SISTEM PROTECTION

TRAINING COURSE

TAKREER, 10-11 DEC, 2005

1
 INDEX

1 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION ONE LINE DIAGRAM: PROTECTION

CRITERIA
2 CALCULATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT: INFORMATION NECESSARY
FOR RELAY COORDINATION
3 PHASE TO GROUND FAULT: DIFFERENT METHOD AND RELEVANT
PROTECTION CRITERIA
4 SELECTION OF CT‛s AND VT‛s FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF RELAYS
5 FUSES
6 PROTECTION SYSTEM: GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT
ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE RELAYS
7 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT PROTECTION
8 RELAY SELECTIVITY CRITERIA
9 PROTECTIVE RELAY TEST (START-UP TEST)
10 EXAMPLE OF RELAY SELECTIVITY
2
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
/1/ C. Russel Mason: "The Art and Science of Protective Relays". John Wiley & Sons New York,
1964.
/2/ A. R. Van C. Warrington: "Protective Relays. Their Theory and Practice". Volumi 1 e 2.
Chapman and Hall-London, 1969.
/3/ N. Chernobrovov: "Protective Relaying". Mir Publishers-Moscow, 1974.
/4/ J. L. Blackburn: "Applied Protective Relaying" Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Second
Printing, 1979
/5/ S. Horowitz: "Protective Relaying for Power System". Volume I, IEEE PRESS ISBN N. 0-
87942-140-1, 1980.
/6/ General Electric: "Protective Relaying - Relay Selection Guide and Relay Application Guide".
Volume 1 e 2, Philadelphia PA 19142 - USA, 1982.
/7/ NEI Electronics Ltd: "Power System Protection Reference Manual". ISBN 0 85362 1969, 1982.
/8/ The Electrical Council: "Power System Protection”. Volumi 1, 2, 3 e 4. Peter Peregrinus Ltd.
Stevenage UK. 1986.
/9/ J. L. Blackburn: "Protective Relaying Principles and Applica-tions". Marcel Dekker, inc.-N.Y.,
1987.
/10/ GEC Measurement: "Protective Relays - Application Guide". Third edition, Printed by
Balding+Mansell, London 1987. 3
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
/11/ IEEE: "IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and
Commercial Power System". ANSI/IEEE STD: 242-1986 (BUFF BOOK). Library of
Congress Catalog, N. 86-81948, 1989.
/12/ C. Lanzi: "Le protezioni elettriche: teoria e applicazioni". Volumi I e II. La Nuova Italia
Scientifica, 1991.
/13/ S. Horowitz: "Protective Relaying for Power System". Volume II, IEEE PRESS ISBN N. 0-
7803-0413-6, 1992.
/14/ S. Horowitz: "Power System Relay". IEEE Computer Applicatios in Power, 1992.
/15/ G. Pratesi: "Le protezioni dei sistemi elettrici di potenza": CUSL-Milano, 1993.
/16/ A. Wright, C. Christopoulos: "Electrical Power System Protection". Chapan & Hall -
London, 1993.
/17/ A. G. Phadke, J. S. Thorp: "Computer Relaying for power system". John Wiley & Sons.
New York, 1993.
/18/ W. A. Elmore: "Protective Relaying Theory and Applications". ABB Power T&D Company
Inc. Relay Division. Marcel Dekker Inc. N.Y., 1994.
/19/ S. H. Horowitz A. ,G. Phadke : "Power System Relaying". John Wiley & Sons. New York,
1995.
/20/ H. J. Herrmann : "Digitale Schutztechnik". VDE-Verlag GMBH Berlin, 1997.
/21/ P.M. Anderson : "Power System Protection". IEEE Press McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-13423-7
4
(1999).
 1
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
ONE LINE DIAGRAMS:
PROTECTION CRITERIA

1
 PLANNING OF THE POWER
DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
For the correct sizing of a power network, the following
calculations have to be done:
ƒSIZING CALCULATION of machine, transformer, etc.;
ƒSHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CALCULATION;
ƒNEUTRAL SYSTEM;
ƒLOAD FLOW;
ƒMOTOR STARTING;
ƒDYNAMIC STABILITY CALCULATION;
ƒCALCULATION OF THE HARMONICS IN THE NETWORK;
ƒRELAY COORDINATION.
2
 TIME PHENOMENA IN AN
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

LEGEND: EDC = Economic Division Check 3

LFC = Load-Frequency Control
 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM
To prepare (study) the Single Line Diagram of the electrical network,
the characteristics of the following shall be known:

zLOADS
for each user has to be established quality, availability and continuity of the
supply;

zPOWER SUPPLY
it has to be evaluated whether additional power supply coming from self-
production, reserve, emergency or safety is needed;

zNETWORK STRUCTURE:
choice of scheme, machines (and their size), devices, protection and control
have to be homogeneous.
These parameters influence the voltage levels, rated currents and
short circuit level of the network. 4
SINGLE RADIAL
The radial system in a multiple
voltage levels network has a “tree”
structure with possible busbars
feeding loads distributed along the
path.

ADVANTAGES:
- simple
- economic

DISADVANTAGES:
- maintenance (all network downstream
of the maintenance point has to be
put out of service)
- vulnerability (in case of failure, all
downstream network will be out of
service)

5
DOUBLE RADIAL
It‛s characterized by the redundancy of
a single radial system.
This redundancy can be extended up to
the single user, but most of the time it‛s
only up to one or more nodes (busbar) of
the distribution system.
It‛s mainly used in the network for
process industry where the service
continuity is a must.

ADVANTAGES:
- short out of service duration in case of
failure;

DISADVANTAGES:
- expensive to be realized.

6
RING MAIN SYSTEM

7
 RING MAIN SYSTEM
This scheme is characterized by the presence of at list one feeder
more than the minimum necessary to connect the loads to the power
supply. Such a network can work either as open or close ring: with the
first configuration, in case of failure, the failing part has to be
disconnected and then the power supply can be re-connected; with the
close ring configuration it‛s only necessary to disconnect the part
where the failure occurred (the service continuity is assured).
It‛s mostly used in case of small users (small power required) at
considerable distance from each other.

ADVANTAGES:
- service continuity, when working in the close ring configuration

DISADVANTAGES:
- quite expensive to be realized
- complicated protection system
8
AUTOMATIC TRANSFER

STARTING STARTING

AUTOMATIC
BLOCK TRANSFER BLOCK

9
 2
CALCULATION OF SHORT
CIRCUIT:
INFORMATION NECESSARY
FOR RELAY COORDINATION
1
 SHORT CIRCUIT
Rated current Short circuit current

Figure taken from:

“GE INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS DATA BOOK”
2
 SHORT CIRCUIT
Short circuit:
Contact intentional or accidental, with quite low resistance
or impedance, between two or more points at different
voltage.

Short circuit current:

Overcurrent coming from a short circuit due either to a
failure or a wrong connection of an electric circuit.

THE SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATION SHOULD BE BASED ON THE

REAL VOLTAGE OF THE NETWORK OBTAINED BY A LOAD FLOW
CALCULATION
3
 Short circuit current

It is necessary calculate the short circuit current in order to:

Size correctly the electrical equipments (switchboard, circuit

breaker, etc.);

Calculate the thermal and mechanical stresses on the different

electrical equipments;

Calculate and select the settings of the protection system;

Protect adequately people end electrical installation.

4
 SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
It is important to calculate the short circuit
current (single phase and poly-phase) into the
different plant operating conditions.

The maximum short circuit currents are important

for the equipment sizing. The minimum short circuit
currents allow to verify the relay coordination; in
fact the protection (relay) current setting shall be
lower than the minimum short circuit current into
the relay connection point.
5
 SHORT CIRCUIT STANDARDS

• EN 60909-0 -2001-12
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
CALCULATION IN A.C. THREE
PHASE NETWORK

•IEC 61363-1 – 1998

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT
EVALUATION ..... IN SHIPS
6
 CALCULATION ASSUMPTION
EN 60909 PARA 2.2 (*)
1) For the duration of the short circuit there is no change in the type
of short circuit involved, that is, a three-phase short circuit
remains three-phase and a line-to-earth short circuit remains line-
to-earth during the time of short circuit.
2) For the duration of the short circuit, there no change in the
network involved.
3) The impedance of the transformers is referred to the tap-changer
in main position. This is admissible, because the impedance
correction factor K T for network transformer is introduced.
4) Arc resistance are not taken into account.
5) All line capacitances and shunt admittances and non –rotating loads,
except those of the zero-sequence system, are neglected.
(*) standard valid for voltages up to 550 kV
7
 CALCULATION OF THE SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT
c  Un
I 
3Z
VOLTAGE FACTOR c

Rated Voltage Maximum short circuit Minimum short circuit

Un Cmax Cmin
L.V. from 100V to 1000V 1.05 0.95
(IEC 60038 TABLE I)
b) Other values 1.10 0.95

M.V. from > 1kV to 35 kV 1.10 1.00

H.H. from > 35 kV to 380 kV 1.10 1.00

8
Table n°1 standard EN 60909-0
 Voltage factor
The introduction of the voltage factor ‘c‛ is necessary for various
reasons. These are:

1) Voltage variations depending on time and place.

