The Syntax of the English Simple Sentence

II Applied Modern Languages

Course instructor: Daria Protopopescu
Contact: dariaprotopopescu@yahoo.com

Lecture 5
THE PASSIVE; MIDDLE FORMATION

THE PASSIVE
Complex linguistic phenomenon, which manifests itself at three levels of linguistic
analysis:
a) the morphological level – the auxiliaries be and get and the past participle of the
verb
b) the syntactic level – a change in position and status of the active Subject and
Object
c) the semantic level – a change in the relation between the underlying role-structure
of the sentence and its organization. The agent (subject) no longer appears in the
subject position in the sentence, while the patient (the object) appears in subject
position.
Stylistically speaking, the Passive makes the discourse more objective, what is important
is not the agent anymore, but the event denoted by the verb itself.
Passive Morphology – be + the past participle. Passive verbs behave like unaccusative
verbs. The external thematic role of the verb that undergoes passivization is absorbed by
the passive morphology, namely the past participle of the verb. The verb is generated
from the Lexicon as passive, that is as an unaccusative that only has an internal argument
which has to move to into subject position in order to be assigned case. Being an
unaccusative verb, it does not theta-mark an external argument so it cannot assign
Accusative case. The external argument of the original active verb can be recovered in
the passive sentence as a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition BY which
assigns it the theta role Agent as well as case or it can be implicit.

 Conditions on the Passive – the adjacency constraint (the double object

construction; the dative verbs) (even with non-arguments of the verb)

Eg. (1) She gave a book to me. / A book was given to me. / *I was given a book to.
She gave me a book. / I was given a book. / *A book was given me.
(1) She wore her pullover thin.
Her pullover was worn thin.
(2) He shouted us into silence.
We were shouted into silence
- no reflexives and reciprocals (He watched himself. / *Himself was watched by him)
- no idiomatic IT ( This argument eats it. / *IT is eaten by this argument.)

The Domain of the Passive

  Transitive verbs eg. The newcomer solved the puzzle.
The puzzle was solved by a new comer.
- the position of the Adverbials of manner
eg. He wrote the letter rapidly.
The letter was rapidly written.

NO Passive:
 reciprocal verbs – resemble, marry
eg. Music resembles poetry.
*Poetry is resembles by music
 state verbs (verbs of possession) – have, possess, own
eg. He owns a house.
*The house is owned by him.
 Stative verbs (verbs of feelings) – love, hate, loathe, abhor
Eg. He loves Mary.
*Mary is loved by him.
 Reflexives
Eg. Mary admired herself in the mirror.
*Herself was admired by Mary in the mirror.

 Ditransitive verbs ( change of possession, the Indirect Object is a beneficiary;

both objects may undergo Passivization )
Eg. He gave the flowers to Mary
The flowers were given to Mary.
Mary was given the flowers.
NO Passive
 Ditransitives (no change of possession, the Indirect Object is not a beneficiary, but
an Experiencer)
Eg. He gave me a push,
*I was given a push.
*A push was given to me.
 Unergatives with a prepositional object
Eg. He insisted upon the invitation. / The invitation was insisted upon.
They talked about the movie./ The movie was talked about.

NO Passive
 Intranstitives with quantifier phrases – cost , weigh, stretch, last
Eg. The two tickets cost $100.
*$100 are cost by the tickets.
 Relational intransitives – belong to, pertain to,
Eg. The book belongs to me.
*I am belonged to by the book
 Intransitives with Locative and directional Adverbial Phrases
Eg. The house stands by the hill.
*The hill is stood by by the house
 Inherently reflexive intransitive
 Eg. He availed himself of the opportunity.
*Himself was availed of the opportunity.

 Intransitive with particle and preposition

Eg. They did away with that law.
That law was done away with.
 Intransitives with two prepositional objects
Eg, talk to smb about smth; lecture; speak; apologize; appeal
They never spoke to her about her late husband.
She was never spoken to about her late husband.
Her late husband was never spoken about (in her presence).

