

[edit]

External links Wikibooks has more on the topic of

Winemaking

Comparison of Glass vs. Plastic Carboys

Online knowledgebase for Wine Making

Jack Keller's Home Winemaking Resources

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Food safety

Terms

Foodborne illness

HACCP

Critical control point

Critical factors

FAT TOM

pH

Water activity (Wa)

Pathogens

Clostridium botulinum

E. coli

Hepatitis A
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a systematic preventive approach to
food safety and pharmaceutical safety that addresses physical, chemical, and biological hazards
as a means of prevention rather than finished product inspection. HACCP is used in the food
industry to identify potential food safety hazards, so that key actions, known as Critical Control
Points (CCP's) can be taken to reduce or eliminate the risk of the hazards being realized. The
system is used at all stages of food production and preparation processes including packaging,
distribution, etc. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) use mandatory juice, seafood, meat and poultry HACCP programs as an
effective approach to food safety and protecting public health. Meat and poultry HACCP systems
are regulated by the USDA, while seafood and juice are regulated by the FDA. The use of
HACCP is currently voluntary in other food industries. [1]

A forerunner to HACCP was developed in the form of production process monitoring during
World War II because traditional "end of the pipe" testing wasn't an efficient way to ferret out
artillery shells that would not explode. HACCP itself was conceived in the 1960s when the US
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) asked Pillsbury to design and
manufacture the first foods for space flights. Since then, HACCP has been recognized
internationally as a logical tool for adapting traditional inspection methods to a modern, science-
based, food safety system. Based on risk-assessment, HACCP plans allow both industry and
government to allocate their resources efficiently in establishing and auditing safe food
production practices. In 1994, the organization of International HACCP Alliance was established
initially for the US meat and poultry industries to assist them with implementing HACCP and
now its membership has been spread over other professional/industrial areas.[2]

Hence, HACCP has been increasingly applied to industries other than food, such as cosmetics
and pharmaceuticals. This method, which in effect seeks to plan out unsafe practices, differs from
traditional "produce and test" quality assurance methods which are less successful and
inappropriate for highly perishable foods. In the US, HACCP compliance is regulated by 21 CFR
part 120 and 123. Similarly, FAO/WHO published a guideline for all governments to handle the
issue in small and less developed food businesses.[3]

Contents
[hide]

 1 The HACCP Seven Principles

 2 HACCP Training
 3 HACCP application (USA)
 4 HACCP implementation
 5 HACCP Software
 6 Notes
 7 See also
  8 External links

[edit] The HACCP Seven Principles

Principle 1: Conduct a hazard analysis. Plants determine the food safety hazards and identify
the preventive measures the plant can apply to control these hazards. A food safety hazard is any
biological, chemical, or physical property that may cause a food to be unsafe for human
consumption.

Principle 2: Identify critical control points. A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point, step, or
procedure in a food manufacturing process at which control can be applied and, as a result, a food
safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level.

Principle 3: Establish critical limits for each critical control point. A critical limit is the
maximum or minimum value to which a physical, biological, or chemical hazard must be
controlled at a critical control point to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable level.

Principle 4: Establish critical control point monitoring requirements. Monitoring activities

are necessary to ensure that the process is under control at each critical control point. In the
United States, the FSIS is requiring that each monitoring procedure and its frequency be listed in
the HACCP plan.

Principle 5: Establish corrective actions. These are actions to be taken when monitoring
indicates a deviation from an established critical limit. The final rule requires a plant's HACCP
plan to identify the corrective actions to be taken if a critical limit is not met. Corrective actions
are intended to ensure that no product injurious to health or otherwise adulterated as a result of
the deviation enters commerce.

Principle 6: Establish record keeping procedures. The HACCP regulation requires that all
plants maintain certain documents, including its hazard analysis and written HACCP plan, and
records documenting the monitoring of critical control points, critical limits, verification
activities, and the handling of processing deviations.

Principle 7: Establish procedures for ensuring the HACCP system is working as intended.
Validation ensures that the plants do what they were designed to do; that is, they are successful in
ensuring the production of safe product. Plants will be required to validate their own HACCP
plans. FSIS will not approve HACCP plans in advance, but will review them for conformance
with the final rule.

Verification ensures the HACCP plan is adequate, that is, working as intended. Verification
procedures may include such activities as review of HACCP plans, CCP records, critical limits
and microbial sampling and analysis. FSIS is requiring that the HACCP plan include verification
tasks to be performed by plant personnel. Verification tasks would also be performed by FSIS
inspectors. Both FSIS and industry will undertake microbial testing as one of several verification
activities. Verification also includes 'validation' - the process of finding evidence for the accuracy
of the HACCP system (e.g. scientific evidence for critical limitations).

The seven HACCP principles are included in the international system ISO 22000. This standard
is a complete food safety management system incorporating the elements of prerequisite
programmes for food safety, HACCP and quality management system which together form an
organization’s Total Quality Management.

[edit] HACCP Training

HACCP management system trainings are only offered by several commercial enthusiasts.[4][5]
However, ASQ does provide Trained HACCP Auditor (CHA) exam to individuals seeking the
professional training.[6]

[edit] HACCP application (USA)

 Fish and fishery products [7]
 Fresh-cut produces [8]
 Juice and nectary products [9]
 Food outlets [10]
 Meat and poultry products [11]
 School food and services [12]

[edit] HACCP implementation

It involves monitoring, verifying and validating of the daily work that is compliant with
regulatory requirements in all stages all the time. The differences among those three types of
work are given by Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food [13]

[edit] HACCP Software

Software for HACCP (or ISO 22000) has mainly focused on a document management approach.
The available software usually involve a programme which records the determination of the
seven principles (or the practical 13 steps) in planning a HACCP system for an organization and
associated documentations. Whilst this is useful in assisting in the planning – software for
HACCP (or ISO 22000) needs to address the actual implementation of the HACCP plan and the
subsequent day-to-day practical operations and management of the plan such as Critical Control
Point monitoring, Corrective Action, traceability etc. Such requirement puts the software
specification much closer to those of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and process control
software. Aspects such as product specifications, real time monitoring of production parameters,
automated alerts of monitoring jobs, corrective action required, etc are seldom integrated in the
software commonly seen in the market. Data collected should also be stored in a database for
easy manipulation.
Vision For Food: an integrated modular software covering all food safety aspects in any
production facilities to achieve HACCP, ISO 22000, TQM and British Retail Consortium's
Global Standard for Food Safety. Vision for Food provides interactive assistance in planning,
implementation and on-going daily operations and management of food safety. It runs on a SQL
database and thus data collected form a knowledge database strengthening any TQM systems -
easing analysis of data for process control, root cause analysis, corrective action, continual
improvement, etc. Vision For Food modules include the following core functionalities:

♦ Total Quality Management

♦ Product Recipe Definition Management

♦ New Product Development

♦ Stage Gate Process Design

♦ New Product Costing

♦ Raw Material Specifications

♦ Finished Goods Specifications

♦ HACCP/ISO 22000 Design & Compliance

♦ HACCP Prerequisites

♦ Paperless Monitoring

♦ HACCP Monitoring

♦ Quality Assurance Monitoring

♦ Process Control Monitoring

♦ Production Systems Monitoring

♦ Batch Traceability

♦ Assured Quality Levels

♦ Supplier Performance

♦ Nutritional Breakdown

♦ Process Automation
MyHaccp is a work tool that manages the six prerequisite programs and the various control points
of the HACCP system. It allows the HACCP team to plan, organize, execute, verify, trace and
visualize all aspects of the HACCP system in the same software environment. [14]

MyHaccpPlan is a comprehensive software for creating HACCP plans (Forms 1 to 10) by using
reliable and tested generic models. It has been thought and developed specifically for helping
HACCP Coordinator in the development and/or the maintenance of HACCP plans. [15]

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Food Safety Research Information Office."A Focus on Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points".
Created June 2003, Updated March 2008.
2. ^ International HACCP Alliance. "International HACCP Alliance" (PDF).
http://haccpalliance.org/alliance/HACCPall.pdf. Retrieved on 12 October.
3. ^ FAO/WHO. "FAO/WHO guidance to governments on the application of HACCP in small and/or
less-developed food businesses" (PDF). ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0799e/a0799e00.pdf.
Retrieved on 14 October.
4. ^ TQ Vision. "Welcome to TQ Vision". http://tqvision.com/. Retrieved on 9 October.
5. ^ International Certifications Limited. "International Certifications". http://www.intlcert.com/.
Retrieved on 9 October.
6. ^ American Society for Quality. "HACCP Auditor Certification - CHA".
http://www.asq.org/certification/haccp-auditor/index.html. Retrieved on 9 October.
7. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Fish and fisheries products hazards and controls guidance,
third edition". http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/haccp4.html. Retrieved on 14 October.
8. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "(draft) Guide to minimize microbial food safety hazards of fresh-
cut fruits and vegetables" (PDF).
http://www2a.cdc.gov/phlp/docs/US%20FDA_CFSAN_Food%20Safet.pdf. Retrieved on 14 October.
9. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Guidance for Industry: Juice HACCP Hazards and Controls
Guidance, First Edition". http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/juicgu10.html. Retrieved on 14 October.
10. ^ Food and Drug Administration. "Managing Food Safety: A HACCP Principles Guide for Operators
of Food Establishments at the Retail Level (Draft)". http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/hret-toc.html.
Retrieved on 14 October.
11. ^ Food Safety and Inspection Service. "FSIS Microbiological Hazard Identification Guide For Meat
And Poultry Components Of Products Produced By Very Small Plants".
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Frame/FrameRedirect.asp?main=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/oa/haccp/hidguide
.htm. Retrieved on 14 October.
12. ^ United States Department of Agriculture. "Guidance for school food authorities: developing a school
food safety program based on the process approach to HACCP principles" (PDF).
http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/lunch/Downloadable/HACCPGuidance.pdf. Retrieved on 14 October.
13. ^ Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food. "Monitoring, Verification and Validation".
http://www.agriculture.gov.sk.ca/Default.aspx?DN=3b6394ed-c078-42db-b1ab-879a52a93873.
Retrieved on 20 March.
14. ^ MyHaccp.ca. "Software environment for managing the HACCP System". http://www.myhaccp.ca.
Retrieved on 20 August.
15. ^ MyHaccpPlan.com. "Software for creating and managing HACCP plans".
http://www.myhaccpplan.com. Retrieved on 20 August.

[edit] See also

 Failure mode and effects analysis  Hazard analysis
  Failure Mode, Effects, and Criticality  Hazop
Analysis  Hygiene
 Fault tree analysis  Sanitation
 Food safety  Sanitation Standard Operating
 Design Review Based on Failure Mode Procedures
 Fast food restaurant  Codex Alimentarius

[edit] External links

 International HACCP Alliance
 Small & Very Small Plant Outreach - FSIS guidances for meat and poultry products
 HACCP Discussion Forum
 HACCP Postnuke Module
 Rutgers University HACCP Courses and HACCP Training
 Online Food Safety Management Course incorporating HACCP
 Software HACCP (portuguese)
 HACCP Turkish Certification Agency
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency Contains free templates and guides for HACCP
programs to meet Canadian Food and Drug Regulations for the public but targeting
federally registered establishments.
 Cotecna - Certification & Trainning

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_Analysis_and_Critical_Control_Points"

Categories: Food safety | Food and Drug Administration | Process management

EVOLUTION IN WINE-MAKING TECHNIQUES

The evolution in wine-making techniques went hand in hand with that of vine growing. It displayed the same prudence
that has always been characteristic of Champagne and which had been noted by Urbain and Jouron a century beforehand
when they wrote: We are totally in agreement with practical and useful improvements, but Champagne's products have
such a superior reputation that we consider the system which has brought glory, profit and fame to our country, as being
like a sacred ark that should not be touched without a great deal of circumspection (629). Nonetheless, progress and
research, such as the constant improvement of procedures and equipment were to enable Marc Brugnon, president of the
vine-growers, to declare at the general meeting of the A.V.C. in 1979, that we may now consider that we are
approaching totally reliable techniques and a precise definition of the processes involved.

Barrels were gradually replaced by vats. In the early eighties several houses were still making and storing their wines
in barrels, but by then this had become the exception. The large merchants' operations that had 10,000 to 20,000 barrels
in their cellars between the two wars, did not have a single one by 1960. The two barrel making factories in Châlons and
Ay closed their doors in 1950. There were still a hundred coopers in Florent-en-Argonne in 1939, but by 1980 there was
only one.
 Clarification techniques improved with centrifugation and filtering becoming standard, but it was mainly in the field of
temperature regulation that decisive results were achieved. Heating and cooling in cellars provided greater control over
fermentation and ensured the production of wines with excellent stability. Automation progressed rapidly. The great
workrooms were replaced by production lines for bottling, disgorgement, labelling. Machines that could fill 1,000 bottles
per hour in 1914 have since increased to 5,000 to 6,000. Automatic disgorgement obliged crown tops to be adopted in
1964, after fifteen years of trials; a good example of the precautions that are taken before the adoption of a new
procedure.

