PARENTING AND CARING:

Types of parents and carers:

- Describe the different types of parents & carers

- Explore the impact on social parenting in terms of:
- Legislation
- Community and beliefs and attitudes
- Reproductive technology

1) Biological parents:
- A biological parent has provided the genetic material to create a foetus
- Generally, biological parents contribute genetic material as a result of sexual intercourse
- With assisted reproductive technology (ART), the creation of a foetus may involve other
procedures. These include - in vitro fertilization (IVF), Embryo Transfer (ET), Gamete
Intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT) and Artificial Insemination (AI)

2) Social Parents:
- Social parents are those who have parental responsibilities for a child they do not share
a genetic relationship with.

Adoption:
- The legal process where all legal rights and responsibilities are transferred from birth
parents to adoptive parents
- It is one of the options used to provide permanent care for children who are unable to
live with their birth families
- In today's society, ‘open’ adoption is often practiced. This is where all parties agree to
contact and information exchange. The child and parents benefits because the child has
a secure adoptive family and an ongoing relationship with their biological parents.
- In 2013, Family and Community Services had three main programs running:
- Local adoption and permanent care
- Out-of-home care adoption
- Intercountry adoption
- They also classified four types of adoption; local, special needs, intercountry and
intrafamily adoption.
- FACS - family and community services - involved in all adoptions

Type of care or Description:

 adoption:

Local adoption: - Children from infancy to two years of age

- Birth parents voluntarily make a decision to have their child
adopted.

Permanent care: - Children that are under the responsibility of FACS

- Children are unable to remain in the care of their parents or
family members

Out of home care - It is assessed that children are not able to live with their
adoption: parents or extended family.
- Children are placed with authorized carers.

Intercountry adoption: - Adoption between Australia and a country that is a member of

the Hague Convention

Intrafamily adoption: - Adoption of a child who lives in NSW by a step-parent or

relative
- Can be one of two types: step parent adoption or relative
adoption.

- Between 2012 and 2013, there were only 210 local adoptions and 129 intercountry
adoptions in Australia
- In NSW, adoption is a responsibility of family and community services (FACS) and other
registered agencies, such as Anglicare, Barnardos, and CatholicCare.
- According to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander child placement principle, an
aboriginal and torres strait islander child can only be placed with a non-indigenous carer
if an appropriate placement cannot be found in the following areas; the child’s extended
family, the child’s indigenous community, other indigenous people.

Fostering:
- Provides an alternative living arrangement for children whose parents are temporarily
unable to care for them in their family home.
- The caregivers are volunteers who are paid a fortnightly allowance (based on the child’s
age) to help them meet the needs of the child, such as buying furniture and clothing.
- Foster care can last from a few days to a few years and includes immediate or crisis
care, respite care, short-medium care, long term care and relative or kinship care.
- A child may be put into foster care if:
- They are considered to be at risk of harm
- Their basic physical and emotional needs are not being met
- There may be risk of abuse or exposure to domestic violence
- Sometimes a parent is unable to provide care owing to physical or mental health issues
or because the parent is in prison.
 - Foster care is arranged in familiar locations where possible, and the foster children and
biological parents may be encouraged to keep in contact regularly. This helps to
maintain the child’s self esteem, sense of belonging and continuity.
- Foster carers must be authorized by Family and Community Services (FACS). It is now
mainly managed by non-government agencies, as FACS is transferring the out-of-home
care program to the non-government sector. Non-government services include
Anglicare, Barnados, CatholicCare and KARI aboriginal resources for indigenous
children.
Step Parenting:
- When a man or woman marries or forms a de facto relationship with a partner who has a
child or children from a previous relationship - they become a step-parent. This can
occur due to divorce, separation, death or other circumstances.
- The number of step and blended families has grown by more than 50% in the last 10
years and they now represent 10.6% of all couple families with children.
- Under the family law Act 1975, a step-parent:
- Is not a biological parent of the child
- Is or has been married to, or has been a de facto partner of, a parent of the child
- Treats the child as a member of the family formed with the parent
Surrogacy:
- Is an arrangement between a couple of cannot have a baby and a woman who gets
pregnant on behalf of a couple. It is the intention that the child is handed over to the
couple after the birth.
- A woman many need surrogate if she is infertile, has had a hysterectomy or suffers from
a serious medical condition, like uncontrolled diabetes, cardiomyopathy or moderate
renal failure.
- Surrogacy often means having IVF treatment, as the surrogate mother may use donor
ora or sperm or the parent’s own egg or sperm.
- Altruistic surrogacy is a practice whereby a woman agrees, for no financial gain, to
become pregnant and bear a child for another person to whom she intends to transfer
the child’s care at, or shortly after, the child’s birth.
- To be listed on the birth certificate as the child’s legal parents, the interfertile couple
must apply to adopt the child.
- After adoption, the adopting parents have the same rights as biological parents.
- As with all adoption procedures, the family court needs evidence to be satisfied the
infertile couple will be suitable as parents. The court also needs consent from the
surrogate mother to relinquish parental rights. If all adults agree to the adoption, the
infertile couple will be given custody, guardianship and parental rights.
- Traditional surrogacy is when a woman is pregnant with her own biological child but
conceives the child with the intention of handing it over to be raised by others.
- Gestational surrogacy is when a woman is impregnated with a fertilized egg to which she
has no genetic connection and carries the child until birth.
The impact of legal, social and technological change on social
parenting:

Legal (legislation)
Social (community beliefs and attitudes)
Technological (reproductive technology)

ADOPTION:

FOSTE
RING:
STEP - PARENTING:

SURROGACY:

Carers:
 - Carers; a person who, formally or informally provides ongoing personal care to a
dependent (NSW Carer Act 2010)
- Carers can be either primary or informal and formal
- Why the need for care?
- Illness / injury, loss of a partner, birth of a child, age, work, loss of mobility,
special needs family crisis.

Primary carers:
- A primary carer is a person who provides the most informal assistance, in terms of help
or supervision, to a person with one or more disabilities or who is aged 60 years and
over (ABS, 2010)
- The assistance has to be ongoing for at least 6 months and be provided for one or more
core activities (communication, mobility and self-care).
- For example, the main care provider could be a father caring for his disabled son
or a woman caring for her elderly mother.
- Primary carers are different to paid care workers or volunteers arranged by formal
services.
- According to the ABS (2012) there are approximately 2.7 million carers in Australia (12%
of the population)
- Of these 770,000 (3.4%) are recorded as the primary carer, which means they are the
main care provider for the dependent and assist them with one or more core activities.
- 4 in 10 primary carers provided care for more than 40 hours a week.
- Over 37% of primary carers also have a disability, compared, with 16% who are not
carers.
- Primary carers were more likely to be the partner of the dependant and their participation
in the workforce, the workforce was lower than that of non-carers.
- Young carers make up a significant number of carers across Australia. They are defined
as young people who care for and support a family member who has a long - term
physical illness, mental illness, disability and drug or alcohol problem.
- In Australia, almost 4% of young people aged 18 and under are carers and 1/10
teenagers care for someone in their family.
- Young carers can take on a variety of task including; shopping, cooking, household
duties, as well as assisting with daily functioning of a family member (most commonly
their parents). They do this whilst undertaking study or working.

Informal carers:
- The australian institute of health and welfare (2013), describes and informal carer as any
person, such as a family member, friend or neighbor, who is giving regular, ongoing
assistance to another person without payment.
- More often than not these carers are women.
- One example is a grandmother who cares for her three year old granddaughter twice a
week while her parents are at work. The grandmother receives no payment for this role.
- There are a large proportion of informal carers who are also the primary carer for an
individual.
 - The most common reason for taking on the role of informal care provider was a
sense of family responsibility (63%)
- The next common was a feeling that they could provide better care than anybody
else (50%)
- Followed by a feeling of emotional obligation to undertake the role (41%)
- When the person being cared for was an older person, it was more likely that no other
friends or family were available to take on the caring role (32% compared with 22% for
care recipients aged less than 64 years)
- The annual value of informal care was estimated to be 1.32 billion hours per annum.
- If this were paid care, the collective cost would exceed $40 billion dollars
- People who provide informal care earn significantly less than the average person. It is
estimated that just over 100,000 young people (aged under 25) are carers.
- Informal carers are often women, with 70% of primary carers and 56% of all carers in
Australia being women.
- There are a variety of reasons why women are significantly over-represented in caring.
Traditionally, the female takes on a nurturing and caring role so this task is designated
as ‘women’s work”
- In many sole-parent families, the % of disabled or chronically ill children is higher than in
families that are still intact. This would put pressure / strain on the relationship
- An additional factor is the gap between females and males income. If a choice is made
between who stays in the workforce, it will most likely be the higher income earner.
- 1 in 5 carers are aged between 55-64. This could be due to Australia’s ageing population
and the number of grandparent carers.