2) Changing of transformer taps.
3) Neglecting loads and capacitances by calculations according to
clause 2.3.1 of the standard.
4) The subtransient behaviour of generators and motors.

The products c x U shall be never higher than the maximum voltage

of the installed equipments.

9
 Symmetrical and
asymmetrical short circuit
SIMMETRICAL ASIMMETRICAL
Without unidirectional component Presence of unidirectional component

I Asymmetrical peak
I

t
t
U U

t t

10
Ipothesis: prevalent inductive source
 TYPE OF SHORT CIRCUIT FAULTS
SYMMETRICAL FAULT: IL1 = IL2 = IL3

z THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT;

ASYMMETRICAL FAULT:
IL1 = IL2

z TWO PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT;

z TWO PHASE PLUS GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT;

z SINGLE PHASE TO GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT;

11
 STANDARD EN 60909-0
SHORT CIRCUIT FAR FROM GENERATOR
a Current
b Top envelope
c d.c. component iDC of
the short circuit
d time;
e bottom envelope

figure n°1 standard EN 60909-0 12

 STANDARD EN 60909-0
DEFINITIONS
I”k = initial symmetrical short circuit current;
ip = peak short circuit current;
Ik = steady state short circuit current;
iDC = decaying direct current (aperiodic);
A = initial value of iDC.

Far from generator means that the reactance seen

from the faulted point is a constant.
13
 SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT NEAR
TO GENERATOR

14
figure 2 standard EN 60909-0
GENERATOR DECREMENT SHORT CIRCUIT
The generator short current is not a fixed value but decrease during
the time.
The equation of the fault current (effective value, only symmetric
component) at the generator terminal (mainly inductive circuit) is as
follow:

 1 1  t /T"d  1 1  t / T 'd 1 
I (t)  In   e   e  
 x"d x' d   x' d xd  xd 
where: In = generator rated current;
X"d = subtransient reactance;
X'd = transient reactance;
Xd = synchronous reactance;
T"d = subtransient time constant;
T'd = transient time constant.
15
SOURCE OF SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT

16
 CONTRIBUTION TO THE SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT
Motors contribute to the short circuit current, especially influencing the peak value.
Their contribute is in fact mainly during the subtransient phase, therefore they have to
be considered in the short circuit calculation. Their contribute and its duration depends
on the magnetic gap therefore from the energy not the running power.
z External network

cUn
I"k  Ik=I”k
3 Rr  Xr
2 2

z Synchronous machine

cUn
I"k  Un cmax
3Kg RG2 XG2 with Kg 
UkG 1 X"G senϕG
z Asynchronous machine
c  Un
I"k 
3  Rn2  Xn2
Ik=0 17
 short circuit calculation
with power method

POWER PARALLEL CORRESPOND TO THE IMPEDANCE

SERIES

The example is a ”prudential” calculation, (not according

with the standards) without taking into consideration the
resistive components and therefore their lowering effect.

This kind of calculation cannot normally applied in L.V.

networks (important resistance effect). 18
Simplified example of short
circuit calculation
Sccsour. = 250MVA

Scctrasf. = (Sn / Uk) x 100 = (1 / 5) x 100 = 20MVA

Sccsec.= (Sccsour. x Scctrasf.) / (Sccsour.+ Scctrasf.)

= (250 x 20) / (250 + 20) = 18.52MVA

Sccmot. = Snmot. x (Iavv. / In) = 0.5 x 5 = 2.5MVA

Sccf1 = Sccsec.+ Sccmot. = 18.52 + 2.5 = 21.02MVA

Iccf1 = Sccf1 / √3 Un1 = 21.02 x 106 / √3 x 400 = 30.3kA

19
 3
PHASE TO GROUND
FAULT:
DIFFERENT METHODS
AND RELEVANT
PROTECTION CRITERIA
 GROUNDING
CAUSES OF FAULTS:
Mechanical
Insulation failure.

The phase to ground faults are the most pro a le faults and they ecame
always phase
to phase or three phase faults.

NEUTRAL STATE:
HV networks solidly grounded
MV networks in industrial plant generally resistance grounded. In
distri ution networks, insulated, solidly, resistance or
reactance grounded
LV networks generally solidly grounded (special cases insulated and for
industrial plant in some cases grounded with resistor).
 Criteria of neutral state

The choice of the neutral state involve many pro ect choice
TECHNICAL overvoltages
ground fault current
choice of the e uipments
connection with the existing network.
COSTS
MANA EMENT service continuity
SEC RIT
NATIONAL AND LOCAL HA IT.

The choice of the neutral state, for the industrial plant, shall e done
according with the process responsi le.
 STATE OF THE NEUTRAL
IMPEDANCE SOLID
ISOLATED RO NDED RO NDED
 INFLUENCE ON THE PHASE to
GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT
CURRENT
EARTH FAULTS EFFECTS:

Disturbances on the telecommunication line;

Influence on the grounding network sizing;

Risk of burning in the rotating machine core lamination in case of

internal fault;

High vibrations in the rotating machines due to the unbalanced field.

PHASE TO GROUND
OVERVOLTAGES
P1
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES FOR PHASE TO
GROUND FAULT AS A FUNCTION OF THE VALUE OF
THE GROUNDING RESISTNCE

400

350
SA E PHASES
300
250

200 NE TRAL TO RO ND

150

100
50 A LTED PHASE
0

RATIO kW RESISTANCE / kVA CAPACITY

Diapositiva 6

P1 Portatile; 13/02/2004
ISOLATED NEUTRAL: SCHEMATIC
DIAGRAM

Ica = Co Uca

Icb = Co Ucb

Ig = 2 cos30°  Co U = 3Co E = 3 Io
 ISOLATED NEUTRAL:
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
- Limited fault current (only capacitive);
- Network still in service even after one phase-earth failure (only when
limited capacitive current). A second earth fault in another phase,
will create a multiphase short circuit and an immediate tripping is
needed.

DISADVANTAGES:
- Difficult fault detection;
- Possible intermittent discharge to earth (4-6 times the line voltage);
- High transient overvoltages and permanent overvoltages on the
healthy phases (line voltage);
- Risk of ferroresonance in the voltage transformers;
- Higher insulated equipment and therefore more expensive;
- Complex protection system.
Neutral insulated:
service continuity
SOLID GROUNDED: SCHEMATIC
DIAGRAM
 SOLID GROUNDED:
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
- no overvoltages;
- no need of ground fault protective relays;
- simple and selective protection system;

DISADVANTAGES:
- high fault current and relevant network perturbation (voltage
drop);
- no service continuity;
- high step and touch voltages close to the failure point
(grounding network sizing).
RESISTANCE GROUNDED:
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

IG = IC + IR IC = 3  Co E
IR = E / R
1 IR = IC
Where R = ------------
3  Co Ig = 1.41 IC
 RESISTANCE GROUNDED:
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES:
- fault current is limited by the impedance (energy at the failure
point is reduced);
- simple and selective protection system (fault current calculated
on the basis of the protection system);
- reduced overvoltages;

DISADVANTAGES:
- no service continuity (the faulted branch has to be removed);
- machine are less expensive (less insulation), but there are
additional costs for the grounding device.
 METHODS OF RESISTANCE
GROUNDING
E AMPLES
DETERMINATION OF THE ground
(EARTH) FAULT CURRENT
The fault current If has to be determined taking into consideration that
•If --->0 it has to be the lowest possible to reduce the damages where
the failure occurred and to reduce the voltage fall in the
network;
•If >Ic the resistive component has to be greater than the capacitive
component in order to reduce overvoltages and avoid
intermittent arcs;
•If > .... it has to be great enough to assure the correct relays’
intervention selectivity
The first statement is obvious.
The second one is easy to calculate according with the network
configuration.
The third condition needs a protection coordination study, which depends
on the type of protection (range of setting of the relay and measuring
methods, either toroidal-ring CT’s or residual connected CT’s).
GENERATOR ground fault
withstand capability
MOTOR WITHSTAND capability for
internal ground fault
REACTANCE NEUTRAL (PETERSEN)
Normally the reactance is with taps (variable reactance).
The operating principle is based on the criteria to generate a
inductive current equal to the capacitive current. With this
solution, the current into the faulted point became equal to
zero.
In order to have the possibility to identify the faults, other
than the inductive component, also a resistive component is
generated.

