PDH Core 2 - Factors Affecting

Performance
How does training affect performance?

● Energy systems
○ Alactacid system (ATP-PC)
■ ATP allows release of energy of substances such as carbs, fats and

proteins
■ This system relies on Creatine Phosphate
■ No oxygen required (anaerobic)
○ Lactic acid system
■ Fuel for energy is glycogen that is stored in muscles
■ Carbohydrates → glucose → glycogen
■ Lactic acid is produced as a by product (pyruvic acid)
■ Oxygen is not present
○ Aerobic system
■ Oxygen is required
■ Fuel source is glycogen and fats
■ By products are heat, sweat and carbon dioxide
● SUMMARY TABLE

Characteristic ATP PC Lactic Acid Aerobic

Fuel Creatine Phosphate Glycogen + Glucose Carbohydrate, Fats & Proteins

Efficiency (per molecule of Less than one molecule Approx. 2 Glucose: 38
fuel) Fat: >100

Duration 2 seconds Up to 2 minutes Up to 12 hours

Contribution at Rest (%) >5 15 80

Contribution in Max Sprint 55 40 5

(%)

Recovery until Repeat 2 minutes 30 mins – 1hr Up to a few days

Effort

Limiting Factor Depletion of creatine Lactic acid accumulation Depletion of glycogen & overheating
phosphate

Examples Gymnastics Vault 200-400m run Marathon

Elite 100m Sprint Netball Centre AFL midfield

● Types of training and training methods

○ Aerobic, e.g. continuous, Fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit

Continuous Training

What is this method of training? ● Sustained effort without rest intervals.

● It needs to persist for no less than 20
minutes
● Heart rate must rise above the aerobic
threshold (high intensity work)

Provide an example of a continuous training ● 30 minutes of running

session ● Long , slow distance training
● High intensity work of moderate
duration
● High intensity work of moderate
duration

When/ with what sports or athletes is this ● Jogging

training appropriate? ● Cycling
● Aerobics
● Long distance swimming
● 5000 m run
● Triathlon

How does this training method affect ● Improves general condition of the
performance? aerobic
● Improves aerobic capacity
 Fartlek Training (speed play)
What is this method of training?
Provide an example of continuous training
session
When/ with what sports or athletes is this
training appropriate?
How does this training method affect
performance?
Aerobic interval training
What is this method of training?
Provide an example of continuous training
session
When/ with what sports or athletes is this
training appropriate?
How does this training method affect
performance?
Circuit training
● Participants vary their speed and the
terrain on which they are working
● Engaging both anaerobic and aerobic
energy system
● Random use of vations of speed and
intensity
● Leap frog running
○ Regular bursts of speed
(sprints) every few minutes
○ Running up and down sand
dunes
○ Cross country running
● Best for sports with frequent changes
○ Soccer
○ Baseball
○ Any team sport
● Good for pre season training
● Short, sharp surges dictate and
anaerobic energy supply and the
development of this system
● Involves alternating sessions of work
and recovery
● Athlete performs a 400m run followed
by a recovery period before the task is
repeated a no. of times. Short rest
periods where full recovery doesn’t
take place → stress the aerobic
system
● Mid to long distance runners
● Improves ATP-PC system and lactic
system
What is this method of training? ● Develops aerobic capacity and
potential to make substantial
improvements in strength, endurance,
flexibility, skill and coordination
● Station to station

Provide an example of continuous training ● Body weight session

session ○ 1 min on/ 15 sec off (time to
change stations)
● Wednesday afternoon sessions
(boxing, ergs, body weight and core)

When/ with what sports or athletes is this ● Boxing

training appropriate? ● AFL
● Any sport that requires many muscle
movements

How does this training method affect ● Develops more muscle groups
performance? ● Can target many parts of the body
● Can help people who are unmotivated

○ Anaerobic, e.g. anaerobic interval

Anaerobic interval training

What is this method of training? ● Anaerobic interval training can best be

described as sprint training over short
distances for maximal effort.

Provide an example of an anaerobic interval ● 50m sprints at high intensity

training session ● Short anaerobic → less than 25
seconds → develops ATP/PC
● Medium anaerobic → 25 seconds - 1
minute → develops lactic acid system
for energy supply
● Long aerobic → 1-2 mins → develops
lactic and aerobic systems

When/ with what sports or athletes is this ● Athletes that use shorts bursts of
training most appropriate energy
○ 100m sprinters

How does this training method affect ● Trains athletes to tolerate lactic acid
performance? ● Use anaerobic system more efficiently
for endurance
○ Flexibility, e.g. static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic
Flexibility Training Description of Training Examples
Method

Static Stretching ● Static stretching does not ● Examples include

involve movement of any sitting down with legs
other body part outside of extended, gently
the muscle being reaching forwards and
stretched, making it holding for 30
simple and suitable for seconds.
beginners.

Ballistic Stretching ● Ballistic stretching ● Leg swings

involves repeated ● Arm swings
movements such as
swinging and bouncing to
gain extra stretch.
○ This form of stretching
activates a mechanism in
the muscles called the
stretch reflex causing the
muscle to contract.

Dynamic Stretching
● Dynamic stretching uses Standing up, with arms above
movement speed together your head, then using speed
with momentum to and momentum to lower your
gradually warm up muscle hands to your toes and hold.
fibres and extend them
through the degree of
stretch required in the
game.
○ Bouncing movements
common in ballistic
stretching are avoided,
actions attempt to reduce
muscle tightness rather
than lengthen fibres.

