CARBONATE RESERVOIRS

CARBONATES - GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Composed predominantly of calcite, aragonite and dolomite.

 Widely distributed in the stratigraphic column (except chalk).

 Chemical or biochemical origin.

 Important economically - about 50% of the world’s oil reserves are in

carbonate reservoirs.

Carbonate minerals

CaCO3 Calcite (High Mg and Low Mg)

Aragonite

CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite

FeCO3 Siderite
 CONTROLS ON CARBONATE PRODUCTIVITY

Carbonate productivity is controlled by:

 Latitude and water temperature control abundance of the organisms producing

carbonates (organisms that build major reef systems require a water temperature
of 20°C).

 Water depth controls the amount of sunlight available (carbonate productivity is

highest in the upper few tens of metres of the water column).

 Clastic sediment input reduces water clarity and the depth of sunlight penetration
(high carbonate productivity requires low clastic sediment input).
DISTRIBUTION MAP OF MODERN SHALLOW MARINE CARBONATES
 CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS

 Carbonate ramps - similar to siliciclastic marine shelves, with a simple

slope.

 Rimmed shelves - barrier builds up (reef) to isolate a lagoon behind it

 Carbonate buildups - isolated, biological-caused features (might be

start of reef).
 Sabkha - extensive tidal flat, with evaporites.
CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL MODELS

Carbonate ramp

Carbonate platform with

local buildup (developed
from a ramp)

Carbonate platform, shelf

margins and offshore banks

(Wilson, 1975)
 CARBONATE RAMP DEPOSITIONAL SEQUENCES

Carbonate ramp depositional sequences showing different architectures controlled by the

balance between sediment supply and rates of sea-level rise/fall.

1. High sediment supply and/or slow rise/fall, aggradation in TST, progradation in HST,
lowstand prograding wedge

2. Low sediment supply and/or rapid rise/fall backstepping in TST, progradation in HST,
detached lowstand wedge (DLW) in lowstand

(Wright and Burchette, 1996)

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATES

Allochem: Not produced in situ; derived and

subjected to transportation and
includes intraclasts, oolites, shells
and pellets

Autochthonous: Produced in situ

Intraclast: Reworked sediment from within the

area of deposition and within the
same formation

Pellets: Rounded, spherical to elliptical or

ovoid aggregates microcrystalline
calcite ooze, devoid of any internal
structure. Most likely to be of fecal
origin

Spar: Clear, coarse, crystalline calcite

cement

Orthochemical: All chemically precipitated; no

allochems

Folk’s classification scheme (1962)

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATES

Dunham’s classification scheme (1962)

 CARBONATE TYPES

Two main types:

- Chemical (inorganic): Formed by the direct precipitation of calcium

carbonate from sea water.

- Biochemical (organic): produced by the biological activities (life

processes) and remains of animals and plants.
 CHEMICAL (INORGANIC) CARBONATES

Lime mudstones - composed of clay sized carbonate particles

Oolites - Concentrically laminated structures, less than 2mm in

diameter, thought to be abiogenic in origin

Pisolites - Same as oolites, but greater than 2mm in diameter

Dolomites - Also called (dolostones)

PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A LIMESTONE (WITH SOME DOLOMITE RHOMBS)
OOLITIC LIMESTONE
 OOLITES (OOIDS)

Osmington Oolite, Osmington, Dorset

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF OOLITES, SHOWING CONCENTRIC LAYERING
 OTHER CARBONATE ROCK CONSTITUENTS

Skeletal components
Skeletal particles:

- Whole microfossils, whole megafossils, broken shell fragments.

- Skeletal and mud size carbonate grains can be derived from any organism
(cyanobacteria, algae, a variety of invertebrates and vertebrates) with a
calcareous skeleton or body parts.
LIMESTONE CONTAINING WHOLE MEGAFOSSILS AND SHELL FRAGMENTS
STRONGLY DOLOMITISED LIMESTONE
 BIOCHEMICAL (ORGANIC) CARBONATES

Various types of reefs - rigid, wave resistant structures made up of living

organisms: corals, algae, rudists, etc.

 Fringing reefs
 Barrier reefs
 Patch reefs
 Atols
 Chalk - made up entirely of coccoliths, submicroscopic plants.
Stratigraphically limited to Upper Cretaceous-
Palaeocene time interval. Often associated with chert
(cryptocrystalline silica)
A CORAL REEF BORDERING LAND (WESTERN PACIFIC)
 DIFFERENT CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH A BARRIER REEF

A coral reef and adjacent lagoon

surrounding an island (south Pacific)
 REEF FACIES

 Lithology: Three lithofacies are generally recognized:

- Calcilutites, calcarenites & pellet limestones (back-reef lagoon)
- Biolithite; in situ reef building organisms (fabric may be obliterated)
- Skeletal calcarenites & calcirudites with micritoc matrix (reef talus)

 Geometry: Linear, sub circular or atoll-shaped.

 Sedimentary structures: Backreef facies may be laminated (or bioturbated). Reef

core massive. Reef talus may have only poor developed bedding, with slides and
slumps.

 Fossils: Reef framework characterized by abundant fauna; calc algae,

stromatoporoids, bryozoa, corals and other organisms.
REEF ROCK
 PATCH REEFS GROWING IN SHALLOW WATER
BEHIND THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, AUSTRALIA
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF ATOLS
A WESTERN PACIFIC ATOL
CHALK OUTCROP
 CARBONATE POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY CHARACTERISTICS

 Primary
– Includes many pore types (e.g. shelter pores) that are uncommon in
siliciclastics.
– Requires that diagenesis be arrested.

 Secondary (more common)

– Solution of large fragments, e.g. shells.
– intercrystalline: caused by recrystallisation.
– Caused by fracturing.

 Degree of connectivity determines the effect of secondary porosity on permeability.

CLASSIFICATION OF PORES AND PORE
SYSTEMS IN CARBONATE ROCKS

(Choquette and Pray, 1970)

 CARBONATE RESERVOIRS
 Reefal limestones and associated talus (material broken from the
reef).

 Carbonate shoals (shallow water, high energy) and sandbanks.

- Best reservoir quality in upper, coarser parts.

 Chalk.
- Particularly when it has been reworked.

 Leached zones below unconformities.

 Dolomites
- Particularly secondary, coarsely crystalline type.

 Examples of carbonate reservoirs: Chalk of the Northern North Sea and

the Ghawar Field, Saudi Arabia - the world’s largest oil field.