Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Statics –
Formulas and
Problems
Engineering Mechanics 1
123
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Ralf Müller
Statics – Formulas
and Problems
Engineering Mechanics 1
123
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Peter Wriggers
Institute of Continuum Mechanics
Leibniz Universität Hannover
Hannover
Germany
This collection of problems results from the demand of students for sup-
plementary problems and support in the preparation for examinations.
With the present collection “Engineering Mechanics 1 - Formulas and
Problems, Statics” we provide more additional exercise material. The
subject “Statics” is commonly taught in the basic course of Engineering
Mechanics classes at universities.
The problems analyzed within these courses use equilibrium condi-
tions and the principle of virtual work to analyze static problems and
to compute reaction forces and stress resultants. These concepts are
the basic of many structural analyses of components used in civil and
mechanical engineering.
We would like to make the reader aware that pure reading and trying
to comprehend the presented solutions will not provide a deeper under-
standing of mechanics. Neither does it improve the problem solving
skills. Using this collection wisely, one has to try to solve the problems
independently. The proposed solution should only be considered when
experiencing major problems in solving an exercise.
Obviously this collection cannot substitute a full-scale textbook. If
not familiar with the formulae, explanations, or technical terms the rea-
der has to consider his or her course material or additional textbooks
on mechanics of materials. An incomplete list is provided on page IX.
Table of Contents
1 Equilibrium ......................................................... 1
4 Trusses............................................................... 65
Collection of Problems
Hibbeler, R. C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, Prentice Hall, 2012
Schaum’s Outlines of Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 6th Edition, McGraw-
Hill Education 2010
Beer, F., Johnston, E.R., Mazurek, D., Vector Mechanics for Engineers:
Statics, 11th edition, McGraw-Hill Education 2015
Notation
For the solutions of the problems we used the following symbols:
↑: Short notation for sum of all forces in direction of the arrow
equal to zero.
A: Short notation for sum of all moments with respect to reference
point A (with predetermined direction of rotation) equal to zero.
; Short notation for from this follows that.
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Chapter 1
Equilibrium
1
2 Equilibrium
x F1 or in cartesian components
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 .
F1
Fi
f1
Equilibrium 3
Instead of using the two force conditions, two alternative moment con-
ditions with different reference points (e.g. B and C) may be applied.
Here the points A, B and C must not lie on a straight line.
Graphical solutions for the resultant force are obtained with the help
of the link polygon and the force polygon.
F4
4 Equilibrium
• The link lines si are parallel to the lines Si in the force polygon.
• Equilibrium exists, if the link polygon and the polygon of forces are
closed.
or in component form
Fix = 0 , Fiy = 0 , Fiz = 0 ,
(A)
(A)
(A)
Mix = 0 , Miy = 0 , Miz =0
with
(A) (A) (A)
Mix = yi Fiz −zi Fiy , Miy = zi Fix −xi Fiz , Miz = xi Fiy −yi Fix .
Solution a) analytical: All forces acting on the ball are made visible
in the free-body diagram. Therefore, we cut the wire and separate the
sphere from the wall. The force S in the wire is acting in the direction
of the wire, the contact force N is acting perpendicular to the smooth
wall, and the external force W points in vertical direction. The three
forces are concurrent forces. S
The equilibrium conditions are
N α
→: N − S cos α = 0 ,
W
↑: S sin α − G = 0 .
Solving for S and N yields
G a
S= ,
sin α
N = S cos α = G cot α . α
r
The angle α follows from the system geometry:
2
r 20 1 1 1√
cos α = = = and sin α = 1 − = 8.
a 60 3 3 3
This yields
3
S = √ G ≈ 1.06 G .
8
Solution a) analytical: We isolate the cylinder from the base and the
obstacle. In the free-body diagram, we see the four concurrent forces
F, W, N1 and N2 acting at the cylinder. The equilibrium conditions are
←: N2 sin α − F = 0 ,
F
↑: N1 + N2 cos α − W = 0 W
α N2
with the angle α following from
the system geometry: N1
r−h
cos α = . r−h r
r α
The two equilibrium conditions contain h
the three unknowns
N1 , N2 and F.
The force that initiates the cylinder to roll over the obstacle, also cau-
ses the cylinder to lift-off from the base. Then, the contact force N1
vanishes:
W
N1 = 0 ; N2 = ; F = N2 sin α = W tan α .
cos α
2 →: S − N1 sin α = 0 , S S
N2 N2
↑: N2 − N1 cos α − W = 0 .
Remark: The contact force N2 could have been determined from the
equilibrium condition for the complete system:
↑: 2N2 − 2W − 4W = 0 ; N2 = 3W .
8 Equilibrium
: N − S2 cos α − S1 cos α = 0 ,
: S1 sin α − S2 sin α = 0 .
4 4
S1 = −S3x = − S3z = F ,
5 5
2
4
2
3 √
S3 = S3z + + 12 = − 2 F .
5 5
S1 + S2 + S3 + F = 0 .
Each force is expressed by its directional vector (unit vector) and its
magnitude. For example, the directional vector for S3 is given by
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
4 4
1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟
e3 = √ ⎝ 3⎠ = √ ⎝3⎠ .
42 + 32 + 52 5 2
5 5
→: N1 sin φ − N2 = 0 , N1 N2
φ B
↑: N1 cos φ − W = 0 ,
a
a
B: N1 − 2a cos φ W = 0 .
cos φ
1
; cos3 φ = .
2
14 Equilibrium
↑: A cos α + B cos β − W = 0 , W
→: A sin α − B sin β = 0 ,
A B
x
A: x W − l B cos β = 0 . α β
It follows therefrom
sin β sin α
A=W , B=W ,
sin(α + β) sin(α + β)
sin α cos β l
x=l = .
sin(α + β) 1 + (tan β/ tan α)
A W β B
= ,
sin β sin [π − (α + β)] W
sin β α
; A=W . A
sin(α + β)
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Therefrom we obtain
M◦ √ M◦
S1 = +W , S2 = 2W, S3 = .
r r
S1 = 0 ; M◦ = −rW .
Remarks:
• Instead of point A, it is more convenient to use point B as the
reference point for the moment equilibrium condition. In this we
have only one unknown:
M◦
B: rW − rS1 + M◦ = 0 ; S1 = +W .
r
: D cos α − W sin α = 0 ,
A: 2aB + aW sin α − aW cos α − aD cos α − 3aD sin α = 0 ,
B: −2aA + aW sin α + aW cos α − aD cos α − aD sin α = 0 .
Thus, we obtain
W
D = W tan α = √ = 5, 77 kN ,
3
√
W D 3
B= (cos α − sin α) + (cos α + 3 sin α) = W = 8.66 kN ,
2 2 2
W D W
A= (sin α + cos α) − (cos α + sin α) = √ = 2.89 kN .
2 2 2 3
We check the result with an additional equilibrium condition:
: A + B − W cos α − D sin α = 0
√ √
W 3 3 W
; √ +W −W − √ = 0.
2 3 2 2 2 3
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Solution We separate the system and consider, that the forces in the
rope at both sides of the pulleys are equal (hence, the radius of the
pulley does not enter the solution!):
S F
AH
S
AV
α
↑: AV + S + S sin α − F = 0 ,
→: AH + S cos α = 0 ,
3
A: 2aF − aS − a(S sin α) − a(S cos α) = 0
4
Solution We separate the spheres and the tube and sketch the free-
body diagrams for the limiting case in which tilting just occurs. Then,
the tube is only supported in point C by force N5 . (If the tube does not
tilt, the contact force is distributed along the complete circumference
of the tube.)
1 3
N1 N1
W N2
2 Q
2 r sin α
N4
N2 W
N4
C
N3 N5
The equilibrium conditions for the spheres and the tube yield:
1 ↑ : N2 sin α − W = 0 , 2 ↑ : N3 − N2 sin α − W = 0 ,
←: N1 − N2 cos α = 0 , ←: N2 cos α − N4 = 0 ,
3 ←: N4 − N1 = 0 , ↑: N5 − Q = 0 ,
C : (r + 2r sin α)N1 − rN4 − R Q = 0 .
It follows therefrom
W W 3
N1 = N4 = , N2 = , N3 = 2W, Q = N5 = W cos α.
tan α sin α 2
With the geometric relationship
Qtilting = W/2 .
must be fullfilled.