○ Strength training, e.g. free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic

■ Resistance training has a number of health benefits, such as favourable
changes in body composition and fats, and increased core strength to
reduce lower back pain.
■ Definitions:
● Strength can be defined as the maximum force generated in a
single muscular contraction
○ Example of absolute strength: is the load a person can lift
on a bench press in one repetition
○ Example of relative strength: takes into account a person's
body size. If two athletes can lift 120 kilograms on a bench
press, but one weighs 90 kilograms and the other weighs
80 kilograms, the 80 kilogram athlete has the higher
relative strength.
● Muscle hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of muscle
fibres and the connective tissue between the fibres.
○ Enables muscle to generate more power
● Power, or speed strength is the ability to generate force quickly.
○ Power can be improved through weight training,
plyometrics, medicine ball training or complex training
● Muscle endurance or strength endurance can be defined as the
ability of a muscle group to perform a number of repetitions at a
submaximal load over a longer period of time
○ Example: would be the number of bench press repetitions
an athlete can do at 75% of their body weight, of the length
of time a person can stay in the prone hold (push-up
position)
■ Types of resistance training:
● Isotonic involves exercises where the muscle shortens (concentric
phase, e.g. lifting a weight) and lengthens (eccentric phase e.g.
lowering the weight)
○ Advantages: can select exercises that simulate a sport
movement; strengthens muscle through ROM; easy to
learn; easy to monitor progress
○ Disadvantages: strength gain is not even throughout the
movement
● Isometric involves exercises with a static contraction without any
change in the muscle length
○ Advantage: minimal cost; able to strengthen at the ‘sticking
point’ of an exercise; don’t need to be in a gym; low risk
○ Disadvantage: not directly relevant to sport activities; gains
are specific to the joint angle; difficult to monitor progress
● Isokinetic involves muscle contraction occurring at a constant
speed; velocity of the movement is controlled
○ Advantage: maximum resistance is developed over full
ROM; exercise can be performed at different speeds
○ Disadvantages: expensive; exercises limited to specific
sport
 ● Variable resistance training involves machines that provide
increasing or decreasing resistance according to the force applied
○ Advantages: allows maximal force through full ROM
○ Disadvantages: doesn’t allow eccentric contractions
■ Methods of resistance training:
● Free weights
○ Most coaches have a preference for free weights
■ Dumbbells, barbells, medicine balls, kettlebells
○ Some advantages of free weights over machines are:
■ That they allow exercises that involve multiple joint
or muscle groups
■ Offer better replication of sports movements
■ Offer variety
■ Require more balance and coordination
■ Relatively inexpensive
■ Allow greater range of motion
■ Allow for symmetry to occur between both sides of
the body
■ Encourages better joint strength
■ Can isolate a particular muscle for development
○ There is however a greater risk of injury
○ Safety precautions must be adhered to at all times
■ Lifting weights correctly with your legs not your
back
■ Keeping the weight close to your body when lifting
■ Using a spotter for certain lifts
○ This type of training revolves around the use of the
repetition maximum (RM) which is the maximum load a
muscle can lift to a given number of times before it fatigues
● Fixed weights:
○ Machines are very popular with beginners and people
training for health benefits as they allow both concentric
and eccentric contractions
○ They are easy to learn and have a lower risk of injury
○ Disadvantages of use include:
■ Less variety in choice of exercise
■ Over development of dominant side
■ Training effect is limited to range of motion dictated
by the machine
■ Less involvement of fixator/ stabiliser muscles
● Elastic
○ Resistance bands are cheap and are a portable form of
resistance training and are commonly used in home gyms
 ○ Most of the resistance is experienced at the end of the
movement because this is where the elastic material is
under the greatest tension
○ Resistance bands are often used by elite athletes to
enhance strength and power, and can form part of a
rehabilitation program
○ Resistance bands are:
■ Portable
■ Useful for dynamic stretching as well as strength
■ Time efficient
■ Easy to incorporate progression (stepping out
further to increase resistance)
■ Able to offer a variety of functional exercises
■ Effective for stabilisation strength
● Hydraulic
○ Weight machines enable correct positioning and proper
movement while an athlete is lifting weights
○ The guided action and variable resistance when training
also make weight machines popular as rehabilitation
instruments, as they are much safer than free weights or
dumbbells
○ Your choice of strength training equipment will be decided
by several factors:
■ Previous experience
■ Age and fitness
■ Previous injury
■ Goals
○ Advantages of hydraulic equipment:
■ Much safer for the less experienced
■ A spotter is not required
■ Smoother range of motions
■ Raise your metabolism and tone your muscles
without any cables or adjusting of weights
■ The harder and faster you work the machine, the
more resistance you will encounter, and the more
of a workout you will get
■ Less chance of injury
■ Good for injury rehabilitation
■ Less likely to result in sore muscles
■ Excellent for circuit training
○ Disadvantages:
■ May not be challenging enough for long term
regular free weight users, and body builders
 ■ May not be ideal for the person trying to add
muscle bulk
■ More costly
○ Hydraulic fitness equipment can be ideal for those who are
recovering from injuries, prone to injuries, or anyone
looking for muscle toning.
○ Hydraulic systems are safer than stacked weights and
there is no chance of improper lifting or over lifting your
weight
○ The harder and faster you use the equipment the more
effective your workout will be
○ Raises metabolism

SUMMARY:
Types of training Strength Aerobic Anaerobic Flex

Training - Hydraulic - Continuous - Interval - Static

Methods - Elastic - Fartlek training - Ballistic
- Free weights - Interval - Dynamic
- Circuit - PNF

● Principles of training
○ Progressive overload
■ The overload principle implies that gains in fitness occur only when the
training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as
improvements in
fitness occur.