The issue of remuage à la machine (mechanical turning of the bottles), which had been studied for more than a
century, was finally resolved at the end of the seventies, when various systems, involving racks, pallets, and automatic or
semi-automatic "turning containers", having been tested over the course of the sixties, began to give satisfactory results.
In 1982 it was estimated that only one bottle in twenty was turned automatically, but it is likely that the pleasant sound of
the bottles being expertly turned by hand in wooden racks will become increasingly rare. There will no doubt be a certain
nostalgia amongst those who have practised remuage by hand, and amongst those who have witnessed it, but there is no
denying that its mechanization represents progress, as is the case every time a machine reduces the efforts required by
men and women.

We have already seen that the search for a way to mechanize remuage began almost as soon as remuage itself was
invented. Numerous patents have been filed47 with this purpose, and Paccotet and Guittonneau wrote in 1918: Remuage
is a costly, slow, delicate operation. And for a long time its mechanization has been sought in Champagne (460). They
cite "turbine" systems and others using the agglomerating effect of electric currents which were tried and must have been
abandoned due to their failure to provide satisfactory results. The procedures used today are, however, highly effective.
They reduce labour, and, although the machines are expensive to buy, production costs are lower because they can run
outside of working hours; they also enable considerable savings to be made in terms of space48. Most important of all the
process complied perfectly with "local and habitual usage" (c.f "Between the Wars"), thereby enabling the C.I.V.C.
(Vine Growers and Champagne Houses) to make an unqualified declaration on July 1981, that the principles of
production were not challenged. It specified for both manual and mechanical remuage, the precision and end result are
identical; analyses and tastings have proved that there is no difference between the resulting wines provided, of course,
that automatic remuage is carried out in the right conditions and that, notably the procedure is regularly monitored.

The Journal du Vin of January 1979 very justly wrote: While the people of Champagne have always been cautious
regarding new procedures that could affect the quality of the wine, they have also been quick to introduce any
techniques that facilitate packing and handling operations. From as early as 1945, the cellars were equipped with lifts,
fork-lift trucks and pallets; wood became scarce after the war and so wooden crates were replaced with cardboard boxes
that were not only cheap and light but provided an opportunity to advertise. Cardboard was also used increasingly inside
boxes and crates, competing with plastic from the sixties onwards.

All of this progress simplified the tasks of the cellar workers, eliminating some of the less pleasant jobs, while at the
same time enabling economies to be made in terms of labour. In 1980 the ratio was just one cellar worker per 40,000 to
50,000 bottles, whereas in 1950 it was still as high as one per 6,000 bottles. These figures demonstrate very clearly the
extent to which production techniques have evolved.

The range of bottle sizes increased. The double magnum, which had appeared in the nineteenth century, became
known as a Jeroboam. Towards the end of the forties, and particularly in the fifties, these were joined by triple magnums
or Rehoboams and quadruple magnums or Methuselahs. There were also occasional Salmanazars, Balthazars and even
Nebuchadnezzars 49, which contained the equivalent of six, eight and ten magnums respectively; these very large bottles
were soon abandoned, but production of Salmanazars started again in 1973.

The reason why biblical names were chosen for these larger sizes is unknown. The term Jeroboam appears to have
been used in Bordeaux from around 1725. Adopted in Champagne, the other bottles were probably named simply by
analogy with the first in the series. Jeroboam was the founder and first king of the kingdom of Israel at the beginning of
the first millennium before Christ. It is curious to note that Eustache Deschamps lists Jeroboam, Roboan (Roboam or
Rehoboam) and Balthazar in his Balade MCCXLIX. As for the explanation of why Jeroboam was chosen by the wine-
makers of Bordeaux, perhaps the answer lies in the Bible, in which Jeroboam is described as a man of great value; a
jeroboam of Château Latour is undoubtedly a bottle of great value!

During the sixties a number of bottles appeared that differed from the classic champagne style, which were designed
for cuvées spéciales (special blends), following the example of Dom Pérignon, which was launched in an eighteenth
century style bottle by Moët & Chandon50 in the United States in 1937 with the vintages of 1921, 1928 and 1929, in
Belgium in 1947, and then in France in 1949 with the vintages of 1934 and 1937. Gradually, most of the champagne
houses created a cuvée de prestige, with or without a special bottle, and some of the vine-growers did the same. The
range of champagnes available thus became wider.

The dosage of wines moved very strongly in the direction of less sugar. Doux (sweet) disappeared and the average
proportion of brut and extra-dry champagnes, which was still only 50% in 1945, gradually rose to 90%. Champagnes
even appeared that had not been dosed at all. However, some countries remained more attached than others to heavily
dosed champagnes. This was the case in Belgium, where the percentage of imports of sec and demi-sec was still at 85%
in 1945 and 20% in the seventies. In 1980 federal Germany, the Netherlands and Venezuela respectively imported 29%,
44% and 46% of sec and demi-sec.

As for vintages, blancs de blancs (made with white grapes), crémants and pink champagnes, they continued to find
favour amongst champagne lovers, but non-vintage has remained the backbone of production. There have been some
exceptional vintages, notably 1947, 1955, 1964, and 1973, with some people also including 1961 and 1975. Here is a list,
up to 1983, of the all the years in which a vintage was generally declared since the start of Second World War: 1941,
1943, 1945, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1979.
Some houses also produced a vintage in 1974 and 1978. In 1983, the wines of 1980, 1981 and 1982 seemed likely to be
declared vintages, but since 1980 and 1981 were both years in which the production was comparatively small, there is
little chance that this will occur on a large scale.

THE VINE-GROWERS

From 1950 onwards the vine-growers played a major role in champagne's progress, both as sellers of grapes and as
récoltants-manipulants. Very fortunately, the vineyards were able to invest in equipment during a period when, as we
have seen, champagne was selling well. As s result the vine growers could, for the first time in history, afford to invest
and improve their standard of living.

The work force remained stable, and even increased slightly. Numbering 13,300 in 1958, there were 14,200 vine
growers in 1982, however, for 54% of them vine-growing was a secondary activity. The average area of vines for each
grower increased from 0.75 hectares (a little less than two acres) in 1958 to one hectare (2.47 acres) in 1982, whereas, in
the same year, for vine -growers relying solely on vines for their income, it rose to two and half hectares (just over six
acres). The number of vineyards with an area equal to or greater than two hectares increased from 535 in 1950 to 3,607
in 1982, of which 582 had an area greater than five hectares, against ninety in 1950. This reflected the social changes
that took place over the course of a generation, and signalled the end of the disenchantment with vines that had been
developing amongst the young vine-growers of Champagne.