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a
Solution We isolate the drums and the lever:
D2 F
1 3
2
S S
W D1 x
W
D1 D2
α H
N1 N2 a cos α O
N3
For the three separate systems, 2 × 2 + 1 × 3 = 7 equations are available
for the determination of the 7 unknowns (D1 , D2 , N1 , N2 , N3 , H, S):
1 →: S − D1 sin α = 0 , ↑: N1 − W + D1 cos α = 0 ,
2 →: D2 sin α − S = 0 , ↑: N2 − W − D2 cos α = 0 ,
3 →: H + D1 sin α − D2 sin α = 0 ,
↑: N3 − D1 cos α + D2 cos α − F = 0 ,
O: l cos α F − (a cos α + x)D2 + xD1 = 0 .
specimen
2b
b/4 b/4
F S3
3 T
1 S1 = S2 , (symmetry or moment equilibrium)
↑: S1 + S2 = T ,
b b b b b
2 A: Q+ − S2 − S1 − S3 = 0 ; S1 = 3S3 − 3Q ,
2 2 6 6 2
b
3 C: S3 − 2 b F = 0 ; S3 = 6F .
3
Thus, we obtain
T = S1 + S2 = 6S3 − 6Q = 36F − 6Q .
Remarks:
• By choosing suitable reference points for the moments, the support
reactions A and C do not enter the equations.
• The load Q is used as counterweight to the weight of the levers and
bars, which are neglected here.
• The magnitude of the force transferred to the specimen by the lever
mechanicsm is 36 times the magnitude of the load F .
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2a
R
D D C
P N P
AH B BH
N
AH
R AV AV BV P
Then, the equilibrium equations read for the shovel
A : 2aR − aD = 0 ; D = 2R ,
→: AH − D = 0 ; AH = 2R ,
↑: R − AV = 0 ; AV = R
and for point C
√ √
→: D − P cos 45◦ = 0 ; P = D 2 = 2 2R ,
↑: P sin 45◦ − N = 0 ; N = 2R
as well as the moment equilibrium for the excavator arm
B: 3 aAV + 2 aN − a P cos 45◦ − b P = 0 .
This yields
Q 4 7
S= , yQ = a, xQ = a.
3 3 3
now lead to
S3 = 12 pa2 , S1 = 0 , S2 = 12 pa2 .
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forces: F 1 = −2 P ez , F 2 = −P ez , F 3 = −P ez ,
√
2
lever arms: rAF 1 = −r ey , rAF 2 = −r ex , rAF 3 = r (ex + ey ) .
2
Since the wind load qw acts in radial direction at each position, it does
not induce a moment with respect to point A. For the resultant wind
load it follows
√
2 π
Fw = r qw (−ex + ey ) , rAFw = 0 .
2 2
The overall resultant is given by
√
2 π
R = F1 + F2 + F3 + Fw = r qw (−ex + ey ) − 4 P ez ,
2 2
and the resultant moment with respect to A is obtained as
√ √
3
2 2
M (A) = rAFi × F i = P r (2 − ) ex + P r ( − 1) ey .
i=1
2 2
Now, in order to determine the moment with respect to point B, the
offset moment MV = rBA × R needs to be added to M (A) . It is calcu-
lated with the lever arm rBA = h ez as
√
2 π
MV = rBA × R = r qw h (−ex − ey ) .
2 2
Hence, the moment at the bottom of the tower is given by
M (B) = M (A) + MV .
26 Equilibrium
2a 3a 2a
P1.21 Problem 1.21 A system of
three pin connected bars
takes the depicted equilibri-
um position under the given 3a 1 3
loading with the forces F1 F1 4a
and F2 .
F2
G1
a) Determine the required 2
ratio of F1 /F2 for this case. G2
b) Calculate the forces
S1 , S2 and S3 in the bars?
Solution We isolate the joints G1 and G2 and obtain two central sys-
tems of forces, for which we have two equilibrium conditions each. From
the free-body diagram of G1 we obtain
From the geometry of the equilibrium position, we obtain for the angles:
3a 3 3 2
tan α = = , sin α = √ , cos α = √ ,
2a 2 13 13
a 1 1 3
tan β = = , sin β = √ , cos β = √ ,
3a 3 10 10
4a 2 1
tan δ = = 2, sin δ = √ , cos δ = √ .
2a 5 5
This results in
3
F1 2
− 13 9−2 1
= 1 = = .
F2 3
−2 2 + 12 2
With
yA 2a 2
= ; yA = xA ,
xA 3a 3
and the components of the force it follows
√
2 3 3 3
xA G + (5a − xA ) G − 3aW = 0.
3 8 8
After solving the equations, we obtain
√ √
1 3 3 15 3
( − )xA = (3 − )a
4 8 8√
24 − 15 3
; xA = √ a = 0.619a.
2−3 3
Hence, the y-coordinate is calculated as
2
yA = xA = 0.413a.
3
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Chapter 2
Center of Gravity, Center of Mass,
2
Centroids
30 Center of Gravity, Center of Mass, Centroids
Centroid of a Volume
The coordinates of the Centroid of
Volume of a body with volume V are
given by
z
x dV
xc = ,
dV
C
y dV
yc = ,
dV
zc y
z dV
zc = . xc
dV x yc
Centroid of an Area
x dA
xc = ,
dA
y
y dA
yc = .
dA yc C
Here, x dA = Cy and y dA = Cx
denote the first moments of the area
with respect to the y- and x-axis, re- xc x
spectively.
For composite areas, where the
coordinates (xi , yi ) of the centroids
Ci of the individual subareas Ai are
known, we have
y
xi Ai
xS = ,
Ai yi Ci A
i
yi A i
yS = .
Ai
xi x
Remarks:
• When analyzing areas (volumes) with holes, it can be expedient to
work with “negative” subareas (subvolumes).
• If the area (volume) has an axis of symmetry, the centroid of the
area (volume) lies on this axis.
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Centroid of a Line
x ds
xc = , y
ds
yc
y ds C
yc = .
ds
Center of Mass
The coordinates of the center of mass of a body with density ρ(x, y, z)
are given by
xρdV yρdV zρdV
xc = , yc = , zc = .
ρ dV ρ dV ρ dV
Remark:
For a homogeneous body (ρ = const), the center of mass and the cen-
troid of the volume coincide.
32 Location of Centroids
Location of Centroids
Areas y
y x3 , y3
triangle
h
x2 , y2
x1 , y1
a x x
2
xc = 3
a xc = 13 (x1 + x2 + x3 )
1
yc = 3
h yc = 13 (y1 + y2 + y3 )
1 1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1
A= ah A= 2
2 x 3 − x 1 y3 − y1
x x b x a x
xc = 0 = 34π r =0 = 34π a
yc = 34π r = 34π r = 3
5
h = 34π b
A = π2 r 2 = π4 r 2 = 4
3
bh = π4 ab
Volumes Line
cone hemisphere circular arc
y
y
y
h α
α x
r r r
x x
xc = 0 xc = 0 xc = sin α
α r
1 3
yc = 4
h yc = 8
r yc = 0
V = 1
3
πr 2 h V = 2
3
πr 3 l = 2αr
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Centroid of an Area 33
y = −α x2 + β .
dy
y/2
x x x
dx
because we have already used it above. Now, we have to take into
account that its centroid is located at the height y/2. Hence, we obtain
y
y dx b
6 x4 3a2 9a2 87
yC = 2 = a2 4 + 2 x 2 + dx = a.
7 14 ab b b 4 140
ab 0
6
34 Centroid
r
C s AI CI AII CII
A
xC xCI xCII
2 sin α 2 1 2
xCI AI − xCII AII r r α − s r cos α r cos α s3
xC = = 3α 2 3 = .
AI − AII 1 12A
r 2 α − s r cos α
2
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Centroid of an Area 35
Problem 2.3 Locate the centroids of the depicted profiles. The measu- P2.3
rements are given in mm.
a) b)
20 20
6 6
20 5 30 5
4 4
45 45
b) The origin of the coordinate system is placed in the lower left corner.
Decomposition of the system into rectangles leads to
22.5 (4 · 45) + 2.5 (5 · 20) + 10 (6 · 20)
xC =
4 · 45 + 5 · 20 + 6 · 20 y
5500
= = 13.75 mm ,
400
Solution First we decompose the system into two triangles (I,II) and
one rectangle (III), from which we subtract the rectangular cutout (IV).
The centroids are known for each subsystem.
IV
I II
III
Sub- Ai xi xi Ai yi yi A i
system
i [cm2 ] [cm] [cm3] [cm] [cm3 ]
10 100 10 100
I 10
3 3 3 3
17 68 10 40
II 4
3 3 3 3
7
III 14 49 1 14
2
7
IV -2 -7 2 -4
2
170
A= Ai = 26 xi Ai = 98 yi A i =
3
Thus, we obtain
xi Ai 98 49 yi A i 170/3 85
xC = = = cm , yC = = = cm .