● The overload principle requires a gradual increase in load for

benefits to be realised.
■ Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to
work at a higher level of intensity.
■ As the body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it
adapts to it and further training at this level fails to sufficiently stress the
system.
 ● Insufficient stress overloads the body, and training benefits are not
maximised.
■ Examples of application of overload are listed below:
● Aerobic training: application of the overload principle is reflected in
the heart’s ability to pump more blood to the working muscles
(increased cardiac output) and the ability of the working muscles
to take up more of the oxygen as it is delivered to the cells
(increased oxygen intake).
● Strength training: Application of the overload principle results in an
increase in the cross-sectional area of a muscle, commonly called
muscle hypertrophy. This is usually directly related to an increase
in strength.
○ Specificity
■ The specificity principle implies that the effects of a training program are
specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted.
■ The principle draws a close relationship between activities selected for
training and those used in the game or event.
■ The specificity principle implies that greatest gains are made when
activity in the training program resembles the movements in the game or
activity.
● This is because the body adapts to stresses in a very specific
way.
■ The principle of specificity is particularly important when considering the
development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of
fitness.
● Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or
systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these
systems through related training procedures.
■ The best way to identify which energy system is predominant is to assess
the level of intensity of the activity and establish the time over which it
extends.
● Example; short-term, explosive activity requires development of
the anaerobic systems while continuous, moderate, sustained
activity requires development of the aerobic system.
■ The principle of specificity when applied to muscle groups suggests that
those groups used for the activity need to be the same as the groups
used during training.
● This is because the body ‘recruits’ the type of muscle fibre that is
best able to do the task.
● Some examples of application of the specificity principle are given
below:
 ○ Aerobic training - an athlete training for a marathon must
target the aerobic system in training. Most activity ensures
that the 3rd energy pathway is used for 95% of the time or
more.
○ Reversibility
■ The effects of training programs are reversible, in the same way that the
body responds to training by improving the level of fitness, lack of training
causes the opposite to occur.
● This is referred to as the detraining effect.
■ The reversibility process applies equally to aerobic, strength and flexibility
programs.
■ Gains made in aerobic fitness are gradually lost if training ceases.
● Losses here are slower than those experienced in strength/power
programs, where minimal regular stimulation is necessary to
maintain the benefits of training.
● In flexibility programs, some elasticity is lost quickly if stretching
programs are not carried out on a regular basis.
■ If big gains have been made, greater losses will follow when training
stops because there is more to lose.
● You must be actively participating in the training program to
maintain the training benefits.
○ Variety
■ Important to continually strive to develop the required attributes using
different techniques to ensure that athletes are challenged not only by the
activity, but also by initiative and implementation.
● Can be done by using a variety of different cardio types
○ Swimming, running, cycling
● Isometric and isotonic methods increase strength
○ Do it using different equipments such as free weight,
elastic bands, hydraulic devices.
○ Training thresholds
■ Refers to a specific point that, when passed, takes the person to a new
level.
■ When we train, we expect an improvement in our physical condition,
however for improvement to occur we must work at a level of intensity
that causes our bodies to respond, change, adapt, and fitness gains.
■ Efficiency of the cardio-respiratory system is improved when an athlete
works closer to the anaerobic threshold, than the aerobic threshold
■ Working at this level increases the capacity and functioning of the
cardiovascular system and athletes ability to tolerate rises in performance
demand.
■ The threshold is represented by a high resistance or load ensuring that
only a few repetitions can be completed.
● High number of reps required to change threshold.
 ○ Warm up and cool down
■ Each training session requires 3 essential components:
● Warm-up
● Training (or conditioning)
● Cool down
■ A session that lacks one or more of these components may contribute to
injuries of fail to achieve the desired results.
■ An effective warm up should be sustained for at least 10 minutes
■ “Never stretch before you sweat”
■ Purpose of a cool down is to minimise muscle stiffness and soreness that
could result from a strenuous training session.
● Example: jogging should gradually decrease in intensity therefore
allowing the body temperature to return to norma.
■ Rest periods are essential during this period to ensure body does not
fatigue.

● Physiological adaptations in response to training

○ Resting heart rate
■ The more trained an athlete is the lower resting heart rate they have
● Due to the efficiency of the cardiovascular system, and
particularly, a higher stroke volume.

Picture 1: The effect of training on heart rate

Picture 2: The effect of exercise on maximal heart rates of trained and untrained people

○ Stroke volume and cardiac output

■ SV is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during contraction.
■ It is measured in mL/beat.
■ A substantial increase in SV is a long-term effect of endurance training.
■ There is also more blood in circulation following training as a
consequence of an increase in blood plasma volume.
● This means more blood is able to enter the ventricle
■ Cardiac output: is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute
■ It is determined by multiplying heart rate and stroke volume
 ■ A large cardiac output is the major difference between untrained people
and endurance athletes.
■ Untrained individuals may have a CO is 15-20 litres per minute
■ For trained athletes CO is 20-25 litres per minute
■ In highly trained endurance athletes, CO may even rise as high as 40
litres per minute.

○ Oxygen uptake and lung capacity

■ The most significant improvements in response to aerobic training are in
oxygen uptake (VO2)
● Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the
oxygen being delivered.
■ Maximal oxygen uptake is relatively easy to estimate using tests such as
bicycle ergometry in the laboratory, or field tests such as the 12 minute
run or the multistage fitness test.
○ Haemoglobin level
■ Increases blood
■ Blood volume increases
■ Therefore an increase in the amount of oxygen which is being transported
to working muscles.

○ Muscle hypertrophy
■ Refers to an increase in the size of muscle fibres and the connective
tissue, between the fibres
■ It occurs as a result of strength or resistance training, and enables the
muscle to generate more power.
○ Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
■ Increases efficiency
■ Slow twitch (red) aerobic
■ Fast twitch (white) - anaerobic
How can psychology affect performance?

● Motivation
○ Positive
■ Positive motivation occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by
previous reinforcing behaviours
■ Relies on continual reinforcement
● E.g self reinforcement, friends, family or coach
○ Negative
■ Characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear or the
consequences of not performing well
■ Short term this may be effective but long term positive motivation is more
effective
○ Intrinsic
 ■ Motivation that comes from with the individual
● E.g self talk, calmness and mental practice
○ Extrinsic
■ Individuals internal state is modified by sources originating from an
outside person
● E.g coaches, crowd support, friends and family