ADVANTAGES:
- small grand fault current (limited by the resistance
component);
- high capability of arc self-extinguish;
- low costs for grounding network;

DISADVANTAGES:
- high cost (partially compensated by lower number of
shutdown);
- complex and expensive protection system;
- disturbances to the communication lines during faults.
Inductive and capacitive current
with compensated network

C
Network CAPACITIVE CURRENTS
 CAPACITIVE CURRENTS
• In the case of a network with insulated neutral, the choice and setting
of the ground overcurrent protections require checks that depend on
the network layout, the characteristics of the protections and the
function they are intended to carry out within the protection system.
The condition to be satisfied is that the ground, non-directional relays
placed to protect each of the two lines trip only for faults on their own
line.

• This is why the setting value of the ground overcurrent relay tripping
threshold must be greater than the contribution of the line itself to the
fault current;

• Should it not be possible to satisfy the above conditions, it is necessary

to use directional ground overcurrent relays (varmeters). In this case,
make sure that the current and voltage thresholds chosen are
appropriate for the ground current and voltage values resulting from
the fault resistance for the maximum and minimum extension of the
network, to which the minimum ground voltage and current values
correspond respectively.
 4
SELECTION OF
Ct’S AND VT’s
FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF
RELAY
1
 MEASUREMENT traNSFORMERS CURRENT
(CT) AND VOLTAGE (VT)
z I - - TT S S
I - md -

z I - - T T S S

z I - - I T S S

equirements for protective current

z I - transformers for transient performances

z I - - T I T T S S

z I - - T I TT S S

Their behaviour is the same as for normal transformers,

but with established limitation of the errors. 2
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
DEFINITIONS
These are transformers to supply measuring instruments (indicators, recorders,
integrators) and protection systems.
Instrument transformers are divided into two types
- TT S S ( T)
- T T S S ( T)

FUNCTION:
- reduce voltage and current values in the system to values that may be
detected by instruments and protection equipment.
- make the secondary instrument and protection circuits galvanically
independent from the primary power circuit, simultaneously ensuring greater
operator safety (a secondary point of the instrument transformer must always
be earthed).

THESE ARE MORE GENERALLY DEFINED AS:

- INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS when they are intended to supply
measuring instruments;
- PROTECTION TRANSFORMERS when they are intended to supply protective
relays. 3
 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENT AND PROTECTION
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VT)
‰ I I S TI T ;
‰ T I S TI ;
‰ T ;
‰ T I T ;
‰ T S T ;
‰ T T S I TI ;

‰ T ;
‰ ISI SS;
‰ T ;
‰ ;
‰ T T .
4
 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
FOR INSTRUMENTS
PRECISION CLASSES

,
, T S TS
, I ST I S TS
S IT I ST TS

rror is defined into the voltage range between and

of n for secondary load between and of
the rated.

oltage factor standard values , - , - , .

efinition example v v - . 5
 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
FOR protections
PRECISION CLASSES:
T ± ± °
T ± ± °

rror is defined into the voltage range between and the

voltage factor for secondary load between and of
the rated.

oltage factor standard values , - , - , .

efinition example v v -

6
 NOTES ON fERRORESONANCE
PHENOMENA ON VT
The ferroresonance phenomenon is a typical aspect of T inserted in cable
networks with an isolated or not effectively earthed neutral.
The cable capacity, along with the T inductance, constitutes an oscillating
circuit ( ). Thus conditions may occur on the circuit in which the circuit
goes into resonance (capacitive reactance saturated inductive reactance
of the T) and, although the cause of saturation may cease (for example,
an earth fault), transitory oscillation remains (thus at a multiple of the
mains frequency) of the reactive energy put into play by the components of
the oscillating circuits.
The frequency of this oscillation produces a permanent, high circulation of
current in the primary winding alone.
Since this current is only magneti ing, the secondary winding is barely
affected, thereby heating the primary circuit considerably but the
secondary circuit to a negligible degree.
The abnormal heating of the windings always produces high internal
pressure, which eventually ruptures the outer housing. 7
ELIMINATION OF FERRORESONANCE
PHENOMENA ON VT
The main measures to be taken in order to avoid
ferroresonance phenomena are

z increasing the magneti ation impedance of the T;

T working at a lower induction than set;
using highly permeable metal strips;

z inserting damping resistors in series with the secondary

windings in delta connection (voltage relay shall be
connected in parallel to the damping resistor).
8
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT
AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

‰ I I S TI T ;
‰ T I S TI ;
‰ T ;
‰ T I T;
‰ T S T;
‰ T T S TI ;
‰ T T S T- I IT T;
‰ T I T;

‰ T ;
‰ ISI SS;
‰ T ; 9
‰ .
MAGNETIZATION CURVE
AND CT SCHEME

10
 MAGNETIZATION CURVE FOR
INSTRUMENT AND PROTECTION CT

11
CURRENT TRANSFORMERs FOR INSTRUMENTs
PRECISION ,
CLASSES: , T S TS
, I ST I S TS
S IT I ST TS

rror is defined for current values between and of In ( - of In

for classes and ) and for secondary load between and of the rated.
Safety factor ( s) ratio between the primary limit current (I b) and primary
rated current (I n).
efinition example - . .

12
 Error of CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
The (for both protection and
instrument T) is
T
100 1
e%     2
( Kn is ip ) dt
Ip T 0

with
n transformer ratio;
Ip effective primary current value;
ip instantaneous primary current value;
is instantaneous secondary current value;
t period. 13
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS FOR
PROTECTION
PRECISION CLASSES:
z T
z
z (at l)
z T
z ST I TI
z (at l)

Ipl precision primary limit current

value of the primary current up to the T is within the precision class error.

l accuracy limit factor

ratio between primary limit current and primary rated current.

ccuracy limit factor ( l) follows the precision class, and defines the overcurrent that the
T can sustain without reach the set error limits (precision current limit Ipl)
ormal values - - -

efinition example -
14
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
according standard iec 60044-6
T are divided into the following classes

T defined from composite error with permanent symmetrical

components (I - ). o limits for residual flux;

T S low reactance (similar to class ). o limits for residual flux;

T limit factor defined by the instantaneous peak error during a

specified transient cycle. o limits for residual flux;

T similar to type T , but the residual flux cannot be higher than

of the saturation flux;

T precision is defined by the instantaneous error on symmetrical

component during a ingle energisation with maximum dc component
and specified secondary time constant. o limits for the error on
unidirectional component. esidual flux shall remain negligible 15
Standard BS 7626

16
 CT DEFINITIONS IN CLASS PX
(old TYPE X according with Standard BS 3938
superceded by Standard 7626:1993 )
CLASS PX T - T , I T
I T S
z I T S;

z S T S;

z I T T ( k);

z S SIST ;

z TI TI T ( ormally at k ).

z This type of T is used with high-impedance relays.

z ou must make sure that, in case of a short-circuit, the secondary

voltage shall be lower than the T knee point voltage ( k). 17
 CT REAL ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR
Sct  Sn
F ' l  Fl 
Sct  Sr
l ISI I IT T IT ;
l T ISI I IT T ;

Sct TS - S TI ;

Sn T T ;
Sr T T T T;

Sct In x ct with ct secondary T resistance.

the secondary resistance of the T may be estimated in accordance with

guide I - ( ) using the equation

Rct  K (I1n 1000)0.925  with K . for T 18

K . for T
 REAL ACCURACY LIMIT FACTOR
CALCULATION EXAMPLE
xample
T ct .  r .  l

Sct  Sn 0.8  20
F ' l  Fl   15   284
Sct  Sr 0 .8  0 .3
changing the secondary resistance of the T
T ct .  r .  l

Sct  Sn 0.4  20
F ' l  Fl   15   437
Sct  Sr 0.4  0.3

19
 REAL ACCURACY limit factor with
unidirectional component
If unidirectional component is present in the current,
the real precision limit factor changes as follows (in
simplified form)

1
F ''l  F 'l 
1 X R

20
 CT TEST REPORT

T ST T
.
IT I
T
Ik . k
Ip . k

21
 CT REQUIRMENTS
urrent transformers ( T) to be used with protection devices must
satisfy the following requirements

- they must not saturate before the protections are sure to trip
(indicatively speaking, normally twice the setting for the overcurrent
protections);

- they must not saturate within a time interval shorter than the sampling
time of the protection, to ensure proper functioning of the relay;

- they must saturate for very high currents (indicatively - In) to

reserve the relays and cables downstream. This is very important,
especially for low-ratio T;

The true precision limit factor (F'I) may be verified by analy ing the
secondary circuit of the T (secondary T resistance, wiring,
protection) to determine the secondary current value at which the knee
voltage k of the T is reached (all resistances should obviously be
considered at a value of ). 22
 ELECTROMAGNETIC CT
(ROGOWSKY COIL)
Takes advantage of the mp re theorem to bind the voltage at the
terminals of the secondary winding to the flow that develops in the non-
magnetic material by effect of the electromagnetic field created by the
primary current. roduces a signal in proportion to the derivation of the
current. equires an electronic integrator.
on-linearity and saturation conditions do not exist, since there is no
magnet involved. There is also no hysteresis.
The main disadvantage is the low secondary power; it therefore may not
be used with traditional electromechanical or solid-state relays.