Formal carers:
- Formal carers include trained professionals who provide care through formal agencies or
institutional and are paid for by the receiver.
- Examples include:
- Aged carer
- Nurse
- Palliative carer
- Childcare worker
- Preschool teacher
- Family day care worker
- Before and after school carer
- Primary and high school teacher
- Nanny
- Doctor
- Other specialized individual who receives monetary income for their caring role

The roles of parents and carers:

1 - Satisfying the specific needs of the dependant (SHESEAS):

Adequate standard of living:
- Parents are expected to provide their dependant with food, clothing and shelter.
- Food should be wholesome, fresh, nutritious and appropriate to the developmental stage
and energy output of the dependent.
- Staying hydrated through drinking water regularly should be encouraged.
- Clothing needs to be regularly laundered, and dependents may show an interest in the
type of clothing chosen.
- These choices may also impact on sense of identity.
- Appropriate shelter, through housing, also contributes to meeting two other needs,
safety, and security.

Safety and security:

- Through sufficient housing and showing their dependants understanding, love and
support.
- Consistency and routines also assist in meeting security.

Health
- Providing food and clothing, parents may also assist through hygienic procedures such
as regular showering / bathing, toileting, good oral hygiene and general cleanliness.
- They may also administer basic first aid and provide support through meeting with
medical professionals.
- This could also involve the dentist or other specialists.

Education:
- Education is important in the early years
- Studies show that a very high proportion of intellectual, social and emotional
development takes place before the child begins formal education, and especially during
infancy.
- Parents can meet this need by encouraging play, language, and literature acquisition,
creativity, cultural education and by providing opportunities for the child to develop social
relationships.

2 - Building a positive relationship with the dependent:

- A positive relationship is one where both people grow as a result of their interaction. In
parenting this lies with the parent.
- This can occur from birth through love, bonding, affection, understanding and patience
 - Parents can contribute to a positive relationship by prioritizing time with their child and
showing genuine interest in their activities.
- Parents can also provide opportunities for resilience and independence to develop.
- Children of any age need to feel valued and affirmed.
- It is important to develop self-discipline and maturity through taking on age appropriate
responsibilities.
- Parents need to model appropriate behaviour with others, as skills in relationships are
‘caught not taught’
- Carers can help a dependent by providing assistance where it is needed but still allowing
opportunities for independence.
- A person with a disability or an ageing parent should be treated with care and respect.
- This kind of relationship can be fostered by speaking to a dependent at their eye
level and by using the appropriate care.
- It can be difficult when the dependent was formerly of an equal or higher status, such as
in the cases of a spouse or parent becoming a dependent.
- As roles change, so do responsibilities and relationships
- Ageing parents may have conflict with their adult children when there are financial and
residential issues to consider.
- Young carers may resent the impact of caring on their social, educational, and
career aspirations, which may make it difficult to build strong relationships
outside the family.

3 - Promoting the wellbeing of the dependent (SPEECS)

- Wellbeing definition: the degree of satisfaction achieved by individuals and groups and it
is affected by how well needs are met.
- Wellbeing will be enhanced through meeting the specific needs of a child or dependent,
and through developing a positive relationship with them.
- Parents and carers should provide opportunities to foster, develop and support these
aspects with their dependents.

S - Social
P - Physical
E - Emotional
E - Economic
C - Cultural
S - Spiritual

Preparations for becoming a parent or carer: (COME)

C - Changing health behaviours
(e.g. nutrition, physical activity, social or spiritual connections)
O - Organising finances
(e.g. education, information, training, saving funds for education)
M - Modifying the physical environment
(e.g. housing, amenities, equipment, baby proofing, gates, drawers, corners)
E - Enhancing knowledge and skills
(e.g. budgeting, saving, support payments, prenatal classes, family and friends)

Changing health behaviours:

- Health behaviours include nutrition, physical activity, and social spiritual connections.
- Parents need to make positive lifestyle choices before they start trying to conceive a
baby and during pregnancy.
- There are specific health behaviours that can be changed to optimize the development
of the baby and reduce risks.
- Some nutrition and physical activity guidelines for parents include:
- Maintain a healthy, balanced diet of whole foods (unprocessed and unrefined)
and develop an awareness of special needs during pregnancy, such as avoiding
foods with listeria bacteria
- Drink two or more litres of water per day
- Cease using alcohol and other drugs including tobacco and caffeine
- Increase folic acid intake before and during pregnancy, usually by taking a
supplement in consultation with a GP.
- Some nutrition and physical activity guidelines for parents include:
- Participate in regular exercise during pregnancy, avoiding impact sports and
activities
- Attend regular appointments with a GP, obstetrician or midwife to monitor the
baby’s growth and development, and undertake ultrasounds and other tests as
required.
- Attend antenatal courses to learn about physical and emotional needs during
pregnancy and birth
- Get 7-8 hours sleep a night
- Carers also need to make positive health changes:
- Eating a variety to fresh, nutritious foods and making them available to the
dependent where appropriate
- Engaging in a range of physical activities to assist in maintaining a healthy
lifestyle and carrying out activities such as playing, lifting, showering and bathing.
- Social and spiritual connections for parents may be developed by;
- Attending prenatal classes to meet others in the same situation - sometimes
these friendships continue after delivery and may begin lifelong connections
between families.
- Inquiring into mothers groups in the local area
- Investigating child friendly social activities in the local area, such as play centres,
parks and local cafes
- Investigating and practising relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga,
pilates and powerbirth or calmbirth.
- Social and spiritual connections for carers may be developed by:
 - Investigating local support groups in order to interact with other carers in a similar
situation
- Meeting with other carers to gain more exposure to the role
- Inquiring into caring groups in the local area
- Engaging in relaxation techniques such as yoga, meditation and pilates

Enhancing knowledge and skills:

- Knowledge and skills include education, information and training
- Parents can enhance their knowledge and their skills through education and training
offered by both formal and informal groups and resources
- Education and training can begin with prenatal and postnatal classes with midwives in
hospitals, online courses, health services, workshops with doulas or in private settings.
- Information can be gained by seeking resources from reputable professionals, reading
reliable parenting books, such as What to Expect when you’re expecting, reading
magazines, such as practice parenting, or exploring websites such as the raising
children network.
- It is essential that parents choose valid and reliable sources from which to enhance their
knowledge and skills.
- Parents need to be very wary of the many social media and online forums that
sometimes provide inaccurate, negative or unprofessional advice about parenting.
- Depending on their role, carers may engage in education and training in variety of
settings. Informal carers may partake in online course or workshops to assist in the care
of their dependent.
- Many carer support services offer online or face to face workshops on a variety of
different topics and issues.
- Universities offer degrees in children services, enrolled nursing and aged care.
- Private colleges also offer courses in nursing, child care and aged care.
- Government organisations such as FACS, and private organisations such as the
Benevolent Society and Connecting carers, also offer some education and training.
- Other resources in the community that can help carers gain information include support
services, counselling, self-help and condition-specific groups that operate through
neighbourhood centres, local councils, community health and aged-care agencies.

Modifying the physical environment:

- Modifying the environment includes modifying housing, amenities and equipment.
- Parents and carers may need to assess their current housing arrangement to cater for
future dependants.
- Parents could move from a 1 bedroom or studio apartment to a unit or a house with 2
bedrooms
 - Carers may need to consider the living arrangements of their family to help prepare for
the dependant.
- Within homes, amenities may need to be altered to cater for needs.
- E.g. change facilities and play areas will be required for babies; rails, ramps, and
non-slip flooring may need to be installed for aged individuals.
- In terms of equipment, bassinets, cots, baths, safety gates and high chairs will be
required for babies.
- For other dependants, carers will need to find places to safely store wheelchairs, walking
frames or other specialized equipment.

Organising finances:
- Organising finances includes budgeting, saving and setting up support payments.
Becoming a parent or carer comes with a vast array of financial considerations.
- Budgeting needs to take place in order for parents and carers to be financially prepared
for the arrival of the dependant - this could be done together as a family or consultation
with a consultant or financial advisor.
- Parents need to investigate the potential costs of an obstetrician, hospitalization, other
medical expenses, equipment, clothing, nappies and other costs related to a child.
- Carers need to discuss the potential costs of modifying the environment, of education
and training, specialized equipment and other ongoing expenses.
- Parents and carers may need to consider building up their savings to help provide them
with some relief while they are off work caring for the dependant.
- These savings may be used for the arrival of the dependant or for the day to day costs
or living, such as paying the mortgage, bills or buying food.
- The high costs associated with a dependant mean that parents and carers benefit from
support payments.
- These can come in the form of employer-paid maternity/paternity leave or from the
Australian Governments department of human services via centrelink.
- E.g. support payments include parental leave pay, dad and partner pay, family
tax benefit, child care rebate, clean energy supplement, carer payment and carer
allowance.

