Lessons 1‐3

Power Systems Review

 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in
generation power plants.
2
 Outline – 2/3
 Transport sub‐system
 Transmission grid: physical description; tasks; voltage levels;
architecture and sizing principles.
 Electrical sub‐station: physical description; tasks; voltage
levels; architecture and sizing principles.
 Distribution grid: physical description; tasks; voltage levels;
architecture and sizing principles.

 Bulk system: generation and transport

 Operational issues: voltage and frequency regulation;
 Protection and control: main features.

3
 Outline – 3/3
 Utilization sub‐system
 Electricity demand: main consumption sectors;
 Power and energy: load curve;
 Energy efficiency in utilization and demand side management;
 Power quality issues.

4
 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in
generation power plants.
5
 Electricity in the energy frame:
main characteristics
 Energy is a fundamental ingredient of modern society and its
delivering has a direct impact on the social and economic
development of the countries: economic growth and energy
consumption go hand‐in‐hand.
 The basic energy resources are becoming scarce and more
expensive day by day.
 Energy has been transformed into a new form of international
political power, utilized by owners of energy resources.
 Energy resources have not been generally in places where
high consumption has developed.
 Within that framework, electricity has become a favorite form
of energy usage at the consumer end.
6
 Electricity in the energy frame:
main characteristics

 Electricity is an indispensable multipurpose form of energy,

thanks to its main characteristics:
 versatility
 controllability;
 instant availability;
 consumer‐end cleanliness (residential, commercial and
industrial domain).

7
 Electricity in the energy frame:
main characteristics
 But another two chief peculiarities of electricity are that:
 it is not susceptible to being stored or inventoried;
 itcannot be shipped in “packages” from its origin to destination
over grids in which the pathway can be chosen at will.
 Therefore,electricity must be generated and transmitted as it is
consumed, and carrying electric power from place of origin to
place of consumption calls for transmission and distribution
grids enabling to work as an integrated system.

8
 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in
generation power plants. 9
 Power systems for electric energy:
History
 1870 – Pacinotti discovered dynamos and applied it for feeding arc lamps.
 1879 ‐ Thomas Edison discovered the incandescent light bulb.
 1882 – A DC generator, driven by a steam turbine in lower Manhattan, fed at a 100V
DC around 400 x 80W bulbs in office and residential buildings in Wall Street.

 1883–1884 ‐ The invention of the transformer was born in France .

 1888 – The invention of the induction machine (Galileo Ferraris and Tesla).
 1884 ‐ Single‐phase AC was transmitted at a voltage of 18 kV.
 1891 (August 24th) ‐ Three‐phase AC was transmitted from the hydroelectric power
station at Lauffen to the International Exposition at Frankfurt, 175 km away.
 1990 ‐ The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) agreed to take
August 24th 1891 as the time marking the beginning of the industrial use and
transmission of alternating current. 10
 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;

 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices

 Architecture:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in generation
power plants.
11
 Waveform, frequency and voltage choices:
ac or dc?
The advantages of alternating current (ac):
 Technical‐economical optimization of the voltage level at each phase
of the electricity process, thanks the use of the power transformer:
 Raising of the voltage with the aim to reduce line losses and voltage
drops over long transmission distances,
 Decreasing of the voltage at production and utilization level for
security and sizing issues.
 Simplicity of protection systems for the over‐currents.
 Easy feasibility of electric machines in ac both for generation and for
application especially of motive power.
Dc power systems make sense in special applications such as electrical
traction, electricity transmission in overhead, underground, or
submarine lines when the distances are very long.
12
 Waveform, frequency and voltage choices:
what influences the level of voltage choice?
 The choice of the voltage level in a power system depends on:
 the territorial distance to cover: longer is the line, higher has to be the
voltage level in order to contain the power losses;
 the load to supply at the end: higher is the load, higher has to be the
voltage level in order to contain the current and therefore the power
losses.
 For these reasons, with the growth of the power consumptions and of
the length of the power lines, the maximum voltage for ac has continued
to climb ever since.
P
P  3 V  I cos   I 
3 V cos 