 Idiomatic phrases
Eg. Take strong exception to smth; make an example of smth; foist all one’s
problems on smth; pin one’s faith on smth; make too much of smth; keep close tabs
on smth; take advantage of smth,; etc
Eg. They made an example of his behaviour.
His behaviour was made an example of.

 Some Prepositional Phrases showing location

They have sat on the chair.
That chair has been sat on.

NO Passives
 Content phrases (with)
Eg. Teem with, swarm with, be crawling with, buzz with, drip with, ooze with, dance
with
Eg. The town was dancing with light and shadow.
*Light and shadow were being danced with.
 Fill a freezer with, load a truck with,
Eg. The filled the freezer with fish / The freezer was filled with fish.
*Fish were filled the freezer with by them,

 The Get Passive

more dynamic, may have a detrimental meaning, may imply that the Agent has some
responsibility for a detrimental action
eg. His leg got broken.
How did the window get open?
- focuses on the event and on its effects on the Theme/Patient
- the implied agent has full control over the action denoted by the verb
(*He got killed with great care./ He got shot – he did something because
he wanted to get shot)
- it involves the speaker’s attitude, his emotional involvement
Eg. He got caught, the silly fool!
- it is associated with more punctual events.
Eg. He got arrested.
Middles
Eg. The poem reads easily./ Tennis balls sell best in summer./ The play reads better than it
acts./ This fabric washes easily./ Cotton shirts iron well./ These figures add easily.

Properties of the English Middles

 they are one argument verb, the agent is not overt in the sentence.It may be
understood as ‘one’ or ‘people in general’, although it may be specific at times.

Eg. The car handles smoothly when John drives it.

 Unaccusatives do not have an external argument, not even an implicit one, so they
can co-occur with all by itself, in the sense that something happens without
external aid, agentlessly, unlike middles.
Eg. The boat sank all by itself.
*The play acts well all by itself.
 The meaning contribution of the subject of a middle sentence is different from the
meaning contribution of the subject in a passive sentence, as the theta roles
assigned to the subjects of a middle sentence are very different.

Eg. The book reads easily. [Theme]

Children scare easily. [Experiencer]
The truck loads easily. [Location]

Eg. The book reads easily. (It can be paraphrased as “the book has the necessary
properties that allow it to read easily. Somehow the subject is responsible for the action
denoted by the verb.)
The book was easily read.

In an unaccusative sentence the subject cannot be interpreted as responsible because it

refers to a concrete entity.

Eg. The door opens with difficulty.

So, the subject of a middle sentence is an entity, a non-Agent which is responsible for the
action denoted by the verb, in the sense that it has the necessary properties which make
the situation denoted by the verb possible.

 Middles are generic sentences that do not describe particular events in time. They
are seen as stative, atelic predicates, like individual level predicates. They are
compatible with always and incompatible with the progressive. When they occur
in the progressive they denote a change between successive stages. They do not
occur in the imperative.
Eg. This book always reads easily.
The manuscript is reading better and better.
*Handle smoothly, car!

 Middle generally occur with obligatory modifications. It can be a Manner

Adverbial, a Locative Adverbial, a clausal modifier (non-purpose), a negative
operator or an overt modal verb. The role of the modifier is to stativize the
predicate.

Eg. This book translates easily. (Manner)

Make sure the address reads through window. (Place)
Officials bribe before reaching high office. (Adverbial clause of time)
This text does not translate. (Negation)
This text will not translate.(overt modal and negation)

 Agent oriented adverbs are not allowed in middle sentences.

Eg. *Officials bribe evidently.

Middle Formation

 Only transitive verbs that have an affected argument enter Middle Formation.
Effected objects cannot occur in a middle sentence

Eg. *A dress makes easily.

 Only activities and accomplishments occur in middle sentences, stative verbs and
achievements do not allow middle formation.

Eg. The car drives well.

The book reads easily.
*The answer knows easily.
*Such mistakes notice fast.

 Only causatives that have an Instrument/Manner component enter middle

formation

Eg. Bread cuts easily.