ADVANTAGES:
z electrical insulation
z thermal stability

23
 CT AND VT FOR DIGITAL
PROTECTIONS
IT I IT T TI S, T S ST TS
SI T S I ST T T TI
S S. I I I T T, T T ISI
SS S I SI T S ST T
T S I I TI .

EXAMPLE:

- T l . and
- T l . and

24
 GROUND FAULT
MEASURING METHOD

25
CONNECTION OF RING CURRENT
TRANSFORMER

26
 5
fusES

1
 STANDARD AND FUSE
CLASSIFICATION
REFERENCE STANDARD: EN 60282

FIRST CHARACTER
- g BREAKING CAPABILITY ON FULL RANGE
- a BREAKING CAPABILITY WITH REDUCED RANGE

SECOND CHARACTER
- G GENERAL PURPOSE
- M MOTOR PROTECTION

2
 FusES: definiTIONS 1
Breaking Current
Effective value of the tide interrupted presumed that a fuse is able
to interrupt to the established tension and under conditions
prescribed of use and of behavior.
Current interrupted presumed
Valued presumed current in correspondence of the instant in
which a fuse begins the arc during an interruption.
Interrupted limited current
Maximum instant value reached by the current during the
operation of interruption of a fuse.
Minimum interruption current
Least value of presumed current, that a cartridge is able to
interrupt to one determined voltage and under conditions defined
of use and of behavior.
3
 FusES: definiTIONS 2
Characteristic time/current
Curved showing the duration (for example the duration of
prearcing or the duration of operation) in operation of the effective
value of the symmetrical component of the presumed current, in
you define conditions of operation.
Duration of prearcing (latest of fusion)
Interval of time among the beginning of an intense current
sufficiently to provoke the fusion of the element or the meltable
elements and the instant in which it has beginning an arc.
Duration of arc
Interval of time between the instant of beginning of the arc and the
instant of final extinction of the arc.
Recovery Voltage
Tension that introduces to the heads of a fuse after the
4
interruption of the current.
 FUSES DEFINITIONS

CURVE OF THE FORESEEN SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

COURSE OF THE CURRENT

TIME
SHORT CIRCUIT START

ARCING TIME

TOTAL CLEARING TIME

PRE-ARCING TIME

1 CYCLE = 0.02 SECONDS

5
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
FUSES
It is a protection, not an apparatus of manoeuvre (but it can be
him associate);
It gathers in itself the function of relay (cheap) and the function
of interrupter (it has a very elevated power of interruption) it is
not restored;
It directly intervenes interrupting the circuit when the current is
over a determined value for a certain time in conformity to the
curve of intervention.
It limits the value of peak of the presumed current.

ADVANTAGES: - good protection for the short circuit;

- very economic;
DISADVANTAGES: - bad protection from the overloads; 6
SeCTION OF ONE FUSE

BEFORE MELTING

AFTER MELTING 7
EXPLODED FUSE
In= rated
current;

I1=current
least of
interruption
(2÷6 In)

I2=current of
arc that
produces the
condition of
maximum
energy
(20÷100 In);

I3=current
that furnishes
the maximum
ability of
interruption
(20÷508 kA).
 CURRENT VERSUS TIME
CHARACTERISTIC

Pre-arcing
time
[s]

9
foreseen short circuit current (RMS) [A]
 CURRENT LIMITING EFFECTS

Limited
peak current
[kA]

10
foreseen short circuit current (RMS) [A]
CONTACTOR PLUS FUSES
COORDINATION
Fuse melting (breaking) curve
t
Contactor breaking current

ta
I>

I
11
 FUSE CURRENT SELECTION
MOTOR FEEDER:
- The nominal current of the fuse has to be great than at least 1.3
- 1.6 times (it depends on the builder) the nominal current of the
motor.
- The nominal current of the fuse has to be such to be allowed the
foreen startings (it is necessary to know: current starting, time
of starting, number of startings /hour. to See charts of selection
of the builders).

TRANSFORMER FEEDER:
- The fuse has to be able to bear the tide of magnetization.
- The fuse has to be able to bear brief overloads (generally
defined equal to 5 times the rated current of the transformer for
5 seconds).
12
 6
PROTECTION SYSTEM:
GENERAL INFORMATION
ABOUT ELECTRICAL
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
1
EFFECTS OF INCORRECT
PROTECTION TRIPPING

2
 DISTURBANCES IN DISTRIBUTING
ELECTRICAL POWER
z S SS
- causes internal short-circuit
external network faults or maneuvers
- solutions appropriate network layout
emergency power supply
protection coordination

z T S
- causes short-circuit
starting large motors
- problems motors stall
contacts de-energi ed
- solutions adequate si ing of transformers and conductors, careful
selection of motor starter, coordinated protections. 3
 THE PROTECTION SYSTEM
This must limit personal in ury and damage to the system
z llow various operating conditions.
z nsure continuous service for those areas of the system
not affected by faults.
z ctivate the necessary automated mechanisms.
z The protection system is the overall group of
- relays with adequate setting ranges;
- instrument transformers;
- opening alarm logics that contribute to system protection;
- moving parts;
- auxiliary power supply system.
The relay itself is only one component of the protection
system. 4
 PECULIAR FETURES OF THE
PROTECTION SYSTEM
z Dependency:
it may be called upon to work following a brief or long interval after
installation. In any case, it must work whenever it is called upon to do so.

z Safety:
it must not be tripped when not needed (it must not trip during
transients). It must allow various operating conditions and activate the
necessary automated mechanisms.

z Selectivity:
it must trip only when necessary, ensuring continued service with
minimum network down-time.

z Speed:
represented by brief fault intervals and limited machinery damage.

z Simplicity:
measured by the amount of equipment necessary to protect the network.

z Economy:
assessed as the cost of the protection system in relation to the cost of
malfunctions. 5
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM FAULTS
z OVERCURRENTS - nomalous overheating of the conductors and machines
educed life-span

z SHORT-CIRCUITS - apid and intense overheating

elted conductors
- lectrodynamic strain
eformation of active conductors (busbars, windings)

z CURRENT UNBALANCES
- otor overheating
elted conductors

z REVERSED ENERGY FLOW

- ains power seepage

z OVERVOLTAGES - nomalous strain on insulating materials

evelop into complex faults
educed equipment life-span

The effects of a fault are essentially electrical, thermal and mechanical in nature.
6
 ClassificaTION OF TH FAULTS
FOR DURATION
- T - STI IS it disappears before the intervention of the
instant protections ( ms);

-T SIT it disappears with the first opening of the

interrupter ( ms);

-S I- T it disappears only after a second opening of the

circuit breaker;

- T it is not even eliminated after the second

opening and him come back after the cycle of
slow reclosing, forcing to the out of service of
the interested part of plant

FOR TYPOLOGY
In base to the typology of the faults they distinguish in single phase7to
ground, phase to phase and phase to phase to ground.
 PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF FAULTS
- SI I S TI it can for instance be caused by the superficial
pollution on the insulators (single phase to ground or phase to phase to ground
fault);

- I T T T T T S tied up cause to the

reduction of the distance of isolation among the phases (multi phase fault).
or instance in the aerial lines, this can be due to strong wind;

- T S T S I they are able to them

it turns to provoke a yelding of the isolation especially in correspondence of
possible weak points.

- I it is the cause most recurrent of breakdown. In the

aerial lines, the muffs of ice that are formed during the winter for instance,
cause often the breakup of the conductor that is not able to hold up the
weight.

- S it is the most frequent cause for the lines in cable, besides possible
overvoltages of inside origin and to degradation of the cable insulation are
8
often sub ect to due breakdowns to obs of excavation.
GENERAL CRITERIA FOR THE
PROTECTION SYSTEM

9
 CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING
A PROTECTION SYSTEM
Standards;
z acceptable risk (consequences of the fault);
z short-circuit currents (maximum and minimum);
z neutral status;
z self-production;
z coordination with the existing system;
z network configurations and operating criteria;
z habits.

Objective:
- to achieve the best possible technical-economic compromise, allowing
adequate protection from significantly probable faults;
- ensure that the investment is proportional to the Importance of the
system. 10
RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY
OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM
I I IT S

z T IT
- I I ;
- I S I I TI S;

z T IT
- T I I TI S;
-T T STS;

z S ST T
- ST TI ;
- ISSI I ;
- I T . 11
PeCULIARITIES OF THE PROTECTION
SYSTEM
T I I I IT T T, T S
S T I TI S

T S I T ;
T S I T ;
T S I T I T ;

T S S S ;
T S S IT I T ( ean Time etween ailure);
T S S IT TT ( ean Time To epair);

T S IT TI S T I STI .
12
ELECTRICAL PROTECTION:
LOGICAL SCHEME

13
 ELECTRICAL PROTECTION
rotection may be either direct (fuse, thermomagnetic release, etc.) or
indirect (protection relay powered by instrument transformers, T
and or T).