At the same time, the vineyards' independence from the merchants became considerably more marked. Areas of vines
cultivated increased between 1958 and 1982 by 33% for the merchants but by 125% for the vine-growers, encouraged by
the social policy that was followed concerning the granting of authorizations for planting and the intervention of the
Société d'Aménagement Foncier et d'Etablissement Rural (S.A.F.E.R.). Over the same period, sales of champagne for the
merchants increased fourfold, while those for the vine-growers increased eightfold. Manipulation (growing grapes and
producing champagne) played a decisive role in this. The number of récoltants-manipulants, having stood at 1,300 just
before the Second World War, had already increased to 3,000 in 1968 and to nearly 5,000 twenty years later. During the
forties their sales totalled around three million bottles. These rose to seven and a half million in 1958, ten million in
1960, twenty-six million in 1970 and nearly sixty-one million in 1980! By 1982 the vine-growers were responsible for a
third of all champagne production and, as we have already noted, supplied half of the French market, against only 13%
in 1960.

In these figures are included the sales of the cooperatives which, with the support of the government and Champagne's
interprofessional organizations, had risen considerably. From 1947, the state offered to finance 20% of new construction
and the C.I.V.C. (Vignerons et Maisons de Champagne) also contributed towards set-up costs. During the sixties aid
increased, to the extent that a project could be financed up to 80% by grants. A new cooperative would thus be given
grants for a substantial part of its installation costs, and be eligible for a loan from the Crédit Agricole for the rest. By
1950 there were already fifty-two cooperatives; rising to 120 in 1965 and 145 by 1980. Amongst these were powerful
regional cooperatives, and unions of cooperatives, which assembled the production of local cooperatives.

A very large union of cooperatives, the Centre Vinicole de la Champagne, was created in Chouilly, near Epernay, in
1971. Its members include five regional cooperatives, sixty-three local cooperatives and twenty individuals, representing
4,000 vine growers, cultivating 1,200 hectares spread over 150 crus. It has storage capacity for 80,000 hectolitres and, in
a normal year, produces six million bottles of champagne (three different blends offer a range of quality), four million of
which are then returned to members. It is equipped with the latest technology, including a system for the analysis of
musts as they arrive in tankers that allows forty analyses per hour. In May 1983, in order to further develop its sales, it
became associated with the Berger group, outside Champagne.

Since 1950 the vine-growers purchasing power has been maintained in both good and bad years, despite inflation, due
to the almost continual increase in the price of grapes (30%, allowing for inflation, between 1962 and 1979) combined
with improved yields, without forgetting, for the récoltants-manipulants, the added value of the finished product.

THE MERCHANTS

The merchants continued to display the dynamism that had been responsible for the meteoric rise of champagne in the
nineteenth century and which enabled, in combination with that of the vine-growers, the prodigious growth that took
place between 1950 and 1980. As a result of active and enterprising leadership the champagne houses adopted a semi-
industrial strategy. Open-cut excavation work was carried out to create multi-level cellars, spectacular vat rooms were
installed, and disgorgement and labelling became totally automated. Thus while the quality and character of each brand
was preserved, productivity was improved, thereby enabling production costs to be kept down and sale prices to be
maintained at a level that would not hinder the continuous growth of the market.

The merchants planted vines in accordance with decreed limits, but this did not enable them to increase the size of their
vineyards as much as they needed to in order to respond to demand. It thus became increasingly difficult during this
period of expansion to obtain enough grapes, particularly as the merchants were now in competition with the récoltants-
manipulants. These purchases were costly, not only due to premium prices during shortages, but also as a result of the
progressive narrowing of the scale of crus. Furthermore, some merchants, in order to improve their stocks, were obliged
to take the expensive risk of buying vin sur lattes (wine that had already been dosed and was in bottles awaiting
disgorgement).

While growth in the merchants' trade was spectacular, it was also unevenly distributed. Several new houses were
created during the early twentieth century outside of the main areas and have achieved fame, such as René Brun, Collery
and Gosset in Ay, Oudinot in Avize, Brice-Martin-Tritant in Bouzy, Gardet in Chigny, Legras in Chouilly, Gobillard in
Pierry, amongst others. They generally have their origins in a vine-growing tradition, sometimes of very long date, such
as the Gosset family, whose ascendants cultivated vines in Ay in the sixteenth century. However, some houses, both old
and new, in general of modest size, saw their businesses grow very little, sometimes stagnating or even shrinking.
Several ceased trading, especially between 1956 and 1964, a period during which forty-five businesses either closed their
doors or were absorbed. With few exceptions these were small houses, whose disappearance was compensated for in the
seventies by the creation of new ones, to such an extent that between 1945 and 1980 the number of négociants
exploitants only decreased by 20%.

In contrast, the larger houses grew rapidly, six of them achieving, during the ten years between 1969 and 1979, growth
of more than 200%, one of these alone selling eighteen million bottles in 1978. The gap widened between the ten largest
houses and the rest of the Négoce. This leading group, representing less than 10% of all the houses, and the members of
which remained more or less constant, accounted for an increasing percentage of the merchants' sales, rising from 46%
in 1955, to 55% in 1959 and then, after flattening off between 1959 and 1967, continuing up to 71% in 1979 and 76% in
1982. These were the houses which, on the basis of an already substantial trade, were able to best reconcile fame,
productivity, financing, and price and market strategy.

On the individual scale, a family structure sometimes had to be modified, or even abandoned, to make way for larger
companies, some of which have raised capital by offering shares to the general public. However, many houses have
retained a family style management and, as in the nineteenth century, there have been some remarkable women at the
head of several of these at certain periods during the twentieth century.

This was certainly true in the case of Madame Olry-Roederer who, having taken over from her husband, Léon Olry-
Roederer, in 1932 , ran the business for many years with great dynamism and authority, and caused the brand to become
very solidly established in Sweden. Then there were the instances of Madame Claude Rouzaud (daughter of Madame
Olry-Roederer), of Madame Boizel, already mentioned in the section on the contribution made by champagne merchants
of foreign origin, of Madame Chayoux, at Ayala and De Montebello, of the Baroness of Alès, at Piper-Heidsieck, of
Madame Abel Lepitre, at Abel Lepitre, of Madame d'Anglemont de Tassigny, at Jacquesson, and of Madame Mérand at
De Castellane. Madame Bollinger personally ran the house that bears her name, with great authority and competence,
from 1941 to 1977, deciding blends herself, and extending the excellent reputation of her brand even further.