● Anxiety and arousal

○ Trait
■ Refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual
■ Evident in how we respond to daily situations, of which many are new
■ Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned
themselves to respond to and manage stress
■ Increased levels of such anxiety can be controlled in most cases by the
use of relaxation techniques
○ State anxiety
■ State anxiety is more specific and is characterised by a state of
heightened emotions that develop in response to fear or danger
■ This arousal may be visible physiologically and exhibited in certain
conditions and behaviours
■ A certain level of state anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports
such as team sports
○ Sources of stress
■ Stress can be felt by participants in all sports, but particularly individual
sports where an athlete may feel isolated and exposed
■ Stress causes a unique body reaction which is produced by adrenaline, a
stimulant hormone, which reduces the body for action and is
characterised by:
● Increased blood supply to skeletal muscles
● More oxygen to lungs
● Increased glucose production to provide extra fuel
● Increased sweat production to cool the body
● Tightened muscles to prepare the body for action
■ Stress is a personal attribute and depends on predisposition
■ Factors that produce stress are called stressors and can develop from:
● Personal pressure, imposed on one’s self
● Competition pressure, exerted by opponents on field of play
● Social pressure, having to perform learned skills under demands
of competition
■ Strategies for coping with stress include:
● Practicing relaxation techniques
● Developing concentration skills required for focusing on immediate
task
● Developing confidence
 ● Planning strategies to cope with the situation
○ Optimum arousal
■ Arousal is different from anxiety, anxiety is predominantly psychological
though arousal is more physiological
■ Arousal can have both a negative or positive result in performance
■ Levels of arousal vary considerably between individuals, generally
athletes who have a high disposition towards anxiety require less arousal
than those who
have a low
disposition

■ Optimal arousal levels for a given task vary between athletes and depend
on personal factors such as:
● Self- expectation
● Expectation by others
● Experience
● Financial pressures
● Level of competition
● Degree of difficulty
● Skills finesse
■ Arousal affects performance when it becomes a focus.
■ When the individual shifts focus from thinking about feelings to
concentrating on the task, anxiety is revealed – a heightened state that
can be controlled and assist performance.

● Psychological strategies to enhance motivation / and manage stress

■ Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on
performance, though lack of anxiety can undermine effort and
achievement.
■ Accomplished athletes are able to draw on strategies such as focusing
skills, mental rehearsal, relaxation and goal setting to ensure mental and
physical energy is channeled to desired result.

○ Concentration / attention skills (focusing)

■ Ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual
can focus on doing rather than thinking about doing
 ■ Internal: own thoughts, focusing on pain and not performance
■ External: crowd, coach, other players
■ The ability to concentrate can differ between athletes. For example an
elite athlete will be able to better concentrate on the task at hand as they
have a built up skill on how to block out distractions. A beginner athlete
may not have this skills yet and find it hard to concentrate on the task at
hand
■ Strategies to assist concentration:
● Centring → focusing on the now
● Cues → key words actions and sounds
● Set routines → warm up
● Distraction/ refocus training

○ Mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery

■ Mental rehearsal enhances competition performance, and the acquisition
of motor skills
■ Mental rehearsal requires an athlete to have vivid, realistic pictures at
performance speed in mind, have at least one practice run, have narrow
thoughts and eliminate distractions and finally seeing a successful
performance
■ Internal imagery: Visualising a run or sequence in your head
■ External imagery: Having a coach explain or draw out a run or sequence
■ Some issues of mental rehearsal are:
● You cannot take into account weather changes
● You cannot 100% plan out your run if you do not regularly train on
the course
● You cannot control the rest of the competition
■ Mental rehearsal helps to:
● elevate the body to the desired level of arousal
● Provides a clear idea of what has to be done
● Heightens concentration which narrows thought to the task
● Gives a better understanding of what the athlete must do
● Gives clarity and reassurance to the athlete performing

○ Relaxation techniques
■ While optimal arousal is desirable for good performance, over-arousal will
tarnish efforts so relaxation techniques assist control of arousal.
● Without the use of relaxation techniques when necessary an
athlete may be unable to reproduce in competition what has been
achieved in training.
■ Techniques commonly used by athletes include:
● Progressive muscular relaxation
● Mental relaxation
● Self-hypnosis
 ● Mental rehearsal
● Meditation
● Centered breathing

○ Goal-setting
■ Goal setting is use to improve individual and team sport preparation
■ Short Term: Goals that can be achieved in a limited period of time
■ Long Term: Can only be achieved over a long period of time. Although
many short term goals may all be working towards one long term goal
● SMART GOALS
○ S → specific
○ M → measurable
○ A → achievable
○ R → relevant
○ T → time limited

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

● Nutritional considerations
○ Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading
■ A person's energy expenditure will also influence the number of kilojoules
they need to consume
● elite athletes who train more 5 + hours a day require more fuel
than sedentary people
■ A stable body weight and muscle mass are the best indicators that energy
intake matches need.
■ When we do not consume sufficient energy, there is a reduction in weight
and/or in lean mass as the body tries to compensate for this deficiency.
■ Research indicates that athletes should eat frequently throughout the day.
■ This helps to stabilise blood sugar levels, and to maintain lower levels of
body fat and higher muscle mass.
■ Common dietary aims of athletes include ensuring there is:
 ● Adequate energy intake - to cope with training demands
● Sufficient fluid intake - to maintain adequate hydration
● The correct balance of energy sources - avoiding excess fat and
inadequate carbohydrate, which can lead to poor recovery and
excess body fat.
● Adequate protein intake and correct timing - to optimise recovery,
maximise strength gains and complement resistance training.
● Adequate intake of vitamins and minerals - to avoid deficiencies,
which can lead to poor health, slow recovery and fatigue.
● The ability to ‘bulk-up’ to provide the energy and protein required
to increase muscle size.
● Sensible body mass / fat control - without losing required muscle
mass or the ability to train.