Direct protection is a single device that measures, compares the reading

to settings, and cuts off the circuit.

Indirect protection is made up of

- instrument transformers ( T and T);
- connecting conductors;
- protection relays;
- alarm or tripping circuits;
- parts that physically break the circuit;
- auxiliary power supply circuits.

ailed or incorrect functioning of even a single component compromises

the protection function.
The protection system should be considered as completed and integrated
by telecommunication and supervisory systems.
14
 ClassificaTION AND GREATNESS
CHARACTERISTCS OF THE PROTECTIONS
z PARAMETER SUPERVISED: T
T

z NUMBER OF INPUT CIRCUITS: , , ,

z OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC: I IT TI
I S TI
TI
I ST T S
z INTERFACE WITH CIRCUIT BREAKER: I T
I I T
z AUXILIARY SUPPLY:

T S
z TECHNOLOGY: TT I
ST TI
I IT 15
Time [s]

CURVES
CURRENT-
TIME FOR A
THERMO-
MAGNETIC
RELEASE

16
Current [A x 100]
Operating characteristic of electronic
releases installed on lv circuit breakers

t
z Thermal protection adjustable L Stage L

against the overloads; Time Stage L

z Delay of thermal protection;

z Selective short circuit protection S;
Stage S
z Time delay of the selective protection selective I2t ON
adjustable with position I2t ON-OFF.
In position ON the tripping
I2t OFF
characteristic is to inverse time. It
allows a best selectivity with the Temporization S
installed downstream apparatuses.
Stage I
z Instant protection The to adjustable
threshold against the short-circuits

17 I
PROTECTION RELAYS
REFERENCE STANDARDS

I T

OBSOLETE

18
IEC 60255

19
 RELAY sYMBOLS
elay or similar device.
ST I - The asterisk must be replaced by
graphic symbol distinctive symbols indicating the
characteristic si e and its means of
variation, energy transmission direction,
* setting range, reset ratio, delayed action,
delay value.
umerical codes are sometimes used to indicate protection devices, for
example overcurrent, undervoltage, etc., numerical coding was
introduced with into the I from standard. Into standard
- change the symbol.

The standard I . ( ) still uses numerical coding to indicate

protection devices. efore the numbers assigned by standard I
and standard had the same meaning; thereafter, in various revisions
of the standard , some numbers have changed meaning. It is
therefore necessary to be careful when reading documents that use
these symbols. 20
 PROTECTION DEVICES LABELs

The I ST (and consequently the I ST ) does not

define all of the symbols for the various protection functions. Thus one
often encounters a lack of uniformity in the symbols used in schematics.
21
 RELAYS DEFINITIONS
z ower supply an electrical specification measured by the relay, alone or
in combination.
z uxiliary power supply a specification that allows the relay to behave
as expected, and without which it cannot function.
z perating value value of the specification for which the relay
performs its intended function.
z elease ratio ratio between the value of the measurement causing the
release and that of the measurement governing operation.
z Tripping time time interval between the instant when the power supply
is changed under specified conditions, and the instant when the relay
output circuit changes status
z vershoot time maximum time interval for which the relay continues
its function in progress, in the event the characteristic measurement is
sharply returned to a release value.
22
 RELAYS TECHNOLOGIES
owadays, in digital relays, multiple functions have been concentrated in
protection devices; not all are protection functions, but more generally
measurements, operating logics and communication with other systems.
z electrodynamic relays S S
z electromechanical relays
I
z discrete component solid-state relays I
z microprocessor-based solid-state relays

ELECTRO SOLID STATE

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL DISCRET MICROPROCESSOR

OVERALL DIMENSIONS H/M H/M L M/L

CONSUMPTION
-AUXILIARY CIRCUIT - - L L
-INSTRUMENT CIRCUIT H H L L

SETTING RANGE L M H H

MAINTENANCE H H M L
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY - - M H

PROTOCOL COMPATIBILITY - - - H

COST M H L H 23
 ADVANTGES USING MICROPROCESSOR-
BASED PROTECTION DEVICES
z more accurate measuring methods;
z supervision of operating conditions;
z standardi ation of equipment with fewer types less cabling;
z remote setting;
z direct display of settings and measurements;
z reduced number and performance of instrument transformers;
z possibility of including special functions;
z improved selectivity with dedicated systems;
z analysis of phenomena with reconstruction of fault operating
parameters;
z enabled communication with improved data acquisition;
z support for programming calculated scheduled maintenance;
z on line network calculations;
z rapid commissioning. 24
 TYPES OF PROTECTION DEVICES
(APPLICATIONS)
z one protection devices (e.g. residual-current or impedance);
z achine protection devices (e. g. reverse power);

z Selective protection devices (e.g. overcurrent);

z on selective protection devices (e.g. underfrequency);

z ack-up protection devices (e.g. fuses, overcurrent);

z Interface protection devices (e.g. undervoltage, overvoltage and frequency-

related protection devices; overcurrent to disconnect the system network
from the distributor network);

z rotection devices to create automated systems (e.g. synchro check).

25
 PROTECTION DEVICES AND
THEIR FAULTS
MTBF MDT

Conventional
protection devices

Periodic testing cycle MTTR

MTTR
MDT

Digital protection
devices (in self-
test mode)

MTBF
igital protection devices are self-controlling
T mean down-time
TT mean troubleshooting and time to repair 26
T mean time between faults
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
OF A DIGITAL PROTECTION

S
A/I MUX A/D
H Analog-digital
conversion

COM
I>
MMI Numerical
DSP U<
SCS/S signal
Z<
1 DiffGen on
2 Current on
COM MS analysis
3 BinInp 2 off

etc.
trip
Binary
B/I signal
etc.
B/O process

27
 RELAY operating curves
DEFINITE TIME-DELAY INVERSE TIME-DELAY
t t

t1

t1 t2

I1 I1 I2 I
Instrument relays with definite time-delay: … operating times may be
considered to be independent from the operating values of the
characteristic specification.
I

Instrument relays with inverse time-delay: … operating times may be

considered to depend on the operating values of the characteristic28
specification.
TIME-CURRENT CURVES FOR INVERSE
TIME PROTECTION DEVICES
t STANDARD EN -
k
t
 I 1 I  1
α

a) Inverse time-current curve:

k=0.14 

b) Very inverse time-current curve:

k=13.5 =1
a
b
c) Extremely inverse time-current curve:
c
k=80 =2
29
I1 I
 Relay operating time
For lo -voltage releases standard EN - does not
specify e uations and parameters for defining the time-current curves.
The trip time indicated on the curves provided by manufacturers of
direct e uipment is the circuit brea er opening time paragraph . .
of the standard cited .

ith indirect relays the opening time of the operating part comes
from the trip time of the relay added to the operating time of the
circuit brea er and any au iliary relays included.

Some manufacturers of indirect protections provide a basic operating

time of the protection to hich the re uired delay should be added.

30
 TIME-CURRENT CURVE
FOR THERMAL RELAY
STANDARD IE .
t
I 2  Ip2
t  ln 2 2 τ
I  k  Ib

Ip pre-load current
old curve I let-through current
arm curve Ib base current

tau time constant

constant

t trip time
I 31
 DIRECTIONAL PROTECTION
OPERATING DIAGRAM

ASE R TE TI N a - EART R TE TI N a VARMETRI

32
BIAS DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Idiff

In

TRIPPING AREA

NON-TRIP AREA
I
rit

I n

33
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION operating
criteria (kirchoff law)

id  i1 i2

34
 “SELF-BALANCING”
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

35
 OVERFLUXING PROTECION
V%
VOLTAGE

PROTECTION

f%

FREQUENCY

36
Underimpedance PROTEction
(DISTANce relay)
X
X
zone 3

zone 2

zone 1
Trip area
R 0 R

37
 Application of
UNDERIMPEDANCE relay
The relays measure the mains impedance and trip hen
the impedance falls belo the set value.
These relays are normally used to protect lines and in
this case are no n as distance relays since the
impedance of a line is proportionate to its length.
The center of the circumference trape oids are used
for more comple protections varies based on the relay
application.

38
RE-CLOSING RELAYS

close
A open
TR rapid re-closing pause time
TR slo re-closing pause time
TN neutrali ation time after rapid re-closing
TN neutrali ation time after slo re-closing.

39
 7
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
PROTECTION

1
 TYPICAL LINE FAULTS
OVERLOAD: A SES current greater than the rated si ed value
EFFE TS overheating that induces precocious aging
of the insulating materials of the cables.