The thirty-five years following the Second World War saw fairly numerous and sometimes spectacular mergers, either
involving the taking over of a brand and the retention of its character, or simple absorption, a phenomenon that also took
place sporadically between the wars.

Over the same period some of the larger houses, finding themselves unable to expand their activities due to limitations
on the availability of grapes, started to diversify into the production of sparkling wines outside Champagne, and even in
California, and also into perfumes, haute couture, hotels, etc. As H. Pestel, the director of the I.N.A.O. (Institut National
des Appellations d'Origine) declared on 26 November 1966 at a talk given at the general meeting of the A.V.C.: The
producers of A.O.C. wines whose need or desire for further expansion is unlimited must satisfy this passion not with
never-ending growth in the sales and production of their appellation, but rather by complementing them with other
products.

There have also been cases, from just before the Second World War onwards, of small old houses expanding rapidly
into large, sometimes even very large, businesses as a result of the energy of new management, and restructuring
programs. The house of Fourneaux which dates back to 1734, was taken over by Taittinger, in Rheims, in 1932, and
very quickly became well-known; with its turnover in constant progression it was eventually floated on the stock
exchange. Veuve Laurent-Perrier, in Tours-sur-Marne, of old but modest origins, having changed hands in 1938,
become a large house of great quality, in continual expansion. Besserat de Bellefon, starting out as the house of Besserat,
founded in Ay in the middle of the nineteenth century, joined the Compagnie Générale Dubonnet-Cinzano group in
1959, combined with the house of Salon, regrouped near the southern exit of Rheims, and then in 1976 joined the
Pernod-Ricard group, finally absorbing another house of Besserat, Edouard Besserat, in 1981. There is one last
category, consisting of houses dating from between the wars and immediately after the Second World War that have
gained an important place within the industry. In this category may be listed: Trouillard et Cie, which was founded in
1919, and took over the excellent and old house, de Venoge; Abel Lepitre, which was founded in 1924 and then
expanded during the fifties, helped by a merger with George Goulet and De Saint-Marceaux, both solid brands with
long-standng reputations; Marne et Champagne, which was founded in 1933, and became a very large organization,
managing a hundred brands, some of which also originated from traditional houses such as Giesler, Gauthier, and
Geismann; A. Charbaut et Fils, which was founded in 1948, and very quickly gained an enviable position both in France
and abroad, including the difficult American market. Despite these notable changes, the overall impression of the
champagne houses is one of striking continuity, a continuity made even more remarkable considering that they have
doubled their sales in fourteen years.

A CONCLUSION TO THE HISTORY OF CHAMPAGNE

When one considers all the obstacles that have been overcome during the last century and a half one can only pay
homage to all the professionals, merchants and vine-growers. Their concerted efforts created, and then maintained and
developed, the incredible success of champagne and have had the result that Champagne has been the wine producing
region that has grown the most, in terms of area, production and sales, between 1950 and 1980 in France. The crises of
the seventies did, however, show that a certain prudence was necessary amongst the businesses making up Champagne's
wine-producing economy. Here is what Claude d'Hautefeuille, president of the Syndicat de Grandes Marques de
Champagne, had to say on the matter at the meeting of the Syndicat Général des Vignerons de la Champagne Délimitée
in the spring of 1974: Our objective should not be triumphant, uncontrolled progress, but rather the measure of a market
that we must plan according to realities.

The task of those responsible has never been easy in this domain: during periods of growth, success can become
intoxicating and the reversal of trends then deals a harsh blow. Following the harvests of 1978 and 1980, which, as has
already been noted, were disappointing in terms of quantity, here are the words of Marc Brugnon, president of the vine-
growers, at the A.V.C.'s banquet in 1981: Champagne is very much a product of mother nature. We have been reminded
of this twice in three years. In consequence, our activities will always be subject to her whims, her variations, and her
accidents; the organisation of our activities and our economy, must, of course, take this into account. Jean-Michel
Ducellier, president of the merchants, declared at the same banquet: This crisis is serious, without doubt the most serious
that we have ever known, but we will survive and success will soon return, for one must never despair in Champagne.

In reality, as Jean Piérard pointed out in the C.I.V.C. (Vignerons et Maisons de Champagne)'s Bulletin d'Information
for the fourth quarter of 1979, under its brilliant exterior, wine-producing Champagne is usually obliged to live
dangerously, half way between fragility and uncertainty. While it is true that the harvests of 1982 and 1983 have been
reassuring, the eighties have brought, amongst other things, shortages in stocks, recession of sales and exceptional taxes
that have aggravated the effects of a tax system that is not suited to wine production. However, as we have just seen, it
will take more than that to damage the morale of the vine-growers and merchants of Champagne. The history of
champagne (in which there have already been more chapters since the publication of this book!), displays a dynamism,
and a facility to adapt that, combined with excellent interprofessional organisation, have created a success that is very
far from ending.

Keyw ord

http://www.thewinedoctor.com/advisory/buystorebottleshapes.shtml

Box wine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A 4 litre cask of Australian white wine

A box wine (or boxed wine, cask wine[1], bladder pack[2], goon) is a wine packaged as a "bag-
in-a-box". Such packages contain a plastic bladder protected by a box, usually made of
corrugated cardboard.

Contents
[hide]

 1 History and culture

 2 Pros and cons
 3 See also
 4 References

[edit] History and culture

The wine cask was invented by Tom Angove of Angove's, a winemaker from Renmark, South
Australia, and patented by the company on April 20, 1965.[3]

Cheap cask wine is also known as "goon" in Australia and New Zealand. It is also ironically
called "Château cardboard", a pun on the fact that many wine-makers attempt to cultivate a
French air by naming their wine "Château-" e.g. Chateau Yaldara.

[edit] Pros and cons

While cask wine may have a poor reputation, the packaging method does have its benefits. Bag in
a box packaging is not necessarily inferior, but is simply preferred by producers of more
economical wines because it is inexpensive. Cask wine is typically cheaper than bottled varieties,
often around AU$10 (GBP£4, US$8) for 4 L in Australia.

The bag is not hermetically sealed and has an unopened shelf life shorter than bottled wine. Most
casks will have a best-before date stamped. [4] As a result, it is not intended for cellaring and
should be consumed within the prescribed period. Deterioration may be quite noticeable by 12
months after filling.[2]

The "Goon" cask is reusable in that once the wine has been consumed the bladder can be inflated
and used as an affordable substitute for a pillow. This is especially convenient when camping.