○ During performance
■ Refuelling:
● Consuming carbohydrates during exercise enhances performance
○ Spares glycogen stores and preventing low blood sugar
levels
○ Positive effect on the functioning of the central nervous
system
● Research suggests that carbohydrate ingestion may enhance
performance in events as short as 30-60 grams of carbohydrate
per hour during their performance
○ Dependent on tolerance level
● Examples of suitable sources include:
○ Bananas, sports bars, carbohydrate gels
● Fuel should be ingested well before fatigue and dehydration occur
● Sports drinks, with 6-8 % carbohydrate and 10-25 millimoles per
litre (mmol/L) of sodium
○ An effective source of both fuel and fluid during exercise
○ The flavouring and sodium make it easier for an athlete to
consume compared to water
● Good sources of fat (e.g. coconut oil) may also be used to refuel
○ Especially for long distance events such as triathlon
■ Rehydration:
● To effectively rehydrate during a sporting event or exercise, and
athlete should be aware of how much fluid they lose under various
conditions.
● Monitored by calculating the difference between their body weight
before an event or exercise session with their weight after the
session
● Majority of athletes become dehydrated during training or
competition as they are likely to only replace 50% (endurance
 sports), to 70% (team sports) of their fluid losses during
competition.
● Becoming dehydrated during competition increases an athlete's
perception of effort given at workload.
● Results in an increased heart rate and core temperature, and
decreased blood volume
● Dehydrated athletes will feel more fatigued and are likely to slow
down during competition.
● Dehydration to the extent of just 2% of an athlete’s stating body
weight can have detrimental effects on performance which
include:
○ Reduced aerobic performance
○ Increased perceived exertion - causing the athlete to feel
more fatigued than usual at a given work rate
○ Reduced mental function - having a negative impact on
motor control (skill), decision-making and concentration
○ Slowed gastric emptying - resulting in stomach discomfort

○ Post-performance
■ A post performance nutrition plan aims to return the body to its pre-event
state as quickly as possible, enabling full training to resume as quickly as
possible.
● This is best achieved through proactive recovery.
■ Proactive recovery is refueling and rehydrating as soon as exercise
finishes and continuing for 8-12 hours following performance.
● This enables optimization of body repair and regeneration
processes.
■ Research suggests that following endurance activity such as cycling or
marathon running, a carbohydrate intake of 50-100 grams in the first two
hours is highly beneficial.
■ This should then be followed by intakes of 50-75 grams every two hours
until a total of 500-600 grams has been consumed.
■ The best way to recover is to act quickly and eat food with high
carbohydrate content.
● This is achieved by immediately replacing depleted muscle and
liver glycogen stores.
■ An intake high in carbohydrate and inclusive of foods and drinks with a
high glycemic index is most beneficial.
■ Rehydrating to replace fluid and electrolytes is also important following
competition.
● A program for rehydration requires special fluid intake in quantities
larger than normal as voluntary fluid intake.
 ● 150% fluid intake of losses enables full recovery.
■ Active rest is also necessary and enhances the manufacture of red blood
cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress-
related movements.

● Supplementation
○ Vitamins/minerals
■ Vitamins are inorganic compounds that are essential to maintaining bodily
functions.
■ They do not contain energy, but they function as catalysts that help the
body use energy nutrients.
■ They assist such functions as energy release, metabolic regulation and
tissue building.
■ The body is unable to manufacture vitamins, so the diet must supply them
■ The intake of excessive quantities of vitamins (super-supplements or
megadoses) is not only necessary but potentially dangerous.
■ The body can store vitamins A & D, excess amounts of which may
contribute to muscle and joint pain and headaches.
■ Overdoses of vitamin A can cause nausea, loss of appetite, fatigue, and
skin dryness.
■ Fruits and vegetables are strongly recommended as ideal sources of
antioxidants.
■ Minerals are inorganic substances found in the body that are necessary
for it to function adequately.
■ Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in
athletes, and inadequate supplies will affect performance and contribute
to health problems.
● Iron is found in haemoglobin, which comprises most of the red
blood cells in the body.
● These cells collect and transport oxygen, delivering it to where it is
needed.
● Diminished haemoglobin levels affect performance because the
muscle cells are deprived of oxygen, which is needed to break
down the nutrients and produce energy.
● High amounts of iron are found in lean meat, while grain products
and dark, leafy green vegetables such as spinach and lettuce are
other valuable sources.
● People most at risk of iron deficiency are:
○ Endurance athletes, as a result of sweat loss
○ Females, as a result of menstrual blood loss
○ Vegetarians, as a result of a lack of red meat in the diet
○ Adolescent males, as a result of a growth spurt
■ Calcium deficiency is more specific to health
■ Calcium is vital for bone structure, making bones strong and healthy
 ■ The quality of bone tissue deteriorates gradually from the age of about
mid twenties, and this contributes to osteoporosis, which can be
experiences later in life.
■ Adequate calcium intake during childhood and adolescence has a
positive effect on bone quality during later life.
■ Important sources of calcium are dairy products, leafy green vegetables
and fish such as salmon and sardines
■ Athletes should look to dietary sources rather than supplementation to
gain adequate calcium
■ People most at risk of calcium deficiency are:
● Females, as a result of an insufficient intake of dairy products
● Females whose menstrual cycles have ceased, leading to a loss
of calcium from bone tissue.
○ Protein
■ Protein supplements have had strong favour with weight-lifters, body
builders and strength athletes for a long time.
■ These supplements may be natural or synthetic and available in powder,
fluid, or solid formations.
■ Many athletes believe that protein supplements are important because of
their muscle building qualities, with higher intake positively affecting
muscle size.
● This belief stems from the accepted role of protein in the body
■ Proteins primary importance to the body is its structural role in holding the
cells together and in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue.
■ It has a functional role in hormone production and nervous system
transmissions.
■ Protein is composed of various types of amino acids
■ Source of energy under extreme conditions, when carbohydrate and fat
supplies are in very short supply or exhausted.
● Most people need to consume around 1 gram of protein for each
kilogram of body weight
● Protein is found in:
○ Fish, chicken, red meat, cheese, breads, cereals, and
some types of beans contain ample protein.
■ Research supports the idea that most athletes do not need or benefit from
protein supplementation.
■ Many protein supplements contain additives that have no health benefit
and may increase the risk of certain cancers.
■ High amounts of protein can increase the amount of calcium excreted in
the urine and possibly contribute to osteoporosis.
■ Diets high in protein such as those containing large amounts of meat and
dairy foods can contribute to obesity as a result of their high fat content.
○ Caffeine
 ■ Caffeine was recently removed from the WADA banned substance list as
large amounts of this supplement do not provide a greater benefit than
the smaller amounts that would be present in most athletes’ diets.
■ This is because caffeine is found in coffee, chocolate, tea and many other
commonly consumed products.
■ Previously caffeine was thought to be an ergogenic aid, which increases
fat mobility converting fats to free fatty acids used for energy production.
■ The increase in free fatty acids increases the production of ATP from fat
sparing glycogen stores to be used later in the competition. However, we
now know that caffeine’s main benefit is blocking adenosine in the brain.
■ This improves the athlete’s perception of fatigue, allowing for greater
performance as the athlete can go harder, for longer.
■ The benefits of this supplement can be felt and seen almost immediately
after consumption.
● This is because the body does not need large amounts in order to
benefit.
● This means that it can be consumed either before a relatively
short event, throughout longer events, or even just as fatigue
begins to be noticed. Regardless of when, the supplement is
beneficial, especially for marathons, iron mans, or multi-day
cycling events.
■ Caffeine is also a stimulant, which means it speeds up the nervous
system. This stimulation increases an athlete’s heart rate and enhances
concentration.
● This can be useful in quick decision-making needed in many
sports. The stimulation of caffeine also has side effects and large
amounts can cause an athlete to shake or have symptoms of
anxiety. These side effects would be detrimental to sports such as
shooting or darts where a steady hand is vital.
● As a diuretic, caffeine removes water from the body. During
competition, especially long competition this could become fatal. If
used, the athlete must ensure they consume greater amounts of
fluids throughout the competition and afterwards in order to aid
recovery.
○ Creatine products
■ Creatine products are easily sourced for supplementation to help improve
performance.
■ Creatine is an organic acid and is not an essential nutrient for humans.
That is, our bodies will create creatine using amino acids and other
compounds.
■ It then has a phosphorus attached to it to make phosphocreatine (PC),
used to store energy in skeletal muscle.
 ■Creatine products used for supplementation could increase PC stores
and enable the alactacid energy system to be utilised for longer and
recover faster.
● Theoretically this would allow maximal power and energy
production to be maintained for longer, however, the major benefit
actually comes with faster recovery of the system.
■ Creatine supplementation would benefit sports such as, 100m sprint, but
also rugby league and soccer as recovery of this system would speed up
allowing for greater repetition of sprints required in these sports.
■ An increase in PC would also allow for faster recovery between sets,
leading to a greater overall workload. This causes greater adaptations,
such as hypertrophy and increased power outputs.
■ Studies have shown that hypertrophy increases with creatine
supplementation and weight training. Creatine has also been shown to
increase body mass on its own, though this is due to fluid retention
needed to store the extra creatine.
■ It should be noted that the quality of creatine products used in
supplementation varies from product to product and that practitioner only
products will provide better results than over the counter supplements.
■ Creatine does provide performance benefits, however it is easily sourced
in a diet by eating meat, the body will create it as needed.
● Creatine products and supplementation will benefit those who
need it, but it can cause short-term nausea, hypertension and
cramps.
● Recovery strategies