Factors affecting the roles of parents and carers:

Characteristics of the dependant - AGE:

- A young child requires great assistance and support to satisfy the needs for food,
clothing and safety.
- Babies rely on their parents to satisfy all of their needs. As a child matures into an
adolescent, sense of identity and education become increasingly important.
 - A child needs to experience love and affection in order to become a person capable of
giving love and affection.
- A carer may prioritise the specific needs according to the illness, disability, condition and
situation of the cared for.
- E.g. health would be a high priority for a dependant who has Alzheimer's
disease, arthritis or emphysema.
- A positive relationship occurs when the dependant and parent / carer feel a bond of trust
and openness and there is effective communication and a supportive relationship. No
matter the age of the dependant, the parent / carer should be working to build a positive
relationship by supporting the dependant’s needs.
- Promoting wellbeing occurs through meeting the needs of the dependant. The ability to
do this is closely linked with the ability to manage resources effectively. A dependant’s
needs change through the lifespan
- E.g. parents will go from meeting the physical needs of a child, to enhancing the
self esteem of a teenager concerned with body image, to providing emotional
and economic support to adult children.

Characteristics of the dependant - SKILLS AND CAPABILITIES:

- An adolescent may contribute to meeting their health needs by participating in physical
activity, preparing and eating a range of fresh food and abstaining from alcohol and drug
use.
- An adolescent may also be able to research and complete homework independently,
thus satisfying their education needs.
- They may need assistance in meeting safety and security needs, through parents setting
limits by using curfews or providing advice about safe driving.
- A carer may need to spend more time to build skills and capabilities in dependants. A
person with a disability may need assistance feeding, bathing, and food preparation, and
they may never complete these independently.
- In a childcare situation, the skills and capabilities of the children in care would affect the
roles of the childcare worker.
- E.g. they may be required to change the nappies of babies and infants or assist
with the toileting of preschoolers. Childcare workers would have to modify the
delivery of certain educational programs and activities according to the skills and
capabilities of the children in their care.

Characteristics of the dependant - SPECIAL NEEDS - E.G. ILLNESS AND DISABILITY

- Special needs can relate to people with an illness, disability, or allergies and to gifted
children
- A chronically ill child may not be able to have their parents meet their specific need for
health because this could occur in a hospital setting
- Gifted children would have their educational needs met by personal endeavours that the
parent does not understand or is not educated about.
 - Promoting wellbeing is especially important for those with special needs. A dependant
may require more physical and emotional support in everyday activities.
- E.g. when the dependant is a spouse who has dementia, the relationship
between husband and wife changes to that of carer and dependant. There may
be little recognition of the carer, or no appreciation for the role carried out on a
daily basis. Issues and challenges may arise for a parent or carer of a dependant
who has multiple special needs.
- A positive relationship may be easier to build in cases where more time is needed for
activities of daily living (ADL) such as hygiene, medication, feeding or mobility needs.
- Difficulties in communication may impact on the ability to build a positive relationship.
- E.g. a child with autism or an aged parent who has a stroke. The disabilities and
frustrations associated with such situations could lead to anger and other
adverse behaviours.

LINK:
INFLUENCES ON PARENTS AND CARERS - PERSONAL INFLUENCES

Influences on parents and carers - social influences:

Community attitudes:
- Community attitudes reflect the prevailing norms of people within a certain area. The
norms may include prescribed behaviours, standards of dress, methods of education or
acceptable activities.
- Families who are unaware or choose not to conform may face opposition and
questioning by others.
- E.g. parents who decide to homeschool their children. Although this is a valid
choice, many will question the decision, as so many people rely on schools to
carry out this task.
- Community attitudes to vaccination are another interesting example. In some parts of
Northern NSW, vaccination rates are at an all time low.
- Other contentious issues include; appropriate time to breastfeed, breastfeeding in public,
use of dummies, radical medical procedures, and the quality of aged care.
Gender expectations:
- A child’s concept of being ‘female’ or ‘male’ develops from observing and modelling their
parents behaviour.
- A child who sees both parents share a household tasks equally is more likely to except
and accept this behaviour, whereas the child who sees sex-linked and stereotyped task
allocation is more likely to believe this as the norm.
- Expectations that parents have of their children can be linked to gender.
- E.g. a father who gives his baby boy a little football and continually exposes the
child to activities built around football.
- The caring professions such as nursing, teaching and social welfare are predominantly
female. This reinforces the traditional stereotype that caring is a female occupation.
 - Historically, parenting has been seen as a shared role with job allocation designated by
gender. The mother’s role was associated with caring, nurturing, cleaning, feeding and
related tasks, while the father's role was that of the provider (breadwinner) and
disciplinarian.
- Parenting roles have changed dramatically - high level of technological and social
changes in society have blurred the distinct lines between roles.
- Fathers are present at the birth of the child and can access paternity leave and bond
quickly with the child. Some stay at home as house husbands, becoming the primary
caregiver and undertaking many household tasks.
- Mothers now have greater flexibility, as they have control over then they fall pregnant
and whether they breastfeed. They have the option of maternity leave and whether to
work full or part time.
- The roles of disciplinarian and financial provider are seen more as shared
responsibilities in contemporary families.
- According to the 2011 census, there are 85,000 house husbands in Australia, compared
with 541,000 housewives.
- Nationally, 14% of stay at home parents who look after children are men; in high social
housing areas this figure jumps to 30%
- Men are more likely than women to be house husbands, when there is no substantial
difference to household income. The richer the city and the community, the more likely
women are to stay at home and look after the children.
Media Stereotypes:
- Individuals are exposed to behaviours and opinions that are expressed on television,
radio and the internet, in newspapers and magazines and on billboards
- E.g. some Australian television dramas still depict mothers and fathers in
traditional roles. Billboards to promote jobs in nursing or aged care commonly
feature females.
- Very often these messages are subtle. The media may influence parents and carers
without them even realising.
- The media has also enabled carers and dependants to find out about financial support,
advocacy and respite, which can lead them to perform their roles more effectively and
enhance their relationship with the dependant.

Styles of parenting or caring:

Authoritarian:
- Characterises a demanding and inflexible parent or carer who usually has a
preconceived goal to achieve.
- This parent / carer often expects obedience, and dependents have little input into
decisions that may affect them. They may have predetermined ideas about the best way
to meet the specific needs of the dependant.
- Can result in a dependent becoming resentful and distant. Fear can lead to a poor
quality relationship with parent.
Democratic:
- Invites all members to have a say in decisions
- Dependents feel appreciated, especially when their ideas form part of the total solution
- They are more likely to build a respectful and positive relationships with their parents or
carers, as time spent together is valued and each member is affirmed.
- May increase trust in one another as they share opinions and values
- Wellbeing is enhanced when there is effective communication
- E.g. a nursing home resident who has input into decision making surrounding
their activities and food choice is more likely to meet their sense of identity
needs.
Permissive / indulgent:
- Characterised by excessive leniency
- A dependent may ask permission to be involved in an activity and the parent / carer is
likely to agree
- Although the dependent may not get their way, they may lack respect for their parent /
carer because of their opposition to setting boundaries or rules for the dependent to
follow
- With so few set limits, the dependent may feel that the parents do not care about them.
This may lead to poor wellbeing as the dependent may engage in high-risk activities and
may not meet safety and security needs.
Negligent:
- Negligence may be physical where insufficient food is available, perhaps because of
gambling or substance abuse issues. A dependent may not have suitable clothing or
hygiene needs may not be met.
- Emotional negligence can include a lack of warmth, affirmation and physical affection. It
may include negligence in supervision with accidents occurring.
- Basic needs such as health, security, and safety may not be met.
- The dependents wellbeing is not promoted and they may be malnourished, unhealthy
and have learning disabilities because of a lack of appropriate simulation. A poor quality
relationship may occur as the dependent does not feel loved and protected.
- Elder abuse- involve neglect the dependent may not be fed or cleaned appropriately and
where over medication is used to control behaviour. The carer may receive a carer
allowance but not provide the care. In some cases, health, security and safety and
sense of identity needs are not met and the relationship reflects a power imbalance
where the wellbeing is reduced.

Rights and responsibilities

Legal rights of parents:
- The family law act (1975) (cth) states that parents and legal guardians have the right to:
M - Medical decisions
E - Education
D - Discipline
A - Adoption
L - Legal proceedings
Legal rights of carers:
Carers have the right to:
- Be recognised and acknowledged in their role. Caring can be a full-time, on-call task that
involves both personal and professional sacrifice. - provides benefits
- Often undervalued by society.
- Carers are covered by the Carer recognition act 2010 (cth)
- Receive financial assistance as many are unable to work
- Through centrelink, FACS provides carers with a carers payment and carers allowance
that can assist economically.
- Respite (relief) - dependents can be in respite for up to 63 days a year
- Be covered by the Anti-Discrimination Amendment Act 2000 (cth)
- Act as an advocate for the dependent when required
- Access suport through the national carer counselling program

Legal rights of children:

The basic rights of children that Australian courts recognise relate to:
- Autonomy of children - the right to make their own choices
- Medical treatment - over the age of 14, a young person can make their own medical
decisions
- Inheritance - children have no absolute right to inherit their parents property after death,
but are entitled to claim under family law provisions.
- The united nations (UN) convention on the rights of the child (1989) sets out legal rights
that all children should have in society
- Australia signed the document and ratified it in 1990. The four basic principles contained
within the convention are:
- Non-discriminating against children
- Actions concerning children must be in the best interests of the child
- All children have the right to life, survival and development
- Children have the right to have their views expressed and heard
- A child has the right to:
- Enjoy rights regardless of race, colour, sex, language, political opinion, birth etc
- Develop physically, mentally, morally, and spiritually in a manner and in
conditions of freedom and dignity
- A name and a nationality
- Special treatment, education and care if handicapped
- Love and understanding
- Receive free education
- Be protected against all forms of neglect, cruelty and exploitation

Legal rights of dependents:

Dependents have the right to:
- Participate in decisions that affect their life
- Adequate care, compassion and understanding
 - Dignity - could support them in hygiene needs
- Be protected from abuse and neglect
- E.g. the aged often have people conducting fraudulent behaviour on them
- Be part of the community - they may be transported to local clubs, shops, or theatre
performances
- Receive services such as medical support, spiritual comfort and access to relevant
supports e.g. a social worker
- The age discrimination act 2004 (cth) protects individuals across australia from
discrimination on the basis of age in many areas of public life, including employment,
education, accommodation and the provision of goods and services
- The charter of rights and responsibilities for home care (2009)
- Home and community care act (1985)
- Aged care act (1997)
- The disability discrimination act 1992 (cth) protects individuals across Australia
from unfair treatment. This act makes disability discrimination unlawful and
promotes equal rights, equal opportunity and equal access for people with
disabilities.

Responsibilities of parents and carers:

- Develop personal physical, intellectual, social and emotional skills
- Set reasonable limits
- Ensure medical appointments are made
- Provide a safe and secure family environment
- Foster positive self-esteem
- Listen to and value a child’s contributions
- Pass on beliefs, knowledge, customs and language
- Provide unconditional love
- Establish and maintain positive communication
- Spend time with children / dependents
- Provide a positive role model
- Respect their dependents

Responsibilities of parents and carers - DUTY OF CARE:

- This legal term means that parents and carers are the individuals who must meet the
needs of their dependents
- Parents and carers have a legal position as both guardian (responsible for the long-term
welfare of their dependent) and custodian (having this responsibility and that of the
dependent’s daily care)
- In the case of a family breakdown, the parents or child may make an application to the
Family court for this standard legal position to be varied
- Australia has legislation that relates to child welfare and protection.
- E.g. laws that involve the neglect and abuse of children by parents and other
adults include:
- Children Act - 1987
 - Children and Young Persons Act - 1998
- Children and Young Persons Regulation - 2000
- The Education Act (1990) states that parents of compulsory school age
children have a duty to cause the child to; to be enrolled at and to attend
school or be registered for homeschooling. If a child is homeschooled, the
parent assumes duty of care over them. This can be transferred, such as
when parents place the child into childcare centres - this is called ‘loco
parents’ - in place of the parent
- Duty of care is difficult to define and the only legal definition can be found in
occupational health and safety legislation. Under the law, duty of care (or lack thereof)
relates to negligence
- There are 4 key factors that are essential in deciding whether or not someone is
negligent.
- Duty of care
- Standard of care
- Breach of duty of care
- Harm of loss

Responsibilities of parents and carers - setting limits:

- Guidance based on positive reinforcement works more successfully than harsh
punishment
- Setting limits allows dependents opportunities to:
- Know what is expected of them
- Know how far they can go
- Learn about fairness
- Respect others
- Foster their self-esteem
- Limits set by parents / carers may be in conflict with the views or opinions of their
dependents. This may require some sort of conflict resolution.

Responsibilities of parents and carers - Discipline:

- Parents and carers should establish clear rules and practise discipline that is understood
by their dependents
- Parents and carers need to:
- Decide on a few important rules
- Discuss the reasons for these rules with their dependent
- Involve the dependent in discussing the limitations, as well as fair and
reasonable consequences for breaking the rules.
- Praise their dependent when rules are followed
- consistently , assertively and calmly follow through with the consequences when
rules are broken
- Change the rules and expectations as the dependent grows older and matures
Support for parents and carers:

Types of support:
- Informal:
- Relatives:
- A consistent approach is required for discipline and setting limits
- Parenting role is increasingly shared due to more women in the
workforce. Fathers are spending more time with their children, they are
establishing important roles as the baby grows and develops.
- For example; this could be done through activities such as playing
sport, providing transport or assisting with homework
- A non-custodial parent (following separation or divorce) is one who may
have the child on weekends and for part of holiday periods
- This parent may be a valuable source of additional emotional and
financial support.
- Also gives the custodial parent a regular break from parenting, and a
chance to refresh and regain energy.
- A sibling may spend the day with the dependent so the parent / carer can
have some respite. This may be done through babysitting, transport,
cooking and other activities that assist the family unit.
- Grandparents can pass on family culture, traditions and customs. They
also help financially as they provide care while the parents work full time.
They can enhance self-esteem and the ability to give and receive
affection.
- The decision to become a primary carer for grandchildren is usually
unplanned. Often it is the result of a traumatic situation, such as the death
of a parent, domestic violence, a parent in jail, substance abuse or mental
health issues.
- Friends:
- Friends may be called upon if for example a parent needs to go to a
Doctor’s appointment or have their car serviced. A friend, especially one
with children of a similar age may be asked to look after the dependent.
- These friends could also be called on to support the parent emotionally in
preparation for their role or changing roles over time.
- A friend of a carer may be asked to care for the dependent while the carer
does everyday tasks such as shopping, or takes time out to participate in
a recreational activity or get a massage.
- Neighbours:
- They are most likely trusted individuals who come with the added
convenience of close proximity.
- Carer may ask a neighbour for their assistance in transporting
specialised equipment into the house for the dependent to use.
- A parent may ask a neighbour to pick their children up from school if they
have children at the school as well.
 - Neighbours who also have dependents may be able to offer valuable
advice on parenting / caring and relevant community supports.
- Formal:
- Government agencies:
- Government agencies are government funded and administered groups
- Department of health
- NSW health
- Home and Community Care (HACC)
- NSW Department of Family and Community Services (FACS) - provides
assistance and advice to people adopting or fostering children; helps
families in abusive relationships by offering support groups to victims of
domestic violence and providing specialised sessions for children; and
assists with children at risk of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse or
neglect.
- Centrelink - provides information and payments for parents and carers.
Some include; parental leave pay, family tax benefit, child support, child
care rebate, carer allowance, child disability assistance payment.
- Community organisations
- Community organisations can include welfare agencies or other
community services. Welfare agencies, include the St Vincent De Paul
Society, Salvation Army, Mission Australia, Smith Family, Red Cross.
- These are often partially funded by the government, but are not classified
as government agencies.
- A person’s finances will determine the level of support these agencies will
provide.
- Their role is to:
- Assist parents / carers to meet primary needs such as clothing,
furniture and household goods
- Support low income families who are experiencing high levels of
stress due to economic reasons
- Pay gas, electricity and water bills for those who cannot afford
them
- Provide counselling, emotional and spiritual support and
employment programs.
- Rotary - manages youth leadership programs or raises money for
disabled members of the community
- Playgroup - is self managed by parents, and provides social and play
opportunities for parents and their children
- Kindergym and gymbaROO - although trained people run the program,
informal networks often form among the parents
- Various recreational and physical activity organisations, such as rhythm
factory, mini maestros, little kickers, and ready steady go kids.
- Specific community groups for carers include:
- Community transport
 - Meals on wheels
- Palliative care
- House with no steps
- Senior citizens clubs
- Carer’s support groups provide specific care to people under the umbrella
of:
- Carers Australia and Carers NSW. They provide practical, legal
and emotional support to carers supporting aged, ill and disabled
dependents.
- Specialised groups which exist for carers of people with dementia,
cancer, and strokes and for those caring for people with
disabilities such as down syndrome association.
- Respite care, home care and meals on wheels assist in caring
- Young carer support groups - operate in local areas across NSW
- MyTime for grandparents - supports grandparents caring for
dependents full time
- Truce - a service run by CanTeen Australia - supports young
people with a parent / carer with cancer.