A 26 13 A 26 39
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Centroid of a Line 37
yi li
yC = .
li
Three alternative solutions will be shown. The total length of the wire
is
l= li = 2 · 30 + 2 · 80 + 40 = 260 mm .
a)
I
1
yC = (80 · 40 + 2 · 40 · 80)
260
I II II II
9600 y
III III
= = 36.92 mm .
260 x
b) I
1 y 40
yC = (40 · 40 − 2 · 40 · 30)
260 II x
I III
= −3.08 mm .
III III
The advantage of alternative c) is, that only the first moment of sub-
system V has to be taken into account.
38 Centroid of a Line
y
y = −a cosh x
a + 2a
P2.6 Problem 2.6 A thin wire is bent
to a hyperbolic function.
a C
Locate the centroid.
a a x
Center of Gravity 39
; yC = −0.0025 r ,
; xC = −0.0026 r .
I Z
y
In order to recalibrate the gravity center
into the center M of the ring, the additional M
required weight Z has to be applied on the x
intersection point of the ring and the line C
CM . The weight of Z can be determined
from the equilibrium of the moments about I
the perpendicular axis I:
r Z = CM W ; r Z = x2C + yC 2
W
; Z= (0.0025)2 + (0.0026)2 W = 0.0036 W .
40 Center of Mass
yI AI + yII AII 2 · 16 + 2 · 6
yC = = = 1.57 cm ,
A 28
1 1
zII AII + zIII AIII ( · 3) 6 + ( · 3) 6
zC = = 3 3 = 0.43 cm .
A 28
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Center of Mass 41
4r
zCE mS + mM 4 (2r + 3b) t ρS + 4 rb ρM
zCF = 3π = r.
mS + mM 3π 2 (r + b) t ρS + r b ρM
i li xi x i li
1 a 0 0
a a a2
2
2 4 8
a a2 1
3 a
2 2
a l al l2 y 2
4 l − − C
3
2 2 2 2 x
5a 5a2 al l2
+l − + − 4
2 8 2 2
The centroid shall lie on the rotation axis. Therefore, from the condition
xC = 0, follows the quadratic equation
5a2 al l2 5a2
x i li = + − =0 ; l2 − al − = 0.
8 2 2 4
It has two solutions
√
a a2 5a2 a 6
l1,2 = ± + = ± a,
2 4 4 2 2
from which only the positive one is physically reasonable:
a √
l = (1 + 6) .
2
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Center of Mass 43
dA = 2π r 2 cos α dα.
Chapter 3
Support Reactions
3
46 Support Reactions
Plane Structures
In coplanar systems, we have 3 equilibrium conditions. Thus, we have
maximum 3 support reactions in a statically and kinematically deter-
minate structure. We distinguish the following supports:
simple support
AV
hinged support
AH AV
clamped support ME
AH
AV
Note: At a free end , no force and no moment are acting.
Between 2 parts of a structure, the following connecting members can
be present:
N
parallel motion
MM
M
sliding sleeve
Q Q
hinged support N
f = 3 n − (r + v) .
⎧
Note: ⎪
⎨> 0 : f -times movable,
f =0: statically determinate (necessary condition),
⎪
⎩
<0: f -times statically indeterminate.
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Support Reactions 47
Spatial Structures
In spatial systems, we have 6 equilibrium conditions. Thus, we have 6
support reactions in a statically and kinematically determinate struc-
ture. We distinguish the following supports:
x
Technical term Symbol Support Reactions y
z
simple support
Az
hinged support Ax Az
Ay
Ax Mx
clamped support
Ay
Az My Mz
Qz Mz
(door) hinge
Nx Mx
Qy
With the degrees of freedom f , the number of support reactions r, the
number of joint reactions v, and the number parts n, the following re-
lation holds:
f = 6 n − (r + v) .
Note: ⎧
⎪
⎨> 0 : f -times movable,
f =0: statically determinate (only necessary condition),
⎪
⎩
<0: f -times statically indeterminate.
48 Support Reactions
P3.1 Problem 3.1 Verify if the following structures are statically determina-
te and serviceable (=kinematically determinate). Note that kinematic
determinacy is independent from static determinacy. For movable sys-
tems (f > 0), kinematic determinacy may be excluded a priori, but
in case of static determinacy (f = 0) or indeterminacy (f < 0), the
kinematic determinacy has to be investigated separately.
Statical Determinacy 49
f = 3 · 2 − (3 + 4) = −1 .
a a a
The parts of the frame are joined immovable,
such that the system can be considered as a
single rigid, immovable body. This system is
statically determinate supported. These kinds
of systems are externally statically determina-
te and internally statically indeterminate.
F1 q0 F2
M0
BH
A BV
3
A: 3a BV − M0 − 2a F2 − a (q0 a) − a F1 sin α = 0 ,
2
B: −3a A + 2a F1 sin α + 32 a (q0 a) + a F2 − M0 = 0 ,
→: F1 cos α − BH = 0 .
They lead to
3 1√
4+6+ ·5+2· 2
BV = 2 2 = 6.30 kN ,
3
1√ 3
2·2· 2+ ·5+3−4
A = 2 2 = 3.11 kN ,
3
1√
BH = 2 · 2 = 1.41 kN .
2
As a check, we use the force equilibrium in the vertical direction:
↑: A + BV − F1 sin α − q0 a − F2 = 0 ,
; 3.11 + 6.30 − 2 · 0.71 − 5 − 3 = 0 .
Remark: Note that the support reactions are given with an accuracy of
only two digits after the decimal point. Therefore, this equation is not
satisfied exactly.
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Support Reactions 51
Problem 3.3 Determine the support reactions for the depicted systems P3.3
a) b) F
F
a
c
F
a
C
A B B
a b a 2a a
Check:
C: −(a + b) AV − b B − c F = 0
b c
; (c + c) F − b F − c F = 0 .
a a
b)
I: 2a B + a F − 3a F = 0 ; B=F, F
I F
√
→: −F − S1 cos 45◦ = 0 ; S1 = − 2F ,
S1 S2
↑: B − F − S2 − S1 sin 45◦ = 0 ; S2 = F . B
Check:
B: 2a S2 + a S1 cos 45◦ + 2a S1 sin 45◦ + 2a F − a F = 0
; 2a F − a F − 2a F + 2a F − a F = 0 .
52 Support Reactions
B R
P3.4 Problem 3.4 Determine C
the support reactions of the R
depicted system. Neglect the D
friction of the pulley. 2R F
A
2R 3R
3 · 3 − (4 + 5) = 0
f =
3n r v
is satisfied. We isolate the three bodies and obtain the sketched free-
body diagrams.
S 2
Cx Bx Cx Dx
1 Cy By Cy Dy
Ax S
y
Ay
Dx
x
Dy
3 F
D: RS = RF ; S=F,
↑: Dy = −F ,
→: Dx = −F ,
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Support Reactions 53
and for the beam 2 (using the results from the pulley)
D: −5R By − 3R Cy = 0 ,
↑: By + Cy − F = 0 ,
→: Bx + Cx − F = 0 .
The four support reactions and the two joint reactions at C can be
calculated from the last six equations:
3 5
By = − F , Cy = A y = F,
2 2
Cx = 4 F , Bx = −3 F , Ax = 3 F .
Note that the support reactions in the horizontal direction can also be
determined from the equilibrium condition for the complete system:
Bx
By F
Ax
Ay
A: 6R F + 2R Bx = 0 ; Bx = −3F ,
→: Ax + Bx = 0 ; Ax = 3F .
In order to find Ay and By , we have to cut through the structure
anyway.
54 Support Reactions
1 S2
W = ahρg
2
acts in the centroid at distance 23 a from
support A. Thus, we obtain the equili-
brium equations S
2
A: aW − aS = 0, Ax W
3
S
↑: Ay − W + S = 0 , Ay
→: Ax + S = 0
and the demanded forces result as
2 1 1 1 1
S= W = ahρg , Ay = W = ahρg , Ax = − ahρg .
3 3 3 6 3
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Support Reactions 55
α
Problem 3.6 Determine the 2a P3.6
support reactions for the depicted F2
frame. F1
Given: F1 = 2000√N,
F2 = 3000 2 N, 2a
α = 45◦ ,
a = 5 m.
A
a
α
Solution The free-body diagram F2
shows that the line of action of F1
F2 passes through the support A.
Thus, the equilibrium condition of
the moments with respect to A
yields
Ax
Ay
A: 2a B − 2a F1 = 0 ; B = F1 .
B
Additionally, we obtain from the equilibrium of forces
↑: Ay + B − F2 cos α = 0 ; Ay = F2 cos α − F1 ,
→: Ax + F1 − F2 sin α = 0 ; Ax = F2 sin α − F1 .
Inserting the numerical values, yields
√ 1√
Ax = 3000 2 2 − 2000 = 1000 N ,
2
√ 1√
Ay = 3000 2 2 − 2000 = 1000 N ,
2
B = 2000 N .
Check:
B: 3a F2 sin α − 3a F1 − a Ax − 2a Ay = 0
√ 1√
; 15 · 3000 2 2 − 15 · 2000 − 5 · 1000 − 10 · 1000 = 0 .
2
56 Support Reactions
B C
AH F
Solution The sketch of the free-body
diagram shows the 5 unknown sup-
port reactions: 2 force components AV I II
each in A and in C, and the force B
CH
in the bar (here assumed to be a com- B
pressive force).
First, we write down the equilibrium
CV
conditions for the complete system
(the hinges are assumed to be frozen):
√
1√ l 1√ 3 1 1 3
A: lB 2+ B 2− l F − l F
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3
− l CH + 2l CV = 0 ,
2
1√ 1
↑: B 2 + CV + A V − F = 0 ,
2 2√
1√ 3
→: AH + B 2 − CH − F = 0,
2 2
Then, we use moment equilibrium conditions for the part to the left of
hinge I and the part to the right of hinge II, respectively:
l l
I: −l AV − AH = 0 , II : CV − l CH = 0 .
2 2
F F
CH = , CV = .
4 2
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Support Reactions 57
F
Problem 3.8 The sketched system a/2 P3.8
can be used to determine the force a
F in the rope, if a suitable measu- A
ring device is attached to the verti- C a
cal bar BC. a/2
3a
Determine under the assumption of F
a frictionless rope B
a) the support reaction in A and B, 3a a
b) the support reaction of the rolls.
→: AH = 0 , F
↑: AV + B = 0 , AH
A: 3aB + 3aF = 0, AV B
F
as
B = −F , AV = F , AH = 0 .
2a
B C
a a a
A F
Solution The subsystems ABC and DEF are connected by the hinged
column CD. With n = 2, v = 1
and r = 3 · 1 + 1 · 2 = 5 we obtain
f = 3 · 2 − (5 + 1) = 0. Thus the
q0
necessary condition for statical
determinacy is fulfilled.
E
We separate the system and sketch S
the free-body diagram. Therewith q0
the equilibrium conditions can be 2
B
formulated:
1 FH
Equilibrium for subsystem 1 : A
⎫
→: A+B =0 ⎪
⎪ q0 a
⎪
⎪ B= , FV
⎪
⎬ 2
↑ : S = q0 a
;
⎪
⎪ q0 a
q0 a2 ⎪ A=− .
A: aS − − aB = 0 ⎪
⎪
⎭ 2
2
Support Reactions 59
3a
P
A B
C
q0
↑: −D sin α − AV + P + q0 4a = 0 ,
→: AH + D cos α = 0 ,
A: −MA + 4 aD sin α − 2 aq0 4 a − 4aP = 0 ,
Subsystem 2 :
1
B: a D sin α − P a − aq0 a = 0 .
2
Solving the 4 equations for the 4 unknown forces yields with sin α =
3/5 and cos α = 4/5 the support reactions
5 5 7 4 2
D= P + q0 a, AV = q0 a, AH = − P − q0 a, MA = −6q0 a2 .
3 6 2 3 3
60 Support Reactions a/2 a/2 A
3 1
C: MA − M0 + aAH − aR = 0 ,
2 3
Part 2 :
2
B: −a CH − aR = 0 .
3
1
Therefrom, with R = 2
q0 a the reactions forces as
1 1 1
CH = − q0 a , CV = 0 , AH = q0 a , MA = M0 − q0 a2 .
3 6 12
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Spatial Structures 61
Fx = 0 : Ax = −P1 ,
Fy = 0 : Ay = P2 ,
Fz = 0 : Az = P3 ,
Mx(A) = 0 : MAx = c P3 ,
My(A) = 0 : MAy = a P1 − b P3 ,
Mz(A) = 0 : MAz = b P2 .
62 Support Reactions
W FW 2a
P3.13 Problem 3.13 A signpoast is
fixed by bars as depicted. It
is loaded by its weight W and 2a
the resulting wind load FW . E
A C
D
Determine the support. y x 4a
2a B
z
Ax = − 12 FW , Dx = − 12 FW ,
1 1 1 1
Az = 2
FW Bz = 2
W− 2
FW , Cz = 2
W − FW , Dz = FW ,
Spatial Structures 63
D q0
a B 2a
y
x
z
Solution We isolate the system and make visible all reaction forces
and acting external forces in the free-body diagram. Since the supports
at B, C and D are hinged columns, their resulting forces point into the
direction of the hinged column.
q0
Cy
Ax
Ay q0
Dz
Az
Bz
From the the 3 equilibrium conditions for the forces and 3 for the
moments, we obtain the following results for the 6 unknown support
reactions. Here it is advantageous to pay attention to a suitable choice
of the reference points for the moments.
Fx = 0 : Ax − 2q0 a = 0 ; Ax = 2q0 a ,
(A) 1 q0 a
Mx =0 : +Dz 2a − q0 1
a 2a = 0 ; Dz = ,
2
(A) a 2a q0 a
My =0 : +Bz a − q0 =0 ; Bz = ,
2 3 3
(A)
Mz =0 : Cy a − 2q0 a a = 0 ; Cy = 2q0 a ,
Fy = 0 : −Ay + Cy = 0 ; Ay = 2q0 a ,
1 a
Fz = 0 : −Az − Bz − Dz + q0 a=0 ; Az = −q0 .
2 3
64 Support Reactions
y
dR sin α dR
dR = q0 a dα .
dR cos α
The components of the resultant (positive dα
in positive coordinate direction) are
α
x
dRx = −dR cos α , dRy = −dR sin α .
↑: AV − F = 0 , Rx
A: −MA + Rx a = 0
as
AH = 2 q0 a , AV = F , MA = −2 q0 a2 . F
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Chapter 4
Trusses
4
66 Trusses
Plane truss: All truss members and forces are in the same plane.
Rule of sign:
f = 2j − (m + r) plane truss,
f = 3j − (m + r) spatial truss,
with
f = number of degrees of freedom, j = number of joints,
m = number of members, r = number of support reactions.
Note:
⎧
⎪
⎨> 0 f -times movable ,
f =0 statically determinate (only necessary condition) ,
⎪
⎩
<0 f -times statically indeterminate. .
Trusses 67
Method of Joints
is usefull, when all internal forces have to be determined.
a) Analytical approach
• Applying the equilibrium conditions to the free-body diagram of
each joint of the truss. Solution of the system of equations yields
the internal forces and the support reactions.
• A large number of joints yields a large system of equations.
Method of Sections
according to Ritter, can be applied to plane (spatial) trusses, if sever-
al internal forces only are of interest.
1. Determination of the support reactions.
2. The truss is divided by a cut into two parts. The cut has to be made
in such a way that it goes through three members that do not built
a system of coplanar (concurrent) forces.
3. The equilibrium conditions applied to the individual parts of the
truss yield the internal forces of the members divided by cutting.
68 Trusses
F
P4.1 Problem 4.1 For the given
truss, the forces in the bars a
shall be determined.
A B
2F
2a 2a 2a
5
A: 4aF + aF − 6aB = 0 ; B= F,
6
7
B : 6a AV − 4a 2F + a F = 0 ; AV = F ,
6
→: −AH + F = 0 ; AH = F .
The forces in the bars can be determined from the nodal equilibrium
conditions. Using
1 2
sin α = √ , cos α = √ ,
5 5
it follows
1 S1
I ↑: A V + S1 √ = 0 ,
5 I α
S2
2
→: S2 + S 1 √ − A H = 0 , AH
5 AV
√
7 5 10
; S1 = − F , S2 = F,
6 3
III → : S6 − S 2 = 0 , S3
III
S2 S6
↑: S3 − 2F = 0 ,
10 2F
; S6 = F, S3 = 2F .
3
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Method of Joints 69
1 1
II ↓: S1 √ + S 5 √ + S 3 = 0 ,
5 5 II
2 2 α S4
→: −S1 √ + S5 √ + S4 = 0 , S1 S5
5 5 S3
√
5 5 2
; S5 = − F , S4 = − F .
6 3
2
IV → : −S4 + F + S8 √ = 0 , IV F
5 S4 α
1 S8
↓: S7 + S 8 √ = 0 , S7
5
√
5 5 5
; S8 = − F , S7 = F .
6 6
S8
2 α VI
VI ← : S9 + S 8 √ = 0 , S9
5
5 B
; S9 = F .
3
The results of the forces in the bars are summarized in the following
table:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Si /F -2.61 3.33 2 -0.67 -1.86 3.33 0.83 -1.86 1.67
F = 20 kN
S1
◦ 60◦
I ↑: S1 sin 60 − F = 0 ,
I S2
→: S2 + S1 cos 60◦ = 0 , F
2 1
; S1 = √ F = 23.1 kN , S2 = − S1 = −11.6 kN .
3 2
II
II ↓: S1 sin 60◦ + S3 sin 60◦ = 0 , S4
Method of Joints 71
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Si /kN 23.1 -11.6 -23.1 23.1 23.1 -34.7 -23.1 46.2
3
IV : aF + a sin 60◦ S6 = 0 ,
2
; S6 = −34.7 kN ,
IV S8
V : 2a F − a sin 60◦ S8 = 0 ,
S7 a sin 60◦
; S8 = 46.2 kN , S6
V
F
a a/2
↓: F + S7 cos 30◦ = 0 ,
a/2
; S7 = −23.1 kN .
Remark: For cantilever trusses, the forces in the bars can be determined
without previous calculation of the support reactions.
72 Trusses
Method of Sections 73
a
ned. 3
B
a
A
a a a a
↑: AV + B − F = 0 ,
AH B
A : 2aF + 2aF − 4aB = 0 .
AV
Therefrom, we obtain
AV = 0 , B=F, AH = F .
The bar forces of interest follow from the equilibrium conditions of the
sub system. For simplification purposes, we use the right part of the
system:
√
2
↑: S2 + B = 0 ,
2
2
; S2 = − √ F , S1 F
2
I : a F − a S1 − a B = 0 , S2
I
; S1 = 0 , S3
B
√
2
←: S3 + S 1 + S2 − F = 0 ,
2
; S3 = 2F .
S1 F2
Solution The equilibrium conditions α I F1
for the separated system follow with II
S2
the help of angle α and β:
β
α
A
←: S1 cos α + S2 cos β + S3 cos α = 0 ,
S3
↑: S1 sin α + S2 sin β − S3 sin α − F1 − F2 = 0 ,
2
A: 2aF1 − aS1 cos α = 0 .
3
With
√
1 3 2
sin α = √ , cos α = √ , sin β = cos β = ,
10 10 2
it follows
√
√ 3 2
S1 = 10F = 3.16 F , S2 = F = 1.06 F ,
4
√
5 10
S3 = − F = −3.95 F .
4
Remark: With the larger moment, S1 and S3 become larger and the
tension bar changes into a compression bar.
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Method of Sections 75
a
2
1 through 7 shall be deter-
mined. A 3 D 6 B
2F F
a a a a a
1
A: 2a 2F − 4a B − 5a F = 0 ; B=− F,
4
5
↑: AV + B − 2F + F = 0 ; AV = F,
4
→: AH = 0 .
√ √
2 2
↑: S2 + S5 − 2F = 0 , S2 S5
2 2
√ √
2 2 S3 S6
→: S5 − S2 + S6 − S3 = 0 , D
2 2
√ 2F
3 2 7
; S5 = F , S6 = F .
4 4
76 Trusses
F2
P4.7 Problem 4.7 How large are 5/4 a F1
the reaction forces and bar 5/4 a
forces in the given jib?
1/2 a
2a
Given: F1 = 20 kN ,
F2 = 10 kN , B
A
a =1m. 4a 2a a a
AH = 0 , AV = −25 kN , B = 55 kN .
Equilibrium at node C,
C
←: S1 cos α + S2 cos β = 0 , α
S1 β F1
↓: F1 + S1 sin α + S2 sin β = 0 , S2
yields with
5 8
sin α = √ , cos α = √ ,
89 89
5 4
sin β = √ , cos β = √
41 41
the bar forces
√
89 2√
S1 = F1 = 37.7 kN , S2 = − 41 F1 = −51.2 kN .
5 5
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Trusses 77
Equilibrium at node D:
F2 S1
→: S1 cos α − S6 cos α = 0 , α
D
↑: S1 sin α − S6 sin α − F2 − S5 = 0 , S6 S5
; S6 = S 1 , S5 = −F2 = −10 kN .
Equilibrium at node A:
S13
↑: AV + S13 sin α = 0 , A
α
S12
i 10 11 12 13 14 15
Si /kN 47.2 0 -40 47.2 0 0
78 Trusses
2F
P4.8 Problem 4.8 For the given truss,
the reaction forces and bar forces
have to be determined. F a
a
a
A B
2a 2a 2a
↑: AV + BV − 2F = 0 ,
→: AH − BH + F = 0 ,
A: 2aF + 4a 2F − 6aBV = 0 ,
and for the right sub system,
↑: BV − 2F − S4 sin α = 0 ,
←: S4 cos α + S5 + BH = 0 ,
2aS5 + 3aBH − 2aBV = 0 ,
IV :
√ √
we obtain with sin α = 1/ 5 and cos α = 2/ 5 the results
1 5
AV = F , BV = F , AH = F , BH = 2 F ,
3 3
√
5 4
S4 = − F , S5 = − F .
3 3
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Trusses 79
The remaining bar forces can be obtained from the Method of Joints.
With use of
√ √ √
sin β = cos β = 1/ 2 , sin γ = 3/ 13 , cos γ = 2/ 13 ,
one obtains S1 β
S2
I→: AH + S2 cos α + S1 cos β = 0 , AH I α
↑: AV + S2 sin α + S1 sin β = 0 , AV
√
2 2√
; S1 = F = 0.47 F , S2 = − 5 F = −1.49 F .
3 3
S7
γ
VI ← : BH + S8 cos α + S7 cos γ = 0 , S8
α VI BH
↑: BV + S8 sin α + S7 sin γ = 0 ,
V B
√
13 2√
; S7 = − F = −1.20 F , S8 = − 5 F = −1.49 F .
3 3
III ↑ : S3 − S2 sin α = 0 , S3
2 α
; S3 = − F = −0.67 F . III S5
3
S2
S6
V ↑: S6 − S8 sin α = 0 , S5
2 V α
; S6 = − F = −0.67 F .
3 S8
←: S5 + S7 cos γ + 2F = 0 , S6
S7
5
↑: S6 + F + S7 sin γ = 0 , S5
3 2F
B
B : 2a S6 − a S5 = 0 ,
5/3 F
√
4 2 13
; S5 = − F , S6 = − F , S7 = − F.
3 3 3
80 Trusses
5 1
P4.9 Problem 4.9 For the given truss,
6
the bar forces S1 through S7 shall
a
7 2
be determined.
8 3
a
4
F F
a a a a
Solution At first, the bar forces S1 and S5 are calculated with the help
of suitable cuts. Therefore, by exception, we cut through four bars
such that three forces pass through the sa-
me point. The fourth force then follows
from the moment balance at this point (for
a cut through 1, 4, 7 and 8, this is point S1
B): S 7 2
S8 3
B : 2aF + aF − 2aS1 = 0 ,
3 B
; S1 = F . S4
2 F F
5 8 3
; S5 = F .
2 C 4
S4
The cut through 1, 2, 3 and 4 yields F F
S1
D: 2a F + a F − a S1 + a S4 = 0 ,
√ √ S2
2 2
↑: S3 − S2 − 2F = 0 , D
2 2
√ √ S3
2 2
←: S1 + S 4 + S2 + S3 = 0 , S4
2 2 F F
3 √ √
; S4 = − F , S3 = 2 F , S2 = − 2 F .
2
From equilibrium at node A, S6 and S7 can be calculated:
√
2 A
→ : S1 − S 5 − S6 = 0 , S5 S1
2
√ S6
2 S7
↓ : S7 + S6 = 0 ,
2
√
; S6 = − 2F , S7 = F .
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Trusses 81
The remaining bar forces can be calculated with the Method of Joints:
Remark: The largest cut force according to its volume occurs at bar 1.
82 Trusses
F
P4.11 Problem 4.11 Determine the
bar forces in the shown roof
girder with the help of a Cre- 2a
mona diagram.
Given: F = 10 kN.
a
A B
3a 3a
A B
Cremona diagram
2 kN
scale: 1
5 A
sense of rotation:
3
2 F
B
4
Cremona-Plan 83
Solution From the equilibrium conditions for the complete system, the
vertical reaction forces result as
A = 2F , B=F.
The bars 7, 15 and 19 are found to be unloaded bars. From the Cre-
mona diagram we additionally obtain bar 8 as an unloaded bar.
Cremona diagram 1
F
scale: 3 2 F
4
sense of rotation: A
5
F
6, 9, 10
14, 18
11 13 17 21 F B
16, 20
12
bar forces:
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
√ √
Si /F -2 2 2 -1 -2 - 2 3 0 0 -3 3 -1
i 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
√ √ √
Si /F -3 2 2 0 -1 - 2 2 0 -1 2
84 Trusses
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
P4.13 Problem 4.13 Deter-
mine the bar forces for
5 3a
the given truss. 3 2
a
2
a
How do the forces
change, if the load 2F is I II
2F F
moved from node I to
node II?
8 12
Solution In the shown
3 16
truss, the reaction forces 9 11 13
5
result from the equilibri- 2 7 15 17 19
4
um conditions as
1 I 6 10 14 18
A = 2F , B=F. A 2F F B
The bar forces can be determined with the help of the Cremona dia-
gram.
scale:
F sense of rotation:
i Si /F
14 1 1.33
15 18 2 -2.39
13 17
19
3 -2.22
F B 4 1.21
12 16
5 1.07
11
6
6 1.58
10 7 -0.38
9
7 8 -1.48
8
9 0.37
5
3 10 1.33
11 0.38
12 -1.48
2
13 0.69
2F A
14 1.19
4 15 -0.54
16 -1.10
1 17 0.59
18 0.67
19 -1.17
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Cremona-Plan 85
To check the result, the bar forces can be determined with the Method
of Sections analytically. One obtains for S10
C
C : 3a S10 + a F − 5a B = 0 S8
6
; S10 = F = 2F . S9
3
S10
F B
86 Trusses
P4.14 Problem 4.14 Determine the unloaded bars, all reaction forces and the
bar forces S1 , S2 , S3 and S4 for the shown truss.
P
1 a
2
3 a
P C
4 a
a
A B
2a a a a a 2a
Considering the equilibrium at nodes II, III, VII and XI shows that
bars 6, 7, 5, 1, 8 and 11 are unloaded: S6 = S7 = S5 = S1 = S8 = S11 =
0. Since S11 = 0, bars 9 and 10 can be identified as unloaded bars by
examining node XIII, hence S9 = S10 = 0. It follows that BH = 0.
For the determination of reaction forces, we form the moment equi-
librium at the left part of the system at node IV and for the complete
system at node X:
left part of the system:
IV : 2a AV − 2a AH = 0 ; AV = AH ,
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Method of Sections 87
complete system:
P
X : −a P + 6a AV − 2a AH = 0 ; AV = AH = .
4
V
P/4 I
P/4
√
P P 2
VI : −a P − 3a + 3a − 2a S4 = 0 ,
4 4 2
√
2P
; S4 = − ,
2
√ √
P 2 2
↑: + S4 − S3 = 0 ,
4 2 2
√
2P
; S3 = − ,
4
√ √
P 2 2
→: P+ + S2 + S3 + S4 = 0 ,
4 2 2
P
; S2 = − .
2
88 Trusses
P
P4.15 Problem 4.15 Determine the
number of degrees of freedom P 8
and the unloaded bars for the
a 5 7 9 10
given truss. Then, compute the B
remaining forces in the bars.
6 C
a 3 4
1 2
a P
A
a a a a
By applying the rules for finding unloaded bars, we see that the bar
forces S1 and S4 are zero. With S1 = 0, S6 also has to be equal to zero.
P II P
S8
5 S8 V
II S7 S7
9 10
IV VII
B
3 C
S2 S2
VI
I P
A
Method of Sections 89
√ √
V : 2 a S7 + 2aP = 0 ; S7 = −P ,
√ √
2 2
: −S2 − S8 − P =0 ; S2 = −P .
2 2
The remaining forces in the bars can be determined with the Method
of Joints:
√ √ P III
2 2 S8
III : −S5 + P+ S8 = 0 ,
2 2 S S 5 7
; S5 = P , P
S8 V
√ √
2 2
V : −S9 − P− S8 = 0 , S9 S10
2 2
S3
; S9 = −P ,
VI
P
VI : S3 + P = 0 , S10
VII
; S3 = −P ,
C
S7 S9
VII : S10 + C = 0 ,
IV
√
; S10 = (1 − 2) P .
S2 S3
√
: S9 − S2 = −P + P = 0 .
90 Spatial
z F
F a
P4.16 Problem 4.16 Determine the
C
reaction forces and bar forces
for the given spatial truss.
B a
y
a a
A
x
F
F 3
Solution The truss consists of I IV
j = 4 joints, m = 6 bars and r = 2
6
6 reaction forces. Subsequently, 1
the necessary condition for stati- 4 Cz III
cal determination is fulfilled: By
5
f = 3j − (m + r) II Bz
Ay
= 12 − (6 + 6) = 0 . Ax
Az
Ax = −F , Ay = 0 , Az = 0 ,
By = −F , Bz = F , Cz = −F .
The forces in the bars can be obtained using the equilibrium conditions
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Trusses 91
at the nodes. Under consideration that all bars except of bar 4 are til-
ted at 45o to the respective coordinate axes, we obtain at node I and II:
1 1
I Fx = 0 : √ S1 − √ S 3 + F = 0 ,
2 2
1
Fy = 0 : √ S2 + F = 0 ,
2
1 1 1
Fz = 0 : − √ S 1 − √ S 2 − √ S3 = 0 ,
2 2 2
√ √
; S1 = 0 , S2 = − 2 F , S3 = 2F .
1 1
II Fx = 0 : A x − √ S 1 − S4 − √ S 5 = 0 ,
2 2
1
Fy = 0 : A y + √ S5 = 0 ,
2
; S4 = −F , S5 = 0 .
1 1 1
III Fy = 0 : By − √ S6 − √ S2 − √ S5 = 0 ,
2 2 2
; S6 = 0 .
P4.17 Problem 4.17 Determine the forces in the bars for the given spatial
truss.
C
11 G
10 5
E
B 9 2 a
6 4 3 a
D
8
x
A 12 a
1 y z
7
F
3a a P
f = 3j − (m + r) ; f = 21 − (9 + 12) = 0 .
We calculate the forces in the bars using the Method of Joints with the
spatial equilibrium at the nodes:
node D
Fx = 0 : −S1 cos 45◦ − S2 cos 45◦ − S3 cos 45◦ = 0 ,
S3
Fy = 0 : S1 sin 45◦ − S2 sin 45◦ = 0 , S2
45◦
45◦
Fz = 0 : P − S3 sin 45◦ = 0 ◦
D
45
√ 1√ S1
; S3 = 2P , S1 = S2 = − 2P . P
2
node E
S5
Fx = 0 : −S9 + S2 sin 45◦ = 0 ,
45◦
Fy = 0 : S4 + S5 cos 45◦ + S2 cos 45◦ = 0 , S9 E
S2
Fz = 0 : S5 sin 45◦ = 0 S4
1 1
; S9 = − P , S5 = 0 , S4 = P.
2 2
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Trusses 93
S6
node F S8 S4
γ S1
Fz = 0 : S6 sin 45◦ = 0 ,
S7 F
◦
Fx = 0 : S1 sin 45 − S7 − S8 cos γ = 0 ,
Fy = 0 : −S1 cos 45◦ − S6 cos 45◦ − S8 sin γ − S4 = 0
1
; S6 = 0 , S7 = − P , S8 = 0 .
2
node G
S11 G
We introduce the angle α (between bar 12 S10 α S3
and a vertical line through G) and β (bet-
ween the projection of bar 12 onto the x-y- S 12
Fz = 0 : S3 cos 45◦ + 2 S12 cos α = 0 ,
Fx = 0 : −S11 − 2 S12 sin α cos β + S3 sin 45◦ = 0
√
11
; S10 = S12 = − P, S11 = 4 P .
2
My = 0 : 4a P − a S11 = 0 ; S11 = 4P .
94 Spatial
Solution We consider z e II
the force acting in bar III 5 5 e3
9 (hinged column) as a e8
8 e6 3
6 2
reaction force. Now, the IV I
9 7 4 e2
truss consists of j = 5 y
joints, m = 8 bars and e9 e1 F
e4
r = 1 + 2 × 3 = 7 re- B x 1
action forces. Thus, the e7
necessary condition for V
statical determination is
fulfilled:
f = 3j − (m + r)
= 15 − (8 + 7) = 0 .
We introduce the unit vectors e1 to e9 in order to express the direc-
tions of the bars and their respective components:
⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞
1 −1 1
1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
e1 = √ ⎝−4⎠ , e2 = √ ⎝−4⎠ , e3 = ⎝0⎠ ,
18 18
−1 1 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ ⎞
−3 1 −1
1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟
e4 = √ ⎝ 4⎠ , e5 = √ ⎝−4⎠ , e6 = √ ⎝−4⎠ ,
26 18 18
1 1 −1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
−1 1 0
1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟
e7 = √ ⎝ 0⎠ , e8 = √ ⎝0⎠ , e9 = √ ⎝1⎠ .
2 2 2
1 1 1
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Trusses 95
node I:
S1 e 1 + S2 e 2 − S3 e 3 − F e z = 0 ,
1 1
; √ S1 − √ S 2 − S 3 = 0 ,
18 18
4 4
− √ S1 − √ S2 = 0 ,
18 18
1 1
− √ S1 + √ S2 − F = 0 ,
18 18
3√ 3√
; S1 = − 2F , S2 = 2F , S3 = −F .
2 2
node II:
−S4 e4 + S5 e5 + S6 e6 + S3 e3 = 0 ,
3 1 1
; √ S4 + √ S5 − √ S 6 − F = 0 ,
26 18 18
4 4 4
− √ S4 − √ S5 − √ S6 = 0 ,
26 18 18
1 1 1
− √ S4 + √ S5 − √ S 6 = 0 ,
26 18 18
1√ 3√
; S4 = 26F , S5 = 0 , S6 = − 2F .
4 4
node III:
−S7 e7 − S8 e8 − S9 e9 − S2 e2 − S5 e5 = 0 ,
1 1 1 3√
; √ S7 − √ S8 + √ 2F = 0,
2 2 18 2
1 4 3√
− √ S9 + √ 2F = 0,
2 18 2
1 1 1 1 3√
− √ S 7 − √ S8 − √ S 9 − √ 2F = 0,
2 2 2 18 2
96 Trusses
3√ √ √
; S7 = − 2F , S8 = − 2 F , S9 = 2 2 F .
2
Cx e x + C y e y + C z e z + S8 e 8 − S6 e 6 = 0 ,
1 √ 1 3√
; Cx − √ 2 F − √ 2F = 0,
2 18 4
4 3√
Cy − √ 2F = 0,
18 4
1 √ 1 3√
Cz − √ 2F − √ 2F = 0,
2 18 4
5 5
; Cx = F, Cy = F , Cz = F.
4 4
node V :
A x e x + A y e y + A z e z − S1 e 1 + S4 e 4 + S7 e 7 = 0 ,
1 3√ 3 1√ 1 3√
; Ax + √ 2F − √ 26 F + √ 2F = 0,
18 2 26 4 2 2
4 3√ 4 1√
Ay − √ 2F + √ 26 F = 0 ,
18 2 26 4
1 3√ 1 1√ 1 3√
Az − √ 2F + √ 26 F − √ 2F = 0,
18 2 26 4 2 2
5 7
; Ax = − F , Ay = F , Az = F.
4 4
bearing B:
1√
Bx = 0 , By = Bz = − 2 S9 = −2 F .
2
Remark:
• The largest force acts in bar 9.
√
• The magnitude
√ of the reaction forces√is A = 90F/4 = 2.37 F ,
B = S9 = 2 2 F = 2.83 F and C = 66 F/4 = 2.03 F .
• C lies in the plane which also contains S6 and S8 .
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Chapter 5
Beams, Frames, Arches
5
98 Stress Resultants
Stress Resultants
The stress resultants (normal force, shear force, bending moment) re-
place the internal stresses (forces per unit area) distributed across the
cross-sectional area.
Plane systems
M M
cut V N N V
M M
stress resultants: y x
normal force N, V V
N N
shear force V, z
bending moment M.
• Sign convention:
Positive stress resultants at a
positive face point in the positi-
ve directions of the coordinates. V
• Coordinate system: M
x = axis of the beam (points N
right in case of a horizontal
N
beam), z downwards for a M
horizontal beam.
V
• For frames, arches and complex x
z
structures we define the coordi-
nate systems using dashed lines
(lower side): x in direction of
the dashed line, z away from the
dashed line.
dV dM d2 M
= −q , =V or = −q .
dx dx dx2
If we integrate the differential relations, the constants of integration
have to be determined using the boundary conditions.
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Boundary conditions:
free end V = 0, M =0
parallel motion V = 0, (M = 0)
Spatial structures
y
qz x z
Stress Resultants:
normal force N,
Vy qy shear forces Vy , Vz ,
My bending moments My , Mz ,
N Vz torque Mx = MT .
MT
Mz
dVz dMy
= −qz , = Vz ,
dx dx
dVy dMz
= −qy , = −Vy .
dx dx
If we integrate the differential relations, the constants of integration
have to be determined by using the boundary conditions.
The dependency of the shear forces and bending moment diagrams
due to the characteristics of the loading are conferrable from the plane
systems.
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Beams 101
V (0) = 0 ; C1 = 0, M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0
we obtain q0 l2
2 3 6
q0 x q0 x
V (x) = − , M (x) = − .
2l 6l M
by integration 103
x
Problem 5.2 A simply supported P5.2
beam is loaded by a trapezoidal sha-
ped load. Determine the location and q0
the maximum of the bending mo- q1
ment for q0 = 2q1 .
q(x) = a − b x .
q(0) = q0 ; a = q0 ,
q0 − q1
q(l) = q1 ; q1 = a − b l ; b= .
l
It follows
q0 − q1
q(x) = q0 − x.
l
This leads by integration to
q0 − q1 x2
V (x) = −q0 x + + C1 ,
l 2
x2 q0 − q1 x3
M (x) = −q0 + + C1 x + C2 .
2 l 6
Due to the boundary conditions the constants follow as
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
q0 l q0 − q1 l2
M (l) = 0 ; C1 = − .
2 l 6
The shearing force and the moment are obtained for q1 = 12 q0 as:
q0 2 5 l q0
V (x) = x − q0 x +
4l 12
q0 3 q0 2 5 l q0
M (x) = x − x + x.
12 l 2 12
Since M = V , the maximal moment is found at the root of V :
∗ 5
V = 0 ; x = 2 l ± 4 l2 − l2 = 0.47 l .
3
Inserting x∗ into M (x) yields
0≤x≤a: a≤x≤l:
q = 0, q = q0 ,
V = C1 , V = −q0 x + C3 ,
1
M = C1 x + C 2 , M =− q0 x2 + C3 x + C4 .
2
The 4 integration constants follow from the boundary conditions and
the transition condition at x = a:
1
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 , M (l) = 0 ; − q0 l2 + C3 l + C4 = 0.
2
Here V and M have to be continuous (no jumps, since no concentrated
force and no single moment occur)
q0 l (l − a)2 q0 l2 (l − a)2
V = , M= x
2 l2 2 l3
V 5
1 l
q0 l 8
8
l/2
l/2 3
− q0 l
5 8 M
l Mmax
8
Remark:
• Instead of considering the parameter x for the complete length of
the beam, we may also introduce separated parameters x1 , x2
• For the special case of a = 0, the first part vanishes, such that we
obtain for the shear force and the bending moment
1 1
V = q0 (l − 2x) , M= q0 (l x − x2 ) .
2 2
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0
q0 q0 (l − a)2
M (l) = 0 ; 0 = − (l − a)2 + C1 l ; C1 = .
2 2 l
We obtain the solution for the entire beam as
q0 (l − a)2
V = − 2 < x − a >1 ,
2 l
q0 (l − a)2 x
M = − < x − a >2 .
2 l
106 Determination of V − and M − diagrams
11 19
A= q0 l , B= q0 l .
24 24
For the left subsection (between A and B) we obtain by the equilibrium
conditions q0 x
↑: A − q0 x − V = 0 , M
x S V
S : −x A + (q0 x) + M = 0 , A x/2
2
q0 2 x
; V = A − q0 x , M = Ax− x
2
x2 q0
M = −q0 + < x − l >3 +B < x − l >1 +C1 x + C2 .
2 3l
The three unknowns C1 , C2 and B can be solved, taking into account
the three equations from the boundary conditions:
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
3 1
V ( 32 l) = 0 ; − q0 l + q0 l + B + C1 = 0 ,
2 4
9 1 l 3
M ( 32 l) = 0 ; − q0 l2 + q0 l2 + B + C1 l = 0 .
8 24 2 2
We obtain
19 11
B= q0 l , C1 = q0 l ,
24 24
Remark: The constant C1 is equal to the shear force at the support A
and thus, the resulting reaction force.
108 Determination of V − and M − diagrams
P5.5 Problem 5.5 Determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the depicted multi-section beam. Calculate additionally the values
at the intersections.
Use: q0 = F/a.
x F 2F
q0
A B
2a a 3a 2a 2a
↑: V = A = 2.85 F ,
M
S : M = x A = 2.85 F x , A S
x V
2a < x < 3a:
F
↑: V = A − F = 1.85 F , M
A S
S : M = x A − (x − 2a)F , x V
q0 (x − 3a)
3a < x < 6a:
F
M
↑: V = 1.85 F − q0 (x − 3a) ,
A S
x V
S : M = x A − (x − 2a)F − 21 q0 (x − 3a)2 ,
Thus we obtain
1
Mmax = M (x∗ ) = 4.85 a 2.85 F − 2.85 a F − q0 (1.85 a)2 = 9.26 F a .
2
V /F 2.85
3 1.85
2
1 x∗ 6a 8a 10a
x 2a 3a
-1.15
-3.15
2
6.3
4
5.7 8.6
6 7.55 Mmax
8
M/F a
P5.6 Problem 5.6 Determine the shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the depicted system.
x q0 = 5F/b
2F 3bF 4F
2b 2b b 2b 2b
1 2 3 4
R L
A
F
↑: A=5 · 2b + 2 F + 4 F = 16 F ,
b
! F "
A: MA = 3b 5 · 2b + 5b · 2 F − 3b F + 9b · 4F = 73 b F .
b
For the calculation of V and M , we cut the beam at every discontinuity
of the loading with respect to the internal forces and moments. With
the equilibrium conditions, we can determine V and M with respect to
the external loads and the internal forces and moments.
V1 = 16 F ,
73bF
M1 = 2b · 16 F − 73 bF = −41 bF , M1
1
16F V1
F
V2 = 16 F − 5 · 2b = 6F , q0
b
! F " 73bF
M2 = 4b · 16F − 73 bF − b 5 · 2b M2
b
= −19 bF , 16F 2
V2
V4 = 4F ,
V4 3bF 4F
M4L = 3b F − 2b · 4F = −5 bF .
M4L
4
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These results and the general relations between the external loadings
and V and M (e.g. if q = 0, then V = constant and M = linear, see
table at page 97) yield to shear force and bending moment diagrams:
V
F
16
1 2 3 4
ï50
ï10
M 1 2 3 4
bF
P5.7 Problem 5.7 In this problem, the bending moment diagram of the sys-
tem is known.
Determine the related loadings.
A
2m 2m 2m B 2m 2m
6
10
12 18 + 10
M [kNm]
A B
1 2 3 4 5
A = 6 kN .
M ∗ = 6 kNm
M2 = 4 m · 6 kN − 6 kNm = 18 kNm .
At point 2 , we can identify the single force F due to the kink at the
M -diagram. It can be calculated by
M3 = 6 m · 6 kN − 6 kNm − 2 m · F = 10 kNm ; F = 10 kN .
At the right edge, a concentrated force has to act into upwards direction,
since a linear M diagram is considered. It is obtained by
M4 = 2 m · P = 10 kNm ; P = 5 kN .
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Now all external loadings have been determined and can be sketched
as follows:
5 kN/m
6 kNm 10 kN
A = 6 kN B 5 kN
↑: B = 10 + 2 · 5 − 5 − 6 = 9 kN .
V [kN]
ï ï
7m
The (local) maximal bending moment can be found at the root of the
shear-force diagram with x = 7 m.
114 Determination of the internal forces
Solution We select the left edge of the beam as the origin of the coor-
dinate system, since the shear force and the bending moment are zero
at this point:
πx
q(x) = q0 sin .
l
x
Integration leads to z
πx l πx
V (x) = − q0 sin dx = q0 cos + C1 ,
l π l
2
l πx
M (x) = q0 sin + C1 x + C2 .
π l
Using the boundary conditions, we obtain
q0 l
V (0) = 0 ; C1 = − ,
π
M (0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 .
Therefore, the function of the shear force and the bending moment are
q0 l πx q0 l2 πx πx
V (x) = cos −1 , M (x) = − 2
− sin .
π l π l l
The maximal values of V and M are found at the clamped edge x = l:
2 1
V (l) = − q0 l , M (l) = − q0 l2 .
π π
The sketch of the diagrams yield
Q
l2
−q0
π
l
−2q0
π M
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Problem 5.9 A gantry crane of weight W moves across a bridge with P5.9
the length l. The front axle of the crane carries 34 W , whereas the rear
axle carries 14 W . The distance of the axles is b = l/20.
Determine the maximum value of the bending moment and the corre-
sponding position of the crane.
b
x
A
B
l
Solution In a first step, the support reaction A (positive into the up-
wards direction) is calculated for an arbitrary distance x of the front
axle:
3 W 81 x
B : l A = (l − x) W + (l − x + b) ; A= − W.
4 4 80 l
The maximal bending moment may occur at the rear (R) or at the
front (F) axle. We obtain
l 81 x
MR = (x − b)A = x − − W,
20 80 l
W 81 x l
MF = x A − b =x − W− W.
4 80 l 80
The extreme values of the bending moment are obtained at the roots
of the derivatives. Thus, for the front axle,
dMF 81 x 81
= W −2 W =0 yields x1 = l
dx 80 l 160
and therefore
6241
MF max = W l.
25600
and therefore
5929
MRmax = W l.
25600
P5.10 Problem 5.10 Determine the shear force, bending moment and axial
force diagrams of the depicted hinged girder system.
q0 F
30°
A B G C
a a b b
B D
AV GV GV C
NB = AH ,
a MB
VBL = AV ,
AH VBL NB
MB = a AV , AV
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NDR = 0 , MD V DR
VDR = −C ,
NDR
C
F
MD = bC = b . b
4
Therefore, the diagrams can be sketched as
N
√
3
F
+ 2
V
F
qa + F
4
4
+
ï
ï
1 F
− qa − F
2 4 −
4
MB
quadr. parabola
ï
+
M MD
Remark:
• In the area BG, the function of the bending moment is a quadratic
parabola. From the V -function, it follows that the magnitude of the
slope at B is higher than at point G.
• The quadratic parabola has to merge into the linear function bet-
ween G and D without a kink, since no additional load is located
at the hinge.
118 Internal forces and moments
P5.11 Problem 5.11 Determine the shear force, bending moment and axial
force diagrams of the depicted hinged girder system.
Calculate the distance a of the hinge G, such that the maximal bending
moment is as small as possible.
q0
C
A B a G
l l
Solution The support reactions and hinge forces are determined with
the help of the free body sketch
q0 q0
1 G 2 C
A B G
1 ↑: A + B − G − q0 (l + a) = 0 ,
q0 (l + a)2
G: (l + a) A + a B − = 0,
2
2 ↑: G + C − q0 (l − a) = 0 ,
q0 (l − a)2
G: − (l − a) C = 0.
2
Therefore, we obtain
q0 (l − a)
A=G=C = , B = q0 (l + a) .
2
The bending moment in B can be expressed as
q0
q0 l2 1
MB = l A − = − q0 l a .
2 2 MB
This leads to the depicted she-
ar force and bending moment A VB
diagrams l
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V
1
q0 (l + a)
+
1
2
q0 (l − a) + 2
ï ï 1
− q0 (l − a)
1 2
− q0 (l + a)
2
b b
1
− q0 la
2
ï
+ +
1
M q0 (l − a)2
8
Remark:
• The shear-force diagram is antisymmetric regarding B.
• The shear force in the midpoint between G and C, b=(l-a)/2, has to
be zero. This is a consequence of the symmetric loading regarding
the free-body sketch.
• The shear-force diagram indicates that the magnitude of the slope
of M at A has to be smaller than at B
• The bending-moment diagram is symmetric regarding B.
q0 b2 q0 q0
M∗ = b A − = (l − a)2 . M∗
2 8
In order to minimize the extremum, A
we use b
|MB | = |M ∗ | .
q0
A B
a a
l
Solution The local extremal values of the moments are found at the
supports and in the midpoint of the beam:
ï
2
1 +
a2
M1 = −q0 ,
2
(l/2)2 q0 l l
M2 = −q0 + −a .
2 2 2
The extreme value is minimal for the case |M1 | = |M2 |:
a2 l l l2
q0 = q0 − a − q0 .
2 2 2 8
Thus, we obtain the overlapping length as
1 √
a= 2 − 1 l = 0.207 l
2
q0 l ! " q0 l2
C1 = 1 + λ + λ2 , C2 = − λ(1 + λ).
6 6
Thus, we obtain
x 2
q0 l
V (x) = (1 + λ + λ2 ) − 3 ,
6 l
x x 3
q0 l2 2
M (x) = − λ(1 + λ) − (1 + λ + λ ) + .
6 l l
V
1
q0 l(1 + λ + λ2 )
6
1
q0 l(−2 + λ + λ2 )
6
1 2
q0 l λ(1 + λ)
6
M
122 Shear-force and
Solution The line load can be depicted by use of the Föppl symbol as
We obtain by integration
V (x = 3a) = F ; −2q0 a + B + C1 = F ,
M (x = a) = 0 ; C1 a + C 2 = 0 ,
M (x = 3a) = 0 ; −2 q0 a2 + B a + 3a C1 + C2 = 0
This leads to