Type of Main causes: Expression of this Recovery strategies:

fatigue: fatigue type:

Physiological / - Training lasting 1 - Athlete fatigue - Rehydrate & refuel

metabolic hour or more sooner than normal - Cool down
fatigue - Taking part in - Athlete struggles to - Hydrotherapy
several shorter complete a session - CWI
session a day or event - Contrast
- Can be cumulative - Spa
when training or - Pool
competing over a - Compression
number of days garments

Neural fatigue - High - intensity - Reduced force - Rehydrate

Peripheral sessions e.g. production. E.g. - Refuel
nervous weights, plyometric reduced - Hydrotherapy
system or skills acceleration, poor - Pool
(muscles) - Long, low intensity technique - Spa
sessions e.g. - CWI
running, cycling, - Contrast
 swimming, rowing - Massage

Neural fatigue - Low blood glucose - Lack of time - Carbs during and
- Central - Poor motivation - Lack of motivation after training
nervous e.g. monotony of - Relaxation
system training, emotional - Music
(brain and factors - Visualisation
spinal cord) - Highly pressured - Rest
training, rapid
decision making
and reactions

Psychological - Lack of group - Loss of self - Relaxation

fatigue cohesion confidence or self- - Breathing
- Competition esteem and
pressure - Poor progressive
- Other lifestyles communication with muscular
pressures teammates and relaxation
coach - Meditation
- Poor sleep patterns - Sleep
- Increased signs of - Massage
anxiety and - Focusing on
negative attitude process rather than
outcome

Environmental - Disruption of - Athlete takes longer - Planning

and travel normal routines, time to warm up - Rehydration and
fatigue especially the - More unforced refuelling
biological clock errors in first 15 - Staying cool in the
- Adapting to minutes of heat
different climatic performance
conditions - Athlete fatigues
sooner than normal
How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

● Stages of skill acquisition

○ Cognitive
■ This is the first stage of acquisition and it’s also known as the
understanding stage
■ During this stage a person forms a clear idea of what is required to
perform the skill
■ Characteristics of a cognitive learner:
Poor technique
Many mistakes
Poor reaction time and decision making
■ Coaches must breakdown the skill and demonstrate to the learner
■ Create one or two focus points and give feedback directly after
performance

○ Associative
■ This is the second stage of skill acquisition and is referred to as the
practice stage
■ This is where the person refines the skill learnt through practice
■ The large and frequent mistakes of the cognitive stage are not a frequent
■ Some people may never leave this stage
■ Pinpoint areas for improvement and enhance the learner’s confidence
■ They are able to identify their own mistakes

○ Autonomous
■ This is where a person can perform the skill without much thought
(second nature)
■ Then then can concentrate more on other tasks such a movement of the
opponent and offensive strategies
■ Practice is still important to ensure the quality of execution
■ Improvements are sometimes made to minor technique issues
● Characteristics of the learner, e.g. personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience,

Confidence
Heredity
Age
Prior experience
Personality

ability

○ Confidence
■ Self confidence is a positive characteristic to have in order to learn a new
skill
■ Confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations
■ Successive failures may destroy confidence
■ Unlocks energy and creativity
■ Perseverance and effort
■ Self image
■ Coaches must give constructive criticism accompanied by positive
feedback this ensures the learner feels good about their process
■ Learners need to understand that everyone progresses at different rates