P2
Plosses  3 R  I  R 
2

V 2 cos 2 
1
3
 Waveform, frequency and voltage choices:
what influences the level of voltage choice?
 At the same time in the choice of the voltage it
is necessary to consider the costs:
 The fixed costs of a power system generally
Voltage at minimum total
raise with the voltage because, even if it is cost
possible to reduce the section of the
conductors for the reduction of the current
at constant power, there is an increasing in
terms of sizing of electrical machine,
Voltage Level
insulators, towers and so on.
 The power losses costs decrease with the
Power Losses Costs
voltage level thanks to the reduction of the Fixed Costs
power losses, consequent to the reduction Total Cost
of the current.
14
 Waveform, frequency and voltage choices:
what influences the frequency choice?
 Unification of the
frequency from the end of 2nd
World War.
 Countries divided into two
different groups:
 United States, Canada, Central
American countries, and some
South American countries adopt
60 Hz frequency;
 Countries in the rest of South
America, Europe, Asia and Africa
adopt 50 Hz frequency.

15
 Waveform, frequency and voltage choices:
what influences the frequency choice?
 The 50‐60 Hz value was born as a compromise between conflicting
demands:
 Higher frequencies allow to reduce, for equal induction value, the weight of the
power transformer (E=ωФN=ωBSN=2πfBSN);
 Higher frequencies allow higher rotational speed of rotating machines (3000 rpm
at 50 Hz, 3600 rpm at 60 Hz with p=1);
 Higher frequencies allow to reduce iron losses in power machine (Piron=Pec+Pdh
Pdh=dielectric hysteresis power losses and Pec=eddy currents power losses);
 Higher frequencies allow to reduce the value of capacitance for the same value of
reactive power at a given voltage (Q=ωCV²);
 Lower frequencies allow to reduce the reactance series (X=ωL=2πfL) and then the
voltage drop in the lines, but gives problems for the stability on long distance;
 Lower frequencies allow to reduce skin effect in power line;
 Frequencies below 25 Hz are unacceptable due to the fluctuation of the luminous

flux in lamps (flicker effect). 16

 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐
systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in generation
power plants. 17
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 The organization of the “electricity chain” can be divided into three
main sub‐systems:
 generating plants (production);
 transmission and distribution grids (transport);
 consumption centers (utilization);
in addition to the associated protection and control system.
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 Conventional generation power
plants (thermal, hydro, nuclear):
 Voltage Level at the generator:
from 6 to 20 kV.
 Power transformers to raise the
voltage at 132, 230, 400 kV
common rated values of the
19
transmission lines to the areas of 1
9
consumption.
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 Un‐conventional generation
power plants (small
hydroelectric, photovoltaic,
wind, combined heat and
power):
 generating stations with small
power production;
 directly connected to the 20
2
0
distribution grids instead of
transmission grid;
 usually defined as Dispersed
or Distributed Generation.

20
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 Primary transmission grid:
 Meshed configuration and meshed
management to cover the national
territory;
 Voltage level: 400‐230 kV;
 Power delivered by lines: 100‐400 MW.
 Sub‐transmission grid:
2
 Poorly meshed configuration and 1
meshed management with regional
extent; Stazione elettrica

G
 Voltage level: 60‐150 kV (132 kV is a G
G

typical value);
 Power delivered by lines: 10‐100 MW.
2
1
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 Distribution grid in MV:
 knitted ring or radial configuration and
radial management , 10 km extent;
 Voltage level: 15‐20 kV ;
 Power delivered by line: 1‐10 MW.
 Distribution grid in LV:
 knitted or radial configuration and
radial management ,some km extent;
 Voltage level: < 1 kV; CaCabibinana
ATA ATA prprimmariariaa
 Power delivered by line: 100‐1000 kW. T
MT
TR
R
T
T
MT
TR
(CP)(CP) ATAT/MMTT
((oo
MT MT
nonoddoo 22
nonoddoosotsotostazostazioonn ee
interruttrrutt ((ssbbarraarra)) ((ssbbarrarraelelettriettricca,a,
a))
orore
e SSSSEE)
linealinea linealinea
MTMT MTMT

CaCabibinana
sseecco(CS)(CS)
ondndariariaa
MMTT/B/BTT

strstruutturattura MAGMAGLLIAIATTAAaaeseserciercizziioo ssttrutturaruttura RRAADIADIALLEE