Manufacturers of 'higher class' bottled wines[who?] have complained about the cheapness of 'cask'
wines, arguing that they provide a cheap means for alcoholics to become inebriated. In particular,
the lower level of alcohol excise levied on cask wine in Australia (compared to beer and bottled
wine) has been criticised as encouraging binge drinking.[5]

Box wine is considered to have benefits from an environment protection point of view.[6] The bag
allows a contents of 3-10l, so that far less packaging mass is required. The material it is made
from is very light, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions caused by transport (as opposed to
glass containers, which weigh much more).

[edit] See also

 Bag-In-Box
 Franzia
 Hardy
 Jug wine

[edit] References
1. ^ "Wine cask". Powerhouse Museum.
http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/australia_innovates/?behaviour=view_article&Section_id
=1000&article_id=10021. Retrieved on 2007-03-05.
2. ^ a b winepros.com.au. Oxford Companion to Wine. "boxes, wine".
http://www.winepros.com.au/jsp/cda/reference/oxford_entry.jsp?entry_id=430.
3. ^ "INVENTION Wine Cask". Dinkum Aussies. 1999.
http://www.dinkumaussies.com/INVENTION/Wine%20Cask.htm. Retrieved on 2008-09-09. "...a
16 years Letters Patent no. 280826 being issued to the company on 20th April, 1965, stating one
Thomas William Carlyon Angove as the actual inventor."
4. ^ "Boxed Wine". Black Box Wines. http://www.blackboxwines.com/boxed-wine-FAQ.shtm.
Retrieved on 2007-05-16.
5. ^ "Drinking problem is lack of will on overall measures". Sydney Morning Herald. 2007-06-30.
http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/drinking-problem-is-lack-of-will-on-overall-
measures/2007/06/29/1182624168792.html?page=2. Retrieved on 2007-08-04.
6. ^ "Drink Outside the Box". The New York Times. 2008-08-17.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/18/opinion/18colman.html. Retrieved on 2008-08-19.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_wine"

Categories: Australian inventions | Containers | Wine terms | Wine packaging and storage

Hidden categories: Articles with specifically-marked weasel-worded phrases

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Oak (wine)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Oak Wine Barrels

The use of oak in wine plays a significant role in winemaking and can have a profound effect on
the resulting wine, affecting the color, flavor, tannin profile and texture of the wine. Oak can
come into contact with wine in the form of a barrel during the fermentation or aging periods. It
can be introduced to the wine in the form of free-floating oak chips or as wood staves (or sticks)
added to wine in a fermentation vessel like stainless steel. Oak introduced in the form of a wine
barrel can impart other qualities to the wine through the process of evaporation and low level
exposure to oxygen. [1]

Contents
[hide]

 1 History
 2 Effects on wine
 3 Oak types and sources
o 3.1 Differences in French and American oak
 4 Wine barrel
o 4.1 Barrel construction
 5 Barrel alternatives
 6 Other wood types
 7 References
 8 See also

[edit] History
In early wine history the amphora was the vessel of choice for the storage and transportation of
wine. Due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of barrels in
history. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that ancient Mesopotamians used barrels made of
palm wood to transport wine along the Euphrates. Palm is a difficult material to bend and fashion
into barrels, however, and wine merchants in different regions experimented with different wood
styles to find a better wood source.[2] The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at
least two millennia, first coming into widespread use during the Roman empire. In time,
winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience that wine kept in oak barrels took
on properties that improved the wine by making it softer and in some cases better-tasting.[3]
Robert Mondavi is credited with expanding the knowledge of winemakers in the United States
about the different types of oak and barrel styles through his experimentation in the 1960s &
1970s.[4]

[edit] Effects on wine

The effect of oak aging on red wine color: the above samples are both Penedès region Cabernet
Sauvingnon varietals; on the left, a two-year-old cosecha; on the right a six-year-old crianza. As
the wine matures, its color shifts from deep purple or crimson to a lighter brick-red and takes on a
more graduated appearance in the glass.

The porous nature of an oak barrel allows some levels of evaporation and oxygenation to occur in
wine but typically not at levels that would cause oxidation or spoilage of the wine. In a year, the
typical 59-gallon barrel can lose anywhere from 5 1/2 to 6 1/2 gallons of wine through the course
of evaporation. This evaporation (of mostly alcohol and water) allows the wine to concentrate its
flavor and aroma compounds. Small amounts of oxygen are allowed to pass through the barrel
and acts as a softening agent upon the tannins of the wine.[3]

The chemical properties of oak itself can have a profound effect on the wine. Phenols within the
wood interact with the wine to produce vanilla type flavors and can give the impression of tea
notes or sweetness. The degree of "toast" on the barrel can also impart different properties
affecting the tannin levels of the wine as well as the aggressive wood flavors.[5] The hydrolyzable
tannins present in wood, known as ellagitannins, are derived from lignin structures in the wood.
They help protect the wine from oxidation and reduction.[6]
Oak barrel aging sherry. It has a transparent front for people to see the process inside

Wines can be barrel fermented in oak or they can be placed in oak after fermentation for a period
of aging or maturation. Wine that is matured in oak receives more of the oak flavors and
properties than wine that is fermented in oak. This is because yeast cells interact with and "latch
on" to the oak components. When the dead yeast cells are removed from the wine as lees some of
these oak properties go with them.[7] A characteristic of white wines that are fermented in oak
include a pale color with an extra silky texture. White wines that are fermented in steel and then
matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to the heavy phenolic compounds that are still
present.[8] Flavor notes that are common descriptions of wines exposed to oak include caramel,
cream, smoke, spice and vanilla. Chardonnay is a variety that has very distinct flavor profiles
when fermented in oak that include coconut, cinnamon and cloves notes. The "toastiness" of the
barrel can bring out varying degrees of mocha and toffee notes in red wine.[9]

The length of time that a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the varietal and style of wine
that the winemaker wishes to make. The majority of oak flavoring is imparted in the first few
months that the wine is in contact with oak but a longer term exposure can affect the wine
through the light aeration that the barrel allows which helps to precipitate the phenolic
compounds and quickens the aging process of the wine.[8] New World Pinot noir may spend less
than a year in oak. Premium Cabernet Sauvignon may spend two years. The very tannic Nebbiolo
grape may spend four or more years in oak. High end Rioja producers will sometimes age their
wines up to ten years in American oak to get a desired earthy, vanilla character.[7]

[edit] Oak types and sources

The Quercus petraea tree responsible for French oak.