SHORT-CIRCUIT: A SES contact bet een conductors of different

phases
EFFE TS - burned insulation material and or
melting of the conductor material
- fires.

GROUND FAULT: A SES direct contact or via impedance bet een

a phase and earth
EFFE TS - circulation of a fault current depending
on the type of neutral operation the
fault resistance and the phase-earth
capacity of the net or
- occurrence of both transient and
permanent overvoltages. 2
STATISTICS ON HIGH-VOLTAGE
NETWORKS FAULTS
The table belo lists fault statistics on high-voltage EDF lines considering
m of line at V m of line at V m of line
at V and m of line at V.
VOLTAGE 400 kV 225 kV 90 kV 63 kV
LINE FAULTS
# FAULTS/100kM/YEAR 4,8 10,4 12,5 25,0
% MONO-PHASE 90,0 84,0 78,0 69,0
% PERMANENT 5,0 3,0 4,5 6,0
TRANSFORMER FAULTS
# FAULTS/BURST/YEAR 0,15 0,13 0,09 ---
BUSBAR FAULTS
# CELLS/ YEAR 1.2 /100 1.1/100 1.1/100 1.2 /100

3
 DISTANCE relay defINITIONS
z one of distance protection
- first one generally covers of the trip line ithout intentional delays
- second one covers more than of the line delayed tripping
- third one covers more than the second one of the line delayed tripping
- one A covers more than of the line also no n as the accelerated
one. Tripping is instantaneous hen a signal is received from the opposite
end
- start-up one usually not directional. overs more than one has a long
delay
z verreach
a length or impedance setting greater than the length impedance of the line
z nderreach
a length or impedance setting lo er than the length impedance of the line
z hec line function
hen the circuit brea er closes the instantaneous one briefly covers more
than of the line. The loc against reclosing is normally provided hen this
function is implemented.

Definitions gleaned from the document CIGRE -MAR

DRAFT R TE TI N SYSTEM SIN TELE MM NI ATI N . 4
 DISTANCE PROTECTIONS
RELAY TRIPPING TIME

TIME

SOURCE

DISTANCE
Distance relays ith several steps are used to protect lines to identify
both internal and e ternal approaching faults for the protected one.

Automatic single-pole and or three-pole re-closing is often arranged on

the lines depending on the voltage levels and the e uipment installed.
5
 ROTATING MACHINE:
NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENT
CAUSES: - single phase loads
- different impedance bet een the phases e.g. not e ual
terminals connections
- not transposition of phase line conductur
- faults bet een turns
- only one fuse blo ing
- phase to ground or unbalance faults
- negative se uence harmonics

EFFECTS: - negative se uence current ithin the stator indings

- inverse se uence rotating field inside the machine ith a
t ice fre uency ith rotor reference
- induction of a current ith fre uency f into the rotor
inding.
6
Non sinusoidal CURRENT

7
 ROTATING MACHINE:
DIRECT SEQUENCE CURRENT
HARMONIC N. 7 (DIRECT SEQUENCE)

TIME

8
 ROTATING MACHINE:
ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENT
HARMONIC N. 3 (ZERO SEQUENCE)

TIM E

9
 ROTATING MACHINE:
INVERSE SEQUENCE CURRENT
HARMONIC N. 5 (NEGATIVE SEQUENCE)

TIME

10
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The manufacturing specifications and si e of the alternator depend on
the primary motor and the type of service for hich it is foreseen

PRIME MOTOR: - T R INE - hydraulic

- steam
- a gas
- DIESEL

TYPE OF SERVICE - ASI turbogas - steam - hydraulic

- EA turbogas
-S RT turbogas - diesel
- EMER EN Y diesel
11
Generator descement short
circuit current

12
 GENERATOR FAULT CURRENT
The symmetrical short-circuit current decreases over time.
The follo ing e uation sho s the progress of a dead short current over
time at the terminals of a generator in no-load conditions only the
symmetrical component is sho n
 1 1   1 1 1
I(t)  In   et T"d   et T'd  
 x"d x' d   x' d xd xd
here In rated alternator current
d subtransient reactance
d transient reactance
d synchronous reactance
T subtransient time constant
T transient time constant.
The e uations for calculating the time constants of an impedance for
do nstream faults the impedance e uations for cable or transformer are
not ritten since they must obviously be added together are as follo s
X "d  X reactance bet een the generator and the
T"d  T"do fault point
X 'd  X
X'd  X T do subtransient open-circuit time constant
13
T ' d  T ' do 
Xd  X T do transient open-circuit time constant.
 Capability curves
Active current
underexcitation axe Iw overexcitation
Iw
Operation
practical limit
Rated operating point
(cosϕ = 0.88)

InW
Turbine power
limits

Stability
limit
In
ϕ
Reactive current
axe Iq

u Inq Iq
14
Xd
Rotating machine: negative
sequence capability
I2
1.6 In

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Time (s)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
15
Rotating machine: negative
sequence current
2
MAXIMUM I2/In FOR MAXIMUM (I 2/In) t FOR
TYPE OF MACHINE PERMANENT SERVICE OPERATION IN FAULT
CONDITION

SALIENT POLE

motors 0.10 20

indirect cooler generators 0.08 20

synchronous compensator 0.10 20
Motors 0.08 15
direct cooler (internal cooler) of
the stator and/or excitation generators 0.05 15
synchronous compensator 0.08 15

CILINDRICAL

with air 0.10 15

indirect cooler
with hidrogen 0.10 10
direct cooler (internal cooler) of
the stator and/or excitation 350 MVA 0.08 8

16
Rotating machine: zero
sequence capability
Effect of arc burning on stator core
laminations during earth fault

one A negligible arc burning

one slight burning
one severe damage.

17
 GENERATOR INTERNAL FAULTS
- SHORT-CIRCUIT: A SES phase-phase short-circuit or bet een the turns of the
same phase
EFFE TS - short-circuit current variable over time and based on
the energi ing system
- overheated indings.

- EARTH FAULT: A SES accident contact bet een the stator inding stator earth
or rotor inding rotor earth and earth magnetic circuit or
chassis
EFFE TS - in the case of a stator phase-earth fault the current
value of the fault depends on ho the neutral is
earthed
- in the case of rotor phase-earth fault no problems occur
at the first fault but the machine is less energi ed at
the second fault the field circuit has an insulated
neutral .
- LOSS OF FIELD: A SES fault in the field circuit or at the voltage regulator
EFFE TS - loss of synchrony
- absorption of all or part of the reactive energy from the
net or
- overheating of the stator and rotor current induced by
the rotary magnetic field 18
- voltage drop at the generator terminals.
GENERATOR EXTERNAL FAULT
SHORT-CIRCUIT: A SES - accidental phase-phase contact do nstream from
the generator terminals
EFFE TS - short-circuit current variable over time and based on
the energi ing system.
OVERLOAD: A SES - increased demand for electrical po er
EFFE TS - increase in the active current delivered thus
overheating the stator
- absorption of reactive current from the net or
thus overheating the stator and rotor
- reduced rotation speed and fre uency in island .
UMBALANCE: A SES - supply of an unbalanced load
- short-circuit bet een turns of the same phase
EFFE TS - currents in reverse se uence
- rotor overheated.
FREQUENCY A SES - speed regulator fault f fn or f fn
CHANGE: - po er delivered higher than rated level f fn .
EFFE TS - overheating in motors if f fn
- motor slo do n if f fn ith diminished
performance.
VOLTAGE A SES - voltage regulator fault n or n
CHANGE: - loss of energi ing V Vn .
EFFE TS - abnormal stress on insulation if n
- functional problems in motors if n 19
 FAULTS IN THE generator
PRIMARY MOTOR
REVERSE POWER FLOW: A SES lac of energy from the primary
motor steam diesel etc.

EFFE TS - generator operating as a

motor thus driving the
rotation of the primary motor
- absorption of the active
current from the net or .

TYPE OF PRIMARY MOTOR POWER REQUIRED TO DRIVE THE

PRIMARY MOTOR (%Pn)
DIESEL 15-25%
TURBOGAS 10-15%
STEAM TURBINE 1-5%
HYDRAULIC TURBINE 0.2-2%
20
Generator protections D
CODE RELAY DESCRIPTION E 86 86 52 41 152 STOP ALLAR 52-
RELAY G GE GI TURB BT
R
E
E
87G GEN. PHASE DIFFERENCE X X X X
46-1 UNBALANCED CURRENTS 1 X
46-2 2 X
40 FIELD MISSING X
21-1 MINIMUM IMPEDANCE 1 X
21-2 2 X
32 POWER FEEDBACK X
64S STATOR EARTH X
27 MINIMUM VOLTAGE X
59-1 MAXIMUM VOLTAGE 1 X
59-2 2 X
24 OVERFLOW 1 X
2 X
81<-1 UNDERFREQUENCY 1 X
81<-2 2 X
81> OVERFREQUENCY X
64R-1 ROTOR EARTH 1 X
64R-2 2 X
51 MAX. UNIT BURST CURRENT 1 X X
50 2 X X
51G MAX. EARTH UNIT BURST X X
CURRENT
64Uo MAX SINGLE-POLE VOLTAGE X X
50BF CIRCUIT-BREAKER FAILURE X X X
86GI INTERNAL FAULT LOCK RELAY X X X X
86GE EXTERNAL FAULT LOCK RELAY X X X X X
AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLY X
FAULT
Relay 60 (VT fault) inhibits operation of relay :
27 – minimum voltage;
40 – field missing;
21 – minimum impedance;
LEGEND: 86GE lock relay for external faults;
86GI lock relay for internal faults;
152 HV side circuit-breaker;
52 machine (generator) circuit-breaker;
41 generator field circuit breaker;
STOP TURB stop turbine;
52-LV Secondary unit transformer circuit breaker.

21
Small l.v. generators
For the protection of the LV small
generator care shall be ta en to
- The LV generator circuit brea er
cannot find fault inside the
generator in stand alone operation
- If the generator and transformer
star point are both connected to
ground homopolar current can
circulate through the ground
connection. This current can reach
up to the of the generator
current. onse uently verification
shall be done that the ground fault
current protection shall have
third harmonic filter
- The T that supply the
overcurrent protection for the
generator V shall be located
22
on
generator star point side.
 ASYNCHRONOUS MOTOR faults
In a statistical study carried out in the nited States on a family of
appro imately machines or ing from years under broadly
different climatic conditions and a ide range of applications it as found
that
- number of motors sub ect to faults appro imately

- total number of faults as follo s - stator

- rotor
- fault causes - bearings
- other causes

y analy ing the type of fault per component you can observe that of faults in
the stator are caused by insulation defects hile the remainder are due to defects
in the pac binding eys etc.
here the rotor is concerned half the faults are caused by defects regarding the
cage bars d.c. rings and the remainder regarding other components shaft pac .
The greatest number of faults ere caused by bearings by sliding
bearings by roller bearings by sealed bearings thrust bearings 23 oil
and other causes.
 TORQUE-SPEED AND CURRENT-SPEED
CURVES FOR AN ASYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The drive tor ue of an asynchronous motor is in proportion to the s uare

24
of the voltage.
 START-UP CHARACTERISTIC
OF AN ASYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

25
 Motor INTERNAL FAULTS
SHORT-CIRCUIT: A SES phase-phase contact or bet een the turns of
the same phase
EFFE TS - circulation of a very high current function of
the fault point and the po er supply net or
- electrodynamic strain
- melting of conductor materials and damage to
insulation.
EARTH FAULT: A SES accidental contact bet een the stator inding
stator earth or rotor inding rotor earth and
the magnetic circuit or chassis
EFFE TS - damage to the blade pac
- field circuit umbalance.
LOSS OF FIELD: A SES fault in the energi ing circuit only for
synchronous machines
EFFE TS - loss of synchrony
- absorption of the reactive energy needed for
operation from the net or
REPEATED START-UP: A SES consecutive repeated start-ups of the 26
motor
EFFE TS overheating mainly in the rotor circuit
 Motor EXTERNAL FAULTS
(POWER SUPPLY NETWORK)
UNBALANCE: A SES - non-symmetrical supply voltages
- umbalanced or distorting loads on the
po er supply busbars of the motor
- lac of a phase e.g. fuse tripped
- harmonic distortion present in the voltage
EFFE TS - reverse se uence current
- rotor overheated
VOLTAGE DROP: A SES voltage drop e.g. caused by re-acceleration
or malfunction in the tap changer on the
transformers
EFFE TS - reduced motor tor ue and machine rotation
speed
- increase in the absorbed current causing
overheating.
27
FAULTS IN THE operating MACHINE
OVERLOAD: A SES increase in stall tor ue applied to the motor a le
EFFE TS - increase in the absorbed current causing overheating
- reduced electrical life-span of the machine.

PROLONGED START-UP: A SES - lo supply voltage

- stall tor ue greater than motor tor ue
EFFE TS machine overheating.

LOCKED ROTOR: A SES - mechanical problems bearings or lubrication problems

- machine tool fault
EFFE TS absorbed current e ual to start-up current causing
overheating

LOAD LOSS: A SES problems ith the machine tool e.g. vacuum in a pump
EFFE TS machine overheating if the fluid cools .

REVERSE POWER FLOW: A SES reduced supply voltage only for synchronous
machines
EFFE TS the synchronous machine driven in rotation by the inertia of
the rotary masses delivers energy to ards the net or28 .
ELECTRICAL PROTECTION DEVICES OF
ASYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
rotective functions supplied by
T s and VT s.
Thermal protection device
connected to the temperature
sensors is not sho n
ndervoltage
ndercurrent
Negative se uence current
Too long starting and loc ed
rotor during running
Thermal overload
Short circuit could be ta en
over by fuses
N round fault overcurrent
Repeated start-ups
Differential. 29
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRANSFORMER
inrush CURRENT
The duration and value of the inrush current of a
transformer depend on
- the instant hen the transformer is connected
- supply net or short circuit po er
- resistance bet een the supply source and transformer
- rated transformer po er
- construction specifications of the transformer
- magnetic material of the core and its saturation
- any residual flu .

30
 TRANSFORMER inrush CURRENT value
Io
I
1  Io  X
here
I inrush current
Io inrush current ith infinite source po er
X source reactance in . . compared to the rated po er of the
transformer.
The table belo sho s the minimum and ma imum percentage values of the
harmonic distortion present in the inrush current during the initial phases
of the connection transient. The value that the harmonic distortion can
reach in e ceptional conditions is sho n in brac ets

31
WAVEFORM OF THE TRANSFORMER
inrush CURRENT

32
 TRANSFORMER inrush CURRENT
The effective transformer inrush current may be calculated using the
follo ing e uation
t τ
K In e
I
2
The characteristic values for parameters K and τ are as follo s for the
most common transformer si es
Sn K τ
VA s

.
.
.
.
.
. 33
 TYPICAL TRANSFORMER FAULTS
OVERLOAD: A SES increased loads or absorbed po er
EFFE TS overcurrent ith overheating reducing
the electrical life-span of the machine.

SHORT-CIRCUIT: A SES phase-phase contact or bet een the turns

of the same phase
EFFE TS - in the case of a fault bet een phases
may cause violent overheating and
electrodynamic strain on the indings
- in the case of a fault bet een turns of
the same phase damages the insulation
material and encourages development
into a phase-phase fault.
EARTH FAULT: A SES contact bet een a inding and the magnetic
circuit or chassis
EFFE TS fault current ith a value depending on the
status of the neutral the connection of the
inding here the fault is located and34
the
location of the fault in the inding itself.
TRANSFORMER protections
verload primary short-circuit secondary
short-circuit selective
rimary ground fault
hase-phase short-circuit
Secondary ground fault and bac up of the
secondary circuit this protection must open
the circuit-brea er to the primary side
round fault at the secondary circuit
Secondary inding ground fault restricted
ground fault
verload and short-circuit at the secondary
circuit

not noted
- verpressure uchol
- Thermal protection using sensors
- verflo magnetic circuit protection
- Ma imum ground current of enclosure .35
TRANSFORMER symmetrical and
asymmetrical faults

36
CONNECTING THE PROTECTION TO THE
STAR point OF THE TRANSFORMER

ith T placed do nstream from

the resistor an earth fault in the
resistor short-circuits the
protection ma ing it useless.

It should be considered that the

star point protection is the last in
the selectivity chain and there is
generally no delimiting protection
for this relay.

37
Capacitor faults and protections
OVERLOAD:
A SES voltage increase
EFFE TS - increased voltage gradient
and conse uent life
reduction
- increased absorbed
current.

SHORT CIRCUIT:
A SES insulation failure
EFFE TS dielectric punching.
EARTHFAULT:
A SES insulation failure
EFFE TS dielectric punching.
UNBALANCE:
A SES short circuit in one or
multiple capacitor elements
EFFE TS unbalanced load and
conse uent starpoint
shifting.
OTHER: current pea function of
and of the source impedance
at the capacitor ban
insertion ith an high
damping rate. 38
 8
RELAY SELECTIVITY
CRITERIA

1
 SELECTIVITY
z From the preface to the boo A LIED AND R TE TIVE RELAYIN

...... a better understanding of the protective relaying art can contribute

considerably to ard better system design and operation.
TY E F SELE TIVITY
one selectivity
Directional selectivity
urrent selectivity
hronometrical selectivity
Mi ed current and chronometrical selectivity
Logical selectivity
Energy selectivity. 2
 ZONE SELECTIVITY
z The protection device trips hen the sum of the currents at both
terminals of the component being protected is other than ero

i1 i2

i 1  i 2  0 the protection device does not trip

i 1  i 2  0 the protection device trips

NE SELE TIVITY A LIES T DISTAN E R TE TI N

DEVI ES AS ELL AS DIFFERENTIAL R TE TI N DEVI ES.
3
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFRENTIAL
PROTECTION DEVICES
A transformer differential
protection device
restricted earth fault differential
protection device of secondary
transformer inding
generator differential protection
device
D busbar differential protection
device
E pilot- ire differential protection
device
F motor differential protection
device.
4
 DIRECTIONAL SELECTIVITY

The protection trips hen the current flo s in a certain direction and
the current module e ceeds the setting.

5
 APPLICATIONS FOR DIRECTIONAL
PROTECTION DEVICES
These protections are generally used ith ring net or s or parallel sources.

6
 CURRENT-TYPE SELECTIVITY
I2 t B

A A

tB
I1

tA
B

B 1 A 2
The tripping selectivity is obtained by ad usting the upstream protection to a value
greater than the overcurrent that may circulate in the do nstream device
The current margin is generally - bet een indirect protection devices 7and
- bet een overcurrent releases.
 TIME-TYPE SELECTIVITY
t

B tA A

tB B

IA/IB I1 I

The tripping selectivity bet een protection devices is obtained by

delaying the tripping of the upstream protections compared to the
do nstream protection. 8
TIME-TYPE (CHRONOMETRICAL)
SELECTIVITY STEPS
A t = tA - tB

B t

t Tem relay error A ( 10% tA )

Ta auxiliary relays in circuit A

To relay A inertia (20÷40 ms)

Tm safety margin (100÷150 ms)

tA A Ti
circuit breaker B opening time (in BT 20ms)

tB B Tev
relay B error ( 10% tB)

9 t
B A 0
 TIME STEP DEFINITION
For direct protection devices, the manufacturer provides the selectivity tables.
For selectivity between fuses and protection devices, the time margin to be considered is :
DT = 0.4 x Tf + 0.15 s with: Tf = fuse blow time;
For indirect protection devices with definite time-current curves, the time margin between
two protection devices in series( DT) should be calculated as follows:
DT = Te + Ta + Ti + To +Tm
Te = sum of the time errors of the relays downstream and upstream;
Ta = time for the auxiliary (lock) relays inserted in the opening circuit;
Ti = opening time for the circuit-breaker downstream;
To = 'overshoot' inertia time of the protection device upstream;
Tm = safety margin;
Indicatively speaking, the time margins to be considered with indirect protection devices are
as follows:
- 200-250 ms for tripping times of up to 500 ms;
- 250-300 ms for tripping times of between 500 and 1000 ms.
For indirect protection devices with inverse time-current curves, one doesn't need to take
the difference in times at the same current into account, but the difference in the times
considered between the current with the maximum positive tolerance upstream and the
current with the maximum negative tolerance downstream, in addition to the sum of the time
errors of the relays.
Indicatively speaking, the time margins to be considered with indirect protection devices are
as follows:
- 250-300 ms for tripping times of up to 500 ms; 10
- 300-400 ms for tripping times of between 500 and 1000 ms.
 MIXED CURRENT AND
TIME SELECTIVITY
t B A t B A
A

B  

The selectivity of the upstream protection, compared to the downstream

protection, is obtained by setting currents and tripping times on the
upstream protection greater than those on the downstream protection.
11
 LOGICAL SELECTIVITY

A tA

pilot-wire
connection

B tB

The protection device trips when the current exceeds the setting value and no locking signals
arrive from other logically-interconnected protection devices.
The advantage lies in being able to apply only current-type selectivity with elements arranged
in series (essentially creating one selectivity). 12
This is applied to both phase and earth protection devices.
LOGICAL SELECTIVITY CIRCUIT BREAKER ‘D’

13
SELECTIVITY DIAGRAM (TCC)

14
CHARACTERISTCS OF COORDINATION SHEET
the sheet is bi-logarithmic;
the sheet must note the reference voltage;
the maximum fault overcurrent must be noted for both phase-phase and phase-earth faults;
the coordination curves must be represented at the voltage indicated on the coordination
sheet;
protection devices working at different voltages must be designed taking into account the
ratio between voltages;
the coordination curves must extend in abscissa up to the maximum fault overcurrent in the
point where they are connected;
when showing the time-current curves for the protection devices at different voltage l evels
(upstream or downstream of a transformer) in a coordination diagram, one must take into
account how the modules and se uences of the currents change in relation to the
transformer connection unit;
when a protection device has several functions (for instance, overload and short-circuit
protection), the time-current curves of its functions should be truncated at the crossover
point for easier understanding of the diagram;
when reading coordination diagrams, one must pay close attention to the actual fault
elimination time for each curve shown. ote that:
- for direct protection devices, the curve time corresponds to the total fault clearing time;
- for indirect protection devices, the time shown represents the moment when the
protection device sends an opening command to the circuit-breaker.
the coordination diagram for the protection devices must also show the time-current curves
of the undervoltage relays involved in the selectivity 15
 SYSTEM DATA NEEDED TO STUDY
PROTECTION COORDINATION

z I DI ;

z T- I IT T TI ( and I );

z T T T DF T T ( and I );

z I IFI TI ;

z T TI I ;
z I T TT F IFI TI ;

z T TI IFI TI ( F T DT ).

16
TCC DRAWINGS

17
 9
ProTECTIVE RELAY TEST
(START-UP TEST)

1
 TEST ON PROTECTIVE SYSTEM
IT T D :
T T T :
T T T TI F T FT ID F

D I T I T :
T I T D I T IF FT T
memo

The system of protection they are not only the relays, but:
- Instrument transformers;
- wiring;
- rotective relay;
- Tipping circuits;
- larm circuits;
- auxiliary supply;
- onitoring system;
- system of automation 2
 verificATIONS AT THE PLANT
STARTUP
hen a plant is put in service for the first time, it is
necessary to do:
z I TI FT T F T TI
z FT I T FI TI
z T T D T( IT )
z D T T FT
z I T T FT
z IT T I I I FT
z T FT T I I D I IT

3
 Operations of periodic
verification (maintenance)
hen in a plant it effects the ordinary or extraordinary
maintenance, it is necessary to do:

I I TI

I T T FT T

T T FI TI

D T T FT

T FT T I I D I IT
4
 Tests on protection
system
zPRIMARY TESTS (PRIMARY INJECTION):
T T T T. T FI T
I T TI D TI T TT I IT
F T DIFI D

z SECONDARY TESTS (SECONDARY INJECTION):

T I T T I T
F TI IT IT I T TI

5
 FREQUENCY IN THE CONTROLS
OF THE PROTECTION SYSTEM
THE FREQUENCY WITH WHICH IT EFFECTS THE
MAINTENANCE OF THE PROTECTIONS, DEPENDS
FROM:
CONDITIONS OF INSTALLATION;
AVAILABILITY OF PERSONNEL ET RESOURCES;
AVAILABILITY OF PLANT SHUTDOWN;
RISK ARRIVING FROM A FAILURE OF THE SYSTEM OF
PROTECTION;
AVAILABILITY OF TEST RELAY APPARATUSES;
RELAY TECHNOLOGY:
- ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY EVERY 6 MONTHS;
- ELECTRONIC RELAY EVERY 1 YEAR;
- MICROPROCESOR RELAY EVERY 5 YEARS (GIVES VARYING I
OPERATION OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS).
6
general notes related to the
tests on the protections
T T F T IT D

T I I FI
- D FT TF I T D
-F TI D TI DI
- T T TF I TT D T
T

IF T TD 'T F I T T, T IF T
I IT I T D FT T IT T IT I
T TI

T I T I , IF I IT D, F F
D TT I T T I I IT F

7
 10
EXAMPLE OF
SELECTIVITY
1
PROTECTION ONE LINE DIAGRAM

2
MOTOR PROTECTION: SETTING TABLE

3
MOTOR PROTECTION: SELECTIVITY CURVES

4
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION: SETTING TABLE

5
6
CAPACITOR PROTECTION: SELECTIVITY CURVES

8
TAKREER RELAY SELECTIVITY STUDY

9
 SUBSTATION 1400 132/33 Kv
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SETTING TABLE

10
 SUBSTATION 1400 132/33 Kv:
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SELECTIVITY CURVES

11
 SUBSTATION 1400 33/11 Kv
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SETTING TABLE

12
 SUBSTATION 1400 33/11 Kv
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SELECTIVITY CURVES

13
 SUBSTATION 1400 33/0.415 Kv
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SETTING TABLE

14
 SUBSTATION 1400 33/0.415 Kv
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SELECTIVITY CURVES

15
 SUBSTATION 402 3.3/0.415 KV
SELECTIVITY VERIFICATION: SETTING TABLE

16
17