RADIARADIALLEE ppuurara 22
 Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
 Utilization subsystem:
 Consumers connected to the voltage
level best suited to their power needs,
in accordance with the basic principle
that: “the lower the voltage, the smaller
the power capacity .
 Highly energy‐intensive businesses (iron
and steel plants and mills, aluminum
plants, railways, etc..) are connected to 23

HV grid;
 other major consumers (large
factories) receive power by MV grid;
 small consumers (households, retailers,
small factories) are connected to LV
grid.
Architecture of power systems:
generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems
Production
Produzione
(10‐20
(10÷25 kV)kV)

Transmission
Trasmissione
(230‐400
(380÷220kV)
kV)

Sub‐Transmission
Subtrasmissione
(230‐400 kV)
(150÷80 kV)

MV Distribution
Distribuzione MT
(15‐20kV)kV)
(20÷8,4

Distribuzione
LV BT
Distribution
(380÷220 V)
(230‐400 V)

24
 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in
generation power plants. 25
 Power systems:
environmental, economic and social sustainability
 The model for sustainable development is defined to be development
“ that meets the
social present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs”. The model includes the sustainability at environmental, economic
and social level.
 Considering power systems for electricity the sustainability can be mined by:
 Generation sub‐system: line of business in electric energy systems that produces the
greatest environmental and social impact with pollution;
 Transport sub‐system: overhead lines visual impact; electromagnetic fields with their
potential effects on people, fauna, and flora (still under examination).
 After establishing the magnitude of the impact on the sustainability of the electricity
industry, it is necessary to economically quantify it through the “external costs”:
guaranteeing the sustainability generally entails increased system costs.
 The economic agents have to include them in their decision‐making and ensure an
optimum outcome for society as a whole.
26
 Outline – 1/3
 Electricity in the energy frame: main characteristics.

 Power systems for electric energy

 History;
 Waveform (dc or ac), frequency and voltage choices;
 Architecture: generation, transport and utilization sub‐systems;
 Environmental, economic and social sustainability.

 Generation sub‐system
 Conventional plants: hydro, thermal and nuclear power plants;
 Unconventional plants: solar, wind, CHP and biomass plants;
 Electrical Generator and other electrical components in
generation power plants. 27
 Generation sub‐system:
conventional plants
 The electricity required to meet consumptions is generated in
production centers commonly called power plants, where a source
of primary energy is converted into electric power with clearly
defined characteristics.
 Specifically, these facilities generate a three‐phase sinusoidal
voltage, with a strictly standardized and controlled waveform,
frequency and amplitude.
 Conventional power stations are divided into:
 hydroelectric plants,
 thermal plants,
 nuclear plants.
28
 Generation sub‐system:
conventional hydro plants
 The primary energy source is water. Hydro‐energy is converted by
a hydraulic turbine into mechanical energy, coupled to an electric
generator that converts it into electrical energy.
 Main characteristics:
 zero cost of the fuel and lack of pollution;
 connection and disconnection flexibility, highly suitable regulating
stations to adjust production to demand needs;
 costly to build (civil engineering);
 contingent operation upon highly random factors.
 Various types of hydroelectric stations:
 Conventional hydroelectric plants (river basin);
 Run‐of‐the‐river plants (no storage capacity: not used as regulating
stations);
 Pumping power plants (pumping water when electric power is 29
cheaper, and dump it on to a turbine when it is more cost‐effective)
 Generation sub‐system:
conventional thermal plants
 In thermal power plant the primary energy is
provided by a fossil fuel (coal, fuel‐oil, gas)
 The fuel is burned in a burner to produce high‐
pressure steam/gas, that is converted in the
steam/gas turbine into mechanical energy,
converted into electric power by the generator.
 Owing to the heat inertia of the boiler, the steam
turbine plants cannot be readily connected and
disconnected. They are less flexible in this respect
than hydroelectric plant. The gas turbine instead
can be used for regulation.
 The maximum efficiency is about 45% for steam
turbine and 35% for gas turbine. It depends on
the caloric value of the used fuel. 30
 Generation sub‐system:
conventional thermal plants
 The operation of Combined Cycle Gas turbine (CCGT)
plants includes two types of cycles:
 Primary cycle: gas turbine to produce mechanical energy
and electricity through a generator;
 Secondary cycle: gas expelled from the turbine, still at a
high temperature, used to heat a water circuit. The
latent heat in the gas is converted into mechanical
energy in a steam turbine and electricity through a
generator.
 Performance higher than conventional gas or steam
turbine cycles, with efficiency of up to 60% and a
considerable reduction in polluting emissions.
 High degree of modularity and reasonable
investment costs make CCGT one of the most
competitive generation technologies now available. 31
 Generation sub‐system:
conventional nuclear plants
 Nuclear power plants include:
 a nuclear reactor producing vast amounts of heat with the atomic
fission of the uranium (heat is transferred to a fluid: liquid sodium,
water, etc..) ;