The species of oak typically used for American oak production is the Quercus alba which is a
white oak species that is characterized by its relatively fast growth, wider grains and lower wood
tannins. It is found in most of the Eastern United States as well as Missouri, Minnesota and
Wisconsin where many wine barrels are from. In Oregon the Quercus garryana white oak has
started to gain usage due to its closer similarities to European oak. In France, the main
winemaking oak species is the Quercus petraea which is known for tighter grain, high tannins
and lower aromatics than its American oak counterpart. French oak typically comes from one or
more primary forests: Allier, Limousin, Nevers, Troncais and Vosges. The wood from each of
these forests has slightly different characteristics. Many winemakers utilize barrels made from
different cooperages, regions and degrees of toasting in blending their wines to enhance the
complexity of the resulting wine.[10]

The tighter grain of French oak allows for a more gradual integration of flavors in the wine.

Italian winemakers have had a long history of using Slovenian oak from the Quercus robur which
is known for its tight grain, low aromatics and medium level tannins. Prior to the Russian
Revolution, Quercus petraea oak from the Baltic states was the most highly sought after wood
for French winemaking.[11] Today Russian oak from the Adygey region along the Black Sea is
being explored by French winemakers as a cheaper alternative to French oak.[12] Canadian
wineries have been experimenting with the use of Canadian oak, which proponents describe as a
middle ground between American and French oak even though it is the same species as American
oak.[13]

Oak trees are typically between 80-120 years old prior to harvesting with the ideal conditions
being a cool climate in a dense forest region that gives the trees opportunity to mature slowly and
develop a tighter grain. Typically one tree can provide enough wood for two 59 gallon barrels.
The trees are typically harvested in the winter months when there is less sap in the trunk.[11]

[edit] Differences in French and American oak

American oak tends to be more intensely flavoured than French oak with more sweet and vanilla
overtones due to the American oak having two to four times as many lactones.[9] Winemakers
that prefer American oak typically use them for bold, powerful reds or warm climate
Chardonnays. Besides being derived from different species, a major difference between
American and French comes from the preparation of the oak. The tighter grain and less watertight
nature of French oak encourages coopers to split the wood along the grain rather than saw.
French oak is then traditionally aged or "seasoned" for at least two years whereas American
coopers will often use a kiln-dry method to season the wood.[11] Long periods of outdoor season
has a mellowing effect on the oak that kiln-dry methods have difficulties replicating.[9] The
sawing, rather than splitting, of American oak also enhances the differences between the two
styles due to the rupture of the xylem cells in the wood which releases many of the vanillin
aromatics and lactones responsible for characteristics like the coconut notes.[14]

[edit] Wine barrel

See also: Aging barrel

The "red band" on some wine barrels is the residue of spilt red wine. For aesthetics some
wineries will paint this center portion of the barrel red for a cleaner look.

Wine barrels, especially those made of oak, have long been used as containers in which wine is
aged. Aging in oak typically imparts desirable vanilla, butter and spice flavors to wine. The size
of the barrel plays a large role in determining the effects use of oak on the wine by dictating the
ratio of surface area to volume of wine with smaller containers having a larger impact. The most
common barrels are the Bordeaux barriques style which hold 59 gallons (225 liters) followed by
the Burgundy style barrel which hold 60 gallons (228 liters). Some New World wine makers use
the large hogshead 79 gallon (300 liter) size.[8]

New barrels impart more flavors than do previously used barrels. Over time many of the oak
properties get "leached" out of the barrel with layers of natural deposits left from the wine
building up on the wood to where after 3 to 5 vintages there may be little or no oak flavors
imparted on the wine.[5] The cost of barrels varies due to the supply and demand market economy
and can change with different features that a cooperage may offer. As of late 2007 the price for a
standard American oak barrel was $270 USD, French oak $600 USD, and Eastern European $480
USD.[15] Due to the expense of barrels, several techniques have been devised in an attempt to
save money. One is to shave the inside of used barrels and insert new thin inner staves that have
been toasted.[16]

[edit] Barrel construction

Barrel midway through construction.

Barrels are constructed in cooperages. The traditional method of European coopers have been to
hand split the oak into staves (or strips) along the grain. After the oak is split it is allowed to
"season" or dry outdoors while exposed to the elements. This process can take anywhere from 10
to 36 months during which time the harshest tannins from the wood are leached out. These
tannins are visible as dark gray and black residue left on the ground once the staves are removed.
The longer the wood is allowed to season the softer the potential wine stored in the barrels may
be but this can add substantially to the cost of the barrel. In some American cooperage the wood
is dried in a kiln instead of outdoor seasoning. While this method is much faster, it doesn't soften
the tannins quite as much as outdoor seasoning.[17]

The staves are then heated, traditionally over an open fire, and when pliable are bent into the
shape of the desired barrel and held together with iron rings. Instead of fire, a cooper may use
steam to heat up the staves but this tends to impart less "toastiness" and complexity to the
resulting wine. Following the traditional, hand worked style a cooper is typically able to construct
one barrel in a day's time. Winemakers can order barrels with the wood on the inside of the barrel
having been lightly charred or “toasted” with fire, medium toasted, or heavily toasted.[17]
Typically the "lighter" the toasting the more oak flavor and tannins that are imparted. Heavy toast
or "charred" which is typical treatment of barrels in Burgundy wine have an added dimension
from the char that medium or light toasted barrels do not impart.[8] Heavy toasting dramatically
reduces the coconut note lactones, even in American oak, but create a high carbon content that
may reduce the coloring of some wines. During the process of toasting, the furanic aldehydes in
the wood reach a higher level of concentration. This produces the "roasted" aroma in the wine.
The toasting also enhances the presences of vanillin and the phenol eugenol which creates
smokey and spicy notes that in some wines are similar to the aromatics of oil of cloves.[14]

[edit] Barrel alternatives

Oak chips in fermenting Chardonnay.