○ Heredity
■ These are gene characteristics we inherit from our parents
■ Genetic factors can affect an athlete’s performance
Somatotype: Body types and shapes
○ Ectomorph: this body type is tall, thin and lightly muscled,
they are suited to sports such as basketball and volleyball
○ Mesomorph: this body type is hard and muscular, and is
common among gymnasts and weightlifters
 ○ Endomorph: this body type is generally soft and pear
shaped, with underdeveloped muscles and excess body
fat on the body, thighs and arms
Muscle fibres
○ Individuals with more slow twitch fibres are better suited to
aerobic sports
○ Individuals with more fast twitch fibres are better suited to
anaerobic sports

○ Prior Experience
■ It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already
been successfully acquired.
■ Potential to accelerate the learning process
■ Learner’s perception is enhanced
■ Lateral transfer → transfer of a similar skill from one context to another
Learning to surf after learning to skateboard.
■ Vertical transfer → transfer of a skill from a lower order skill to a similar
higher order skill
Learning to throw before learning to shoot in netball
■ Prior experience cannot be measured

○ Personality
■ By having a set of positive learning attributes teaching a learner a new
skill will be easier
■ They are more receptive to instruction and advice
■ More cooperative

● The learning environment

○ Nature of the skill
■ Skills can be classified according to 4 broad categories, although most
skills fall into multiple areas.
■ These categories are:
● Stability of the environment → open and closed skills
○ Open skills = used in unpredictable environments, where
the conditions are changing and timing is external
■ E.g. goalkeeper for soccer
○ Closed skills = skills that occur in a stable environment
where athletes can move at their own pace
■ E.g. basketball free throw, penalty kick in soccer
● Precision of movement → gross and fine motor skills
○ Gross or fine motor skills can also be considered to fall
along a continuum
 ○ Gross motor skills = use large muscles as the primary
basis of movement
■ E.g. walking, running, swimming, jumping
○ Fine motor skills = requires significant control over the
small muscle groups
■ E.g. golf putting, billiards, spin bowling
● Distinctiveness of beginning and end points → discrete, serial and
continuous motor skills
○ Discrete motor skills = can be categorised by having a
distinct beginning and an endpoint
■ E.g. throwing a ball, doing a handstand, hitting a
ball, tuck jump, forward roll, flip
○ Serial motor skills = when discrete skills are put together in
a series
■ E.g. sequence of steps involved in a triple jump,
long, triple, high jump
○ Continuous motor skills = no distinct beginning and end
points. Where the performer or some external force
determines the beginning and end point of the skill
■ E.g. swimming, running and cycling
● Feedback control → self paced and externally paced skills
○ The word paced refers to the timing of an action.
○ Self paced skills = are those in which the performer
controls when to take action and at what speed
■ E.g. kicking a football, serving a tennis ball
○ Externally paced skills = are those in which another
athlete, or the environment has control over the timing and
speed of the skill’s execution
■ E.g. dancing, rhythmic gymnastics (music provides
timing)

○ The performance elements (decision-making, strategic and tactical development)

■ Decision making
● Decision making is best improved by having to make decisions in
performance-like situations.
● Productive decision making is best achieved through:
○ Observation: many coaches use coaching boards and
demonstrations to reveal the inner workings of planned
strategies to assist learners. They also recommend
observation of other more skilled performers.
○ Questioning: decision making is improved by highlighting
options and having players work through game-like
scenarios. This is seen through coaches asking questions
 such as “if this opponent moved here, how would you
respond?”
○ Whole, Part, Whole Approach: a game strategy needs to
be taught as a whole so players can see the overall plan.
Following that, individuals need to learn their specific roles
and learners should walk through plans. To build up game
execution speed needs to be gradual with focus on
technique, followed by strategy being assembled and
practiced on a passive opponent.
○ Variation: during training, it is important to explore
variations when rehearsing strategies. By challenging the
defensive alignment, platers are encouraged to explore
more innovative options.
○ Creativity: a democratic approach to strategic development
encourages all players to identify each problematic
situation and solve it as a group. This is preferable to a
strict coach imposed direction as players feel as though
they are making a worthwhile contribution. Creativity as
opposed to ‘paralysis by analysis’ is more productive in
developing decision making skills.
■ Strategic and Tactical development
Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at
a particular time and what to do.

Tactical awareness is about utilizing ways of gaining and advantage over

an opponent.