 Heat exchanger for transferring it to a water circuit;

 Steam turbine for the transformation of steam produced into
mechanical energy;

 AC generator for the conversion of mechanical energy in electricity

 Two important drawbacks about nuclear power plants, made
them socially unacceptable in some countries:
 the magnitude of the catastrophe in case of accident,
 the problem of eliminating radioactive waste.

 From the standpoint of system operation, nuclear power

32
stations are always base plants, rarely used for regulation.
 Generation sub‐system:
unconventional power plants
 In electric power grids, most production presently takes place in the so‐
called conventional stations. There are other types of power stations that
are gradually acquiring significance in some areas and countries. These are
often called alternative plants, characterized by their limited
environmental impact and the use of renewable sources of energy:
 wind,
 solar,
 biomass,
 CHP (combined heat and power or “cogeneration”) plants.

33
 Generation sub‐system:
unconventional power plants
 Wind farms:
 fitted with a‐synchronous AC generators, to accommodate variations in
wind speed;
 connected to the grid directly or indirectly, through a rectifier, an
inverter and a filter;
 Big growth in recent years in wind energy.

34
 Generation sub‐system:
unconventional power plants
 Photovoltaic cells:
 converting solar energy to electrical DC
power;
 Equipped with batteries in case of self‐
generation facilities, typically deployed in
remote areas with no other source of primary
energy.
 Solar steam power stations:
 solar radiation is used to heat a fluid and
generate electricity thermodynamically. A field
of sun‐tracking mirrors focuses radiation on a
boiler, normally located on a tower, where
heat is accumulated for subsequent used in a
traditional turbine cycle. 3
5
 Generation sub‐system:
unconventional power plants
Biomass generation plants:
 Obtaining energy from biological resources (biomass
feed‐stocks, livestock waste, forestry residue)
 First type of plant: direct combustion in specific
furnaces to produce steam subsequently used in a
turbine cycle.
 Second type of plant: gasification of the organic
matter to obtain a combustible gas, usually with a
high methane content, generally used to feed an
internal combustion engine or gas turbine coupled to
an electric generator. Matter can be gasified with
physical–chemical or anaerobic biological processes.

36
 Generation sub‐system:
unconventional power plants
CHP or cogeneration:
 Basicprinciple: instead of wasting it,
to make an industrial or heating
use of the surplus heat contained
in combustion gases out from the
boiler of an electricity power plant.
 Many industrial plants have process
heating requirements.

37
 Generation sub‐system:
generation mix
 Conventional Generation
 Economic, political and environmental strategies heavily weigh in deploying a
technology mix in generation. Ensuring a supply, as independent as possible of
political and economic issues, entails the implementation of a diversification
strategy.
 Moreover, the internalization of sustainability costs go hand‐in‐hand with
regulatory measures to encourage the use of production technologies with less
environmenta and social impact.
 Unconventional Generation
 Big growth in recent years in wind energy and CCGT .
 The source of solar energy is abundant but the technology is still poorly
developed, for efficiency and cost problems.
 Biomass plants use a resource available in nearly any habitat and, for this reason,
38
they are gaining popularity in developing countries.
 Electrical Generator and other electrical
components in generation power plants
 With the exception of the static generation systems (i.e. PV),
the electrical component for excellence, present
in any production plant, is the alternator.
 The alternator is a dynamic (rotating) electric synchronous
machine in three‐phase AC, operating as a generator,
namely capable of converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

39