Although oak barrels have long been used by winemakers, many wineries now use oak wood
chips for aging wine more quickly and also adding desired woody aromas along with butter and
vanilla flavors. Oak chips can be added during fermentation or during aging. In the latter case,
they are generally placed into fabric sacks and placed into the aging wine. The diversity of chips
available gives winemakers numerous options. Oak chips have the benefit of imparting intense
oak flavoring in a matter of weeks while traditional oak barrels would need a year or more to
convey similar intensity. Critics claim that the oak flavoring from chips tend to be one-
dimensional and skewed towards the vanilla extract with the wines still lacking some of the
physical benefits that barrel oak imparts.[16] The use of oak powder is also less common than
chips, although they are a very practical alternative if oak character is to be introduced during
fermentation. Oak planks or staves are sometimes used, either during fermentation or aging.
Wines made from these barrel alternatives typically do not age as well as wines that are matured
in barrels.[8] Improvements in micro-oxygenation has allowed winemakers to better mimic the
gentle aeration of oak barrels in stainless steel tanks with oak chips.[18]

Prior to 2006, the practice of using oak chips was outlawed in the European Union.[19] In 1999,
the Bordeaux court of appeals fined four wineries, including third growth Chateau Giscours,
more than $13,000 USD for the use of oak chips in their wine.[20]

[edit] Other wood types

Throughout history other wood types, including chestnut, pine, redwood, and acacia, have been
used in crafting winemaking vessels, particular large fermentation vats. However none of these
wood types possess the compatibility with wine that oak has demonstrated in combining its water
tight, yet slightly porous, storage capabilities with the unique flavor and texture characteristic that
it can impart to the wine that it is in contact with.[21] Chestnut is very high in tannins and is too
porous as a storage barrel and must be coated with paraffin to prevent excessive wine loss
through evaporation. Redwood is too rigid to bend into the smaller barrel shapes and imparts an
unpleasant flavor. Acacia imparts a yellow tint to the wine. Other hardwoods like apple and
cherry wood have an off putting smell.[22] Austrian winemakers have a history of using Acacia
barrels. Historically, chestnut was used by Beaujolais, Italian and Portuguese wine makers.[23]
Some Rhône winemakers still use paraffin coated chestnut barrels but the coating minimizes any
effect from the wood making its function similar to a neutral concrete vessel. In Chile there are
traditions for using barrel made of rauli wood but it is beginning to fall out of favor due to the
musky scent it imparts on wine.[24]

[edit] References
1. ^ J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 91-93 Abbeville Press 2003 ISBN
0789208830
2. ^ H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 25-26 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0671687026
3. ^ a b K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 40 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345
4. ^ H. Johnson Vintage: The Story of Wine pg 453 Simon and Schuster 1989 ISBN 0671687026
5. ^ a b K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 41 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345
6. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 492 Oxford University
Press 2006 ISBN 0198609906
7. ^ a b K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 45 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345
8. ^ a b c d e J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 93 Abbeville Press 2003
ISBN 0789208830
9. ^ a b c D. Sogg "White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide" Wine
Spectator July 31, 2001
10. ^ T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" pg 33-34 Dorling Kindersley 2005 ISBN
0756613248
11. ^ a b c J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 92 Abbeville Press 2003
ISBN 0789208830
 12. ^ D. Sogg "French Barrelmaker Turns to Russian Oak" Wine Spectator October 15, 2002
13. ^ K. Ebjich "Canadian Oak Barrels Get the Nod From Winemakers" Wine Spectator November
11, 2003
14. ^ a b T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" pg 33 Dorling Kindersley 2005 ISBN
0756613248
15. ^ World Cooperage Product Information
16. ^ a b D. Sogg "Oak Flavorings" Wine Spectator Sept.20th, 2002
17. ^ a b K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 42-43 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1563054345
18. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 491 Oxford University
Press 2006 ISBN 0198609906
19. ^ Jancis Robinson (May 4, 2006). "Giant 'teabags' of oak chips now legal in Europe". San
Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-
bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/05/04/WIGJIIJG561.DTL&hw=wine&sn=004&sc=506.
20. ^ J. Mann "Bordeaux Chateaus Fined for Use of Wood Chips" Wine Spectator November 29,
1999
21. ^ J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 91 Abbeville Press 2003 ISBN
0789208830
22. ^ J. Ross "Rethinking American vs. French oak" Wines & Vines November 1, 1992
23. ^ J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 775 Oxford University
Press 2006 ISBN 0198609906
24. ^ T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" pg 32 Dorling Kindersley 2005 ISBN
0756613248

[edit] See also

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Bottling Wine bottle · Cork · Screw cap · Other closures
See also Viticulture glossary · Wine glossary · Viticulture · Wine

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Categories: Wine packaging and storage | Wine | Oenology
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Ambalaj
De la Wikipedia, enciclopedia liberă

Salt la: Navigare, căutare

Ambalaje din materiale plastice pentru produse alimentare

Ambalajul este un material (hârtie, carton, masă plastică etc.) în care se împachetează ceva
pentru a fi păstrat sau transportat.

Ambalajele se clasifică în funcţie de mai multe criterii, care sunt utilizate frecvent în practică:

 după modul de folosire:

o de unică folosinţă
o refolosibile (returnabile)

 după materialul folosit în confecţionarea ambalajelor:

 o ambalaje din hârtie şi carton;
o ambalaje din sticlă;
o ambalaje din metal;
o ambalaje din materiale plastice;
o ambalaje din lemn, înlocuitori din lemn şi împletituri;
o ambalaje din materiale textile;
o ambalaje din materiale complexe.

 după sistemul de confecţionare:

o ambalaje fixe;
o ambalaje demontabile;
o ambalaje pliabile.

 după tip:
o plicuri;
o pungi;
o plase;
o lăzi;
o cutii;
o flacoane;
o borcane etc.

 după domeniul de utilizare:

o ambalaje de transport;
o ambalaje de desfacere şi prezentare.

 după specificul produsului ambalat:

o ambalaje pentru produse alimentare;
o ambalaje pentru produse nealimentare;
o ambalaje pentru produse periculoase;
o ambalaje individuale;
o ambalaje colective.

 după gradul de rigiditate:

o ambalaje rigide;
o ambalaje semirigide;
o ambalaje suple.

 după modul de circulaţie al ambalajului:

o ambalaje refolosibile;
o ambalaje nerefolosibile – tip pierdut.

 după sistemul de circulaţie:

o sistem de restituire a ambalajelor;
o sistem de vânzare – cumpărare a ambalajelor.

 după sistemul de confecţionare:

o ambalaje fixe;
 o ambalaje demontabile;
o ambalaje pliante.

 după căile de transport:

o ambalaje pentru transport terestru;
o ambalaje pentru transport fluvial-maritim;
o ambalaje pentru transport aerian.

 după destinaţie:
o ambalaje pentru piaţa externă;
o ambalaje pentru piaţa internă.

Acest articol din domeniul economiei este un ciot. Puteţi ajuta Wikipedia prin dezvoltarea lui.

Adus de la http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambalaj
Categorii: Cioturi Economie | Ambalaje