A strategic plan is important for a team to prepare for their encounter with
opponents
Tactics are the plans on how to put the strategies to work
When preparing strategies and tactics these factors must be considered:
○ The athlete or team’s strengths and weaknesses
○ The strengths and weaknesses of the opponents
○ Any external factors that may play a role in the game plan
○ Practice method
■ Massed practice
● When a skill is practised until it is learned, without taking a break
● Good for athletes which high level of fitness, experience and
motivation
● The skill being taught may be achieved faster
● Although fatigue may reduce the effectiveness of this practice
method
● Better for discrete, short and simple skills
■ Distributed practice
● Interspersed with rest breaks
 ● Better for cognitive learners
● Good for athletes with a low level of fitness, experience and
motivation
● This process may take longer
● This type of practice method is more beneficial to a learner
● Better for learning a continuous skill
■ Whole practice
● A practice method in which the whole skill is practised at the same
time, rather than being broken down into component parts.
● This is an excellent form of practice where the athlete will also
develop the kinaesthetic sense (movement) of the skill and can
better transform this learning into competition.
○ E.g: learning and practising of a gold swing
● Since this movement is continuous and each section is closely
linked to the other sections, the whole practice method provides
more effective practice.
■ Part practice
● Is a practice method in which parts or subroutines of a skill are
practised individually
● This method is suitable for more complex skills, where breaking
the skills down into parts will provide a better chance of success
● Many technical skills can be broken down into 3 subroutines
○ Preparation (approach)
○ Activity
○ Follow through
■ E.g: practicing for long jump
● Can be broken down into the run-up
(preparation), the jump (activity), and the
landing (follow through)
● Coaches can often use part practice when
teaching new tactical skills or plays.
○ Feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results,
knowledge of performance)
■ Feedback is a critical component in the successful acquisition and
development of a skill, regardless of the skill level of the learner.
■ It provides the learner with knowledge about how the task is being
performed, and how to improve the performance
■ Coaches should always give feedback as soon as possible after the
event, while providing motivation for the athlete to enhance their positive
experience.
■ 3 types of feedback:
● Internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) feedback:
○ Internal feedback: comes from within - from the ability of
the athlete to feel how well they are performing a task
 ■ The body’s proprioceptive mechanisms, which
allow an athlete to unconsciously feel their body’s
movements, make it possible for the athlete to
detect the movement and correct the mistake.
● Proprioceptive mechanisms: are the body’s
senses, which allow an athlete to
unconsciously feel their body’s movements.
○ External feedback: comes from the outside world.
■ It might include comments from the coach, a
cheering crowd, or the final results from a task.
○ This type of feedback provides short-lived motivation
● Concurrent (continuous) and delayed feedback
○ Concurrent feedback: comes from the proprioceptive
mechanisms in the body, and enhances an athlete’s sense
of movement during the performance.
■ It is the body’s way of informing the athlete of small
changes needed to improve the performance.
● E.g: when an archer pulls the bow in
preparation for firing, continually adjusting
his stance an aim very slightly to hit the
bullseye.
○ Delayed feedback: comes when the performance of the
skill is complete.
■ E.g: This can be when a football player takes a
penalty kick and must wait for the ball to complete
its path before she knows if the kick has been
successful or not.
● Knowledge of results / performance:
○ Some say that knowledge of results and knowledge of
performance are the most critical methods of feedback for
an athlete.
○ Knowledge of results: comes from external sources, such
as a coach informing an athlete of a result, or from an
athlete seeing the scoreboard.
■ Either way, it is vitally important for an athlete to
know the results of their performance
■ If the results are not favorable, a change must be
made in the skill performance to earn a different
result.
○ Knowledge of performance: is feedback on how well the
skill was executed (technical feedback)
■ It will generally come from an external source,
although internal kinaesthetic (movement) sense
can provide it also.
 ● E.g: a coach’s feedback on how well the
football player connected with the ball
during the penalty kick, or how to slightly
modify the position of the boot on impact.

Cognitive Associative Autonomous

● External ● Transfer from ● Internal

● Delayed cognitive to ● Concurrent
● Knowledge of results autonomous ● Knowledge of
performance

● Assessment of skill and performance

○ Characteristics of skilled performers
■ There are enormous differences between a skilled performer and a
learner.
■ Some of these differences can be seen in technique, while others revolve
around the strength of character of the individual.
■ Research has shown that skilled performers share a number of
characteristics. They:
● Are highly motivated to perform at their best, and have a positive outlook
● Focus on their own performance and not necessarily that of their team
● Rely on internal preparations
● Are very self-confident and more immune to anxiety issues
● Are able to anticipate, adapt and react to obstacles, changes or issues
● Conduct their activities with ease, grace, fluency, and effortless
● Focus on strategies to win and not on the individual skill to be performed
● Have a desire to continually improve and outperform
● Are consistently high performers
■ These characteristics can be grouped together under the following
categories
● Anticipation and timing:
○ A skilled performer who has reached the autonomous
stage of development is able to ‘read’ the game play as it
unfolds
○ They can anticipate what might happen next, before it
actually happens
○ This gives them an advantage over other participants as
they can position themselves quickly to counteract the
opponents’ moves.
○ Timing their move is also critical to their success
■ E.g. a runner in baseball or softball can steal to
third base if their timing is precise.
 ● Consistency:
○ A skilled performer does not execute a skill successfully
one day and appallingly the next
○ Once an athlete has progressed to the autonomous stage
of development, the physical execution of a skill becomes
so automatic that it is consistently repeated.
● Kinaesthetic sense:
○ A skilled performer also has a kinaesthetic sense about
their movements during a game or event
○ They are so finely in tune with the physical, muscular side
of the execution that they can correct errors while the
errors are occuring.

○ Objective and subjective performance measures

■ When we participate in sport we often measure our success, whether it
be in terms of score, a time, a loss/win outcome, or improving our PB
■ Measurement of skill can be either;
● Subjective:
○ Depends on the observer’s personal judgement of how
well the skill was performed
○ It is based on personal feelings, impressions, opinion and
is affected by the mind and temperament of the observer,
rather than the attributes of the object.
○ This applies to quality and style of performance
■ E.g. in dance or gymnastics routines
● Objective:
○ Involves an impartial measurement based on certain
indisputable facts about the performance
○ It occurs without bias or prejudice, as is such that
observers will give the same result for the same
performances
■ E.g. when a batter is bowled out in cricket out in
cricket, or when the final score for a golfer is six
strokes under par.

○ Validity and reliability of tests

■ Validity:
● Is the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to
measure
○ E.g. a sprint test does not measure aerobic endurance
● Factors that affect validity include the type of measurement tool
chosen and the characteristics of the individual, such as age,
gender, and whether the person is a learner or an expert
 ■ Reliability:
● Is the ability of the test, and the test results, to be repeated?
○ E.g. it is difficult to achieve the same 40 metre sprint
results on grass and on sand.
● The reliability of an instrument or test is dependant on the extent
of its measurement error, and its capacity to discriminate between
different levels of ability in a group.
○ E.g. an unreliable test is to compare a ‘beep’ test
conducted on grass with one done on the gym floor, and to
use different tape decks for each.
○ Personal versus prescribed judging criteria
■ Officials involved in sports that are assessed using subjective
performance measures. They are always looking to improve the reliability,
validity and objectivity of their measurements.
■ There are two types of judging criteria:
● Personal judging criteria: generally the ideas and expectations the
individual holds about measuring a performance. Coaches,
spectators and commentators all use this measure
● Prescribed judging criteria: standards developed by the governing
sports body as critical components of successful skill execution
○ This makes it fair for all the athletes competing
○ Mainly used for dancing or gymnastics