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CONCLUSION:- On deeply going into depth of provisions laid down in the Act it
is revealed that surety liability is co-extensive with that of principal debtor means
that his liability is exactly the same as that of the principal debtor. Suppose if the
default having made by the principal debtor the creditor can recover the same from
the surety all what he could have recovered from the principal debtor.
4. What do you understand by contract of guarantee? How does it differ from
contract of Indemnity?
INTRODUCTION: - The contract of guarantee may be an ordinary or some
different type of guarantee which is different from an ordinary guarantee.
Guarantee may be either oral or written. Basically it means that a contract to
perform the promise or discharge the liability of third person in case of his default
and such type of contracts are formed mainly to facilitate borrowing and lending
money which based on the following facts :-
i) Surety is the person by the whom the guarantee is given.
ii) Principal debtor is the person from whom the assurance is given.
iii) Creditor is the person to whom the guarantee is given.
DEFINITION: - “A contract of guarantee is a contract to perform the promise or
to discharge the liabilities of a third person in case of his default. The person who
gives the guarantee is called surety, the person in respect of whose default the
guarantee is given is called Principal Debtor and the person to whom the guarantee
is given is called creditor. A guarantee may be either oral or written.”
ILLUSTRATION: - A promises to a shopkeeper C that A will pay for the items
being bought by B if B does not pay this is a contract of guarantee. In case if B
fails to pay C can sue A to recover the balance the same was held in the case of
Birkmyr v/s Darnell-1704, the court held that when two persons come to shop
one person buys and to give him credit the other person promises, “ if he does not
pay, I will”, this type of a collateral undertaking o be liable for the default of
another is called a contract of guarantee.
ESSENTIALS: - The following are the essential elements of Guarantee:-
1. Existence of Creditor, Surety, and Principal debtor: - The economic function of
a guarantee is to enable a credit-less person to get a loan or employment or
something else. Thus there must exist a principal debtor for a recoverable debt for
which the surety is liable in case of the default of the principal debtor. In the case
of Swan v/s Bank of Scotland -1836, It was held that a contract of guarantee is a
triplicate agreement between the creditor, the principal debtor and the surety.
2. Distinct Promise of Surety: - There must be distinct promise by the surety to be
answerable for the liability of the Principal debtor.
3. Liability must be legally enforceable: - Only if the liability of the principal
debtor is legally enforceable, the surety can be made liable. For example a surety
cannot be made liable for a debt barred by Statute of Limitation.
4. Consideration: - As with any valid contract the contract of guarantee also must
have a consideration. The consideration in such contract is nothing but anything
done or the promise to do something for the benefit of the principal debtor. The
section 127 of the Act clarify as under :-
“Anything done or any promise made for the benefit of principal debtor is
sufficient consideration to the surety for giving the guarantee.”
Illustrations: - 1. A agrees to sell to B certain goods if C guarantees for payment of
the price of the goods. C promises to guarantee the payment in consideration of
A’s promise to deliver goods to B. This is sufficient consideration for C’s
promise.
2. A sells and delivers goods to B. C afterwards requests A to forbear to sue B for
an year and promise if A does so he will guarantee the payment if B not pay. A
forbears to sue B for one year. This is sufficient consideration for C’s guarantee.
5. It should be without misrepresentation or concealment: - Section 142 of the
Act specifies that a guarantee obtained by misrepresenting facts that are material to
the agreement is invalid, and section 143 specifies that a guarantee obtained by
concealing a material fact is invalid as well.
Illustration :- 1. A appoints B for collecting bills to account for some of the bills.
A asks B to get a guarantor for further employment. C guarantees B’s conduct but
C is not made aware of B previous mis-accounting by A. B afterwards defaults. C
cannot be held liable.
Illustration: 2- A promise to sell Iron to B if C guarantees payment. C guarantees
payment however, C is not made aware of the fact that A and B had contracted that
B will pay Rs.5/- higher that the market price. B defaults. C cannot be held liable
A case of London General Omnibus V/s Holloway- 1912: A person was invited
guarantee an employee, who was previously dismissed for dishonesty by some
employer. This fact was not told to the surety. Later on the employee embezzled
funds but the surety was not held liable.
CONCLUSION
It is noted from the above mentioned facts that the contract of guarantee is a
triplicate agreement between Creditor, Surety and the Principal debtor. A person
who stands for surety known as guarantor for a third person (principal debtor) who
in case of his default to fulfil his promise or to discharge the liabilities. The surety
or guarantor has to make a distinct promise for payment of the liabilities of the
Principal debtor which must be legally enforced.
In a pledge pawne acquires a special interest in the Right to lien gives only a right t
property pledged. subject matter of the lien until paym
not transferable to a third person.
Pledge is deliver of goods to the creditor as security Lien is a right of a creditor to reta
for the debt. until his debt is paid or satisfied
UNIT- III
11. Explain various ways in which an agency relationship is created. Also
describe about the different kinds of Agent?
INTRODUCTION:- An agent is a person employed to do any act for another or to
represent another in dealing with third parties. The person for whom such act is
done or who is so represented is called the principal. Where one person mere gives
advice to another in matter of business agency does not arise because of such
advice only does not create an Agency. Sayed Abdul Khader v/s Rami
Reddy,1979.
The following are the various ways in which a relationship of agency is created:-
WHO MAY EMPLOY AGENT:- No person can employ an agent if he does not
possess capacity to contract. So a minor or person of unsound mind cannot become
the principal under section 183 of the Indian Contract Act.
WHO MAY BE AN AGENT:- According to section 184 of the Act any person
can be appointed as an agent but a person who is not of age of majority and of
sound mind cannot be made personally liable for the act done on behalf of the
principal. Minor can create contractual relation but a minor agent cannot be made
personally liable to the principal for the misconduct like an adult agent.
CONSIDERATION: No consideration is required for the creation of an Agency
under section 185 of the Act. A case of Digvijay Cement Co.Ltd. v/s State
Trading Corpn., 2006.
KINDS OF AGENT:- On the basis of provisions available in the Contract Act the
following are kinds of Agent in the business of Agency:-
1. Del-Credere Agent:- Such type of Agent who for extra remuneration undertakes
the liability of guarantee the due performance of the contract by the other party. He
is also responsible for the solvency and performance of their contracts by the other
parties.
2. COMMISSION AGENT:- A commission agent is person who purchases and sells
goods in the market on behalf of his employer on the best possible terms and who
gets commission for his labor.
3. FACTOR:- He is such type of agent who is given the possession of the goods for
the purpose of selling them. He is entitled to sell the goods in his own name. A
factor has a right to retain the goods for a general balance of accounts.
4. BROKER:- He is also to be known in the name of Mercantile Agent employed for
the purpose of sale and sale of goods. The main duty of a broker is to establish
privity between two parties for a transaction and he gets commission for his labour.
He is not entrusted with the possession of the goods. He merely brings two parties
together and if the deal is materialized he becomes entitled to the commission.
5. CO-AGENT:- Where several persons are expressly authorized with no stipulation
that anyone or more of them shall be authorized to act in name of the whole body.
They have a joint authority and they are called co-Agents.
6. Sub-Agent:- The sub-agents are usually appointed by the original Agent in the
business of Agency. He works under the control of original Agent.
7. PACCA- AARTIA:- He is also known by this name only and he works in the
open market to sell the goods on commission basis. He only sells the goods.
CONCLUSION:- As regards to determine whether relationship is that of Agent
and Principal or that of Master and servant. Agent has to remain faithful to his
principal and has work in good faith in the business of Agency. There must be
relation in between principal and the agent. Merely giving advice to another person
in the matter of business does not arise any business of agency. The main object of
the agency business that the agent makes the principal answerable to third person.
13. Discuss fully the extent of Principals liabilities to third parties for the Act
of the Agent.
INTRODUCTION:- Agent is a person employed to do any act for another or to
represent another in dealing with third persons. There one of the most essential
characteristics of Agency is that the agent makes the principal answerable to third
persons. Principal is held bound by the obligations incurred on his behalf by his
agent. Section 226 to 228 of the Act deals with the law regarding the obligations
of principal for the contract of his Agent.
We will find from the following provisions and illustrations that how the
Principal’s liabilities and is bound answerable to the third parties for the acts done
by his agent:-
1. Principal’s obligation for acts of Agents:- Section 226 of the Indian Contract
Act provides that contract entered into through an Agent and obligations arising
from acts done by an Agent and will have the same legal consequences as if the
contract has been entered into and the acts done by the principal in person. This
section is based on the principle act as in Maxim which means that the act of an
Agent is the act of the principal.
ILLUSTRATION:- A being B’s Agent with the authority to receive money on his
behalf receives from C a sum of money due to B. C is discharged of his obligation
to pay the sum in question to B.
2. When an agent does more than he is authorized to do and when the part of what he
does, which is within his authority, can be separated from the part which is beyond
his authority the principal is liable only for so much part of what he does as is
within Agent’s authority as provided in Section 227 of the Act.
ILLUSTRATION:- A being the owner of a ship and cargo authorizes B to procure
an insurance for Rs.4000/- on the ship. B procures a policy for Rs.4000/- on the
ship and another for the like sum on the cargo. A is bound to pay the premium for
the policy on the ship but not the premium for the policy on the cargo.
3. An agent does more than he is authorized to do and what he does beyond the scope
of his authority is not separable from what is within it the principal is not liable for
the transaction as provided in the section 228 of the Act.
ILLUSTRATION:- Where A authorizes B to buy 5000 sheep for him and B buys
5000 sheep and 200 lambs for a sum rupees 6000/- . A may repudiate the whole
transaction.
4. OSTENSIBLE AUTHORITY:- Section 237 of the Contract Act embodies the
principle of ostensible authority. The section lays down When an agent has
without authority done acts or incurred obligations to third persons on behalf of his
principal, the principal is bound by such acts or obligations if he has by the words
or conduct induced such third persons to believe that such acts and obligations
were within the scope of the Agent’s authority.”
ILLUSTRATION:- A being B’s agent for the sale of goods induces C to buy
them by misrepresentation which he was not authorized by B to make. The
contract is voidable as between B and C, at the opinion of C. Undersection 238 of
the Act misrepresentation or fraud committed by an Agent may be classified into
two categories:-
i) Under his actual or ostensible authority.
ii) Which is not covered within his authority, the principal is liable for the acts which
fall under actual or ostensible authority.
5. A leading case on this subject is of Lloyds v/s Grace Smith in which it was held
that a principal is liable for the fraud of his agent within the scope of his authority
whether the fraud is committed for the benefit of the Principal or for the benefit of
Agent.
CONCLUSION:- On the perusal studies of the above provisions and the
illustrations it is seen that the liabilities of the Principal towards third persons are
based on the acts done by his agents. However in some cases it is also seen and
Principal is not liable for any wrongful act or omission of his Agent while acting
without the principal authority outside the ordinary course of employment or while
not acting nor purporting to act on his principal’s behalf.
14. Define the term Sub-Agent. How for is principal bound by the acts of Sub-
Agents. Distinguish between Sub-Agent and Substituted Agent.
INTRODUCTION:- A rule which based on the principle that Agency is a contract
based on trust and mutual confidence between the parties. A principal may have
the mutual confidence in his Agent but not in the subsequent sub Agent appointed
by the Agent. There is a provision regarding ‘delegates non-protest delegare’
which means of this maximum is that an agent to whom another has delegated his
own authority cannot delegate that authority to a third person.
PROVISIONS MADE IN THE ACT:- Under section 190 of the Contract Act
which deals with delegation of an authority by the Agent describes as under:-
“An agent cannot lawfully employ another to perform acts which he has
expressly or impliedly undertaken to perform personally unless by the ordinary
custom or trade a sub-agent may or from the nature of the agency a sub-agent must
be employed.”
However the general principle is that the agent cannot delegate his authority to a
third person but there are two exceptions to this general rule. These are:-
i) When the ordinary custom of trade permits employment of a sub-agent.
ii) When the nature of agency demands that employment of a su-agent is necessary by
the Agent.
Although there are two exceptional conditions no agent is authorized to
delegate his authority it the nature of his act is purely managerial and he is
supposed to use his personal skill in discharge of his duty or where he is personally
required to perform his duties.
SUB-AGENT:- Sub agent is a person employed by and acting under the control of
the original Agent in the business of Agency under section 191 of the Act.
LEGAL POSITION OF SUB-AGENT PROPERLY APPOINTED:- Sub Agent
may be either properly appointed or improperly appointed. If he is appointed by
the Agent with the authority of his principal he is called sub-agent properly
appointed. If he is appointed without the authority of principal he is improperly
appointed.
When the sub-agent is appointed properly with the consent of the principal, the
principal is bound by his acts and is responsible for his action as if he was an agent
appointed by the principal.
The sub-agent is not responsible for his acts to principal. He is responsible only for
such acts to the original Agent.
But if the sub-agent is guilty of fraud or willful wrong against the principal he
becomes directly responsible to the principal under section 192 of the Act.
Difference between sub-Agent & substitute Agent
SUB-AGENT SUBSTITUTED AGENT
Sub Agent is a person employed by and Substituted agent can be nominated by
acting under the control of the original the original Agent to act for the
agent in the business of agency. principal for a certain part of the
business of agency.
A sub-agent is not generally responsible A substituted agent by his mere
to the principal but he is responsible to appointment becomes immediately
the agent. responsible to his principal.
There is no privity of contract between A privity of contract is created between
sub-agent and principal. the principal and the substituted Agent.
16. How the firm is registered? What is the effect of Registration & Non-
Registration of firms?
INTRODUCTION: - In the Contract Act it is not necessary that the firm should
be registered at the time of its formation. However a firm may be got registered at
any-time after the creation of Partnership. Act does not lay down any-time limit
within which the firm should be registered provided insection 63 of Partnership
Act. The act does not impose any penalties for non registration of firms.There are
some disabilities are provided in sec.69 of the Act for unregistered firms and their
partners.
HOW THE FIRM IS REGISTERED:- The partnership agreement or any
transaction between the partners and third parties is void on the basis of non-
registration of partnership firm and the partners themselves. In addition to the
above no prudent partner or firm should hesitate to get his or its name registered at
the earliest possible opportunity. The procedure of registration is very simple as
provided in section 58 and 59 of the Act.
A registration of firm may be affected by submitting to the Registrar of Firms a
statement in the prescribed form and accompanied by the prescribed fee. The
application must bear the following information:-
The firm’s name. Place of business and the name of other places where the firm
can carry on business. Date of joining of each partner with their permanent
addresses. The duration of the firm.
When the Registrar is satisfied that the above mentioned requirements have been
complied with and then he shall record an entry of statement in the register. This
amounts to the registration of the firm.
Section 69 of the Act imposes certain claims in the Civil Courts. This section
provides pressure which is to be brought to bear on partners to have the firm and
themselves registered. The pressure consists in denying certain right of litigation to
the firm or partners not registered under this act. A cause of action arose when the
firm was unregistered but was registered at the time of filing the suit. It was held
in the case of State of U.P., v/s Hamid Khan & Bros. and othrs-1986: it was
held that section 69 to be inapplicable in this case.
EFFECTS OF NON-REGISTRATION& REGISTRATION
ON REGISTRATION OF FIRM ON NON-REGISTERED FIRM
Any partner, nominee and authorized No partner, nominee and agent can
agent can bring a suit to enforce a right bring a suit to enforce a right arising
arising from a contract against any past from a contract against any firm or any
or present partner and for the third past or present partner of the firm or
parties too. third parties.
Registered firm can claim of set-off or The disabilities as provided in sec.69 of
other proceedings to enforce a right the act i.e.to claim of set-off or other
arising from a contract u/s 69 of the Act. proceedings to enforce a right arising
from a contract.
Filing of the return every year is It is not required to file the return by the
necessary. un-registered firm.
Loonkaran v/s Ivan E. John, 1977, it was held that sec.69 is mandatory and
unregistered partnership firms cannot bring a suit to enforce a right arising out of a
contract falling within the ambit of sec.69 void.
In M/s Balaji Constructions co., Mumbai v/s Mrs. Lira Siraj Sheikh, 2006 It
was observed that the firm was not registered on the date of filing of suit and
person suing as partners were not shown in register of firm and suit by such firm
hit by section 69(2) of Partnership Act and was liable to be dismissed.
CONCLUSION :- It is very well established that the partnership agreement or
transaction between the partners and third parties is void on the ground of Non-
Registration of the firm as well as of Partners. To enforce any right arising out of a
contract the registration of both firm and partners are necessary for the benefit of
the both.
17. Distinguish between partnership business and Joint Hindu family business.
INTRODUCTION: According to Partnership Act persons who have entered into
partnership are individually called partners and coactively a firm and the name
under which their business is carried on Is called firm name. In the eyes of law a
firm is merely a collective name of individuals who have entered into a
partnership.
Whereas in Joint Hindu family business it is based on status of persons by virtue
of his being born in the particular family. The distinctions between these two can
be made on the basis of following facts:-
DIFFERENCE
ORDINARY PARTERNSHIP JOINT HINDU FAMILY BUSINESS
An agreement between the parties to No such agreement is required. A joint
join the partnership is necessary. family business is created by operation
of law.
The members of ordinary partnership The members of the joint family have
have no interest in the partnership by their interest & become shareholders
birth. and entitled to profits in the business by
birth.
CO-SURITIES
Sometimes there may be conditions in a contract of guarantee that there shall be
a co-surety also. Where a person gives a guarantee upon a contract that the
creditor shall not act upon it until another person has joined in it as co-surety, the
guarantee is not valid if the other person does not join. (It has also been provided in
section 144 of the act.) It means that in such a contract liability of the surety is
dependent on the condition precedent that a co-surety will join. The surety can be
made liable under such a contract only if the co-surety joins, otherwise not. On the
basis of provision under section 128.
LIABILITY OF CO-SURETY
From the above statement it has been noticed that the liability of sureties isco-
extensive with that of the principal debtor. It implies that the creditorcan proceed
against the principal debtor or the surety at his discretion unless it is otherwise
provided in the contract.
The same principle is applicable with regard to the rights and liabilities of the co-
sureties. Since the liability of the co-surety is joint and several a co-surety cannot
insist that the creditor should proceed either against the principal debtor or against
any other surety before proceeding against him.
A case in this regard is of State Bank of India v/s G.J.Herman-1998: It was held
that neither the court nor a co-surety can insist that the creditor should first
proceed against another surety before proceeding against him. Such direction
would go against the co-extensiveness.
In the case of Bank of Bihar Ltd. v/s Dr. Damodar Prasad-1969: It was held that
the liability of the surety is immediate and cannot be defended until the creditor
has exhausted all his remedies against the principal debtor.
CONCLUSION
It has already been noted that section 128 declares that the liability of the surety is
co-extensive with that of principal debtor. The word co-extensive denotes that
extent and can relate only to the quantum of the principal debt. However the
liability of the surety does not cease merely because of discharge principal debtor
from liability. Refer a case of Industrial Financial Corp. of India v/s Kannur
Spinning & Weaving Mills Ltd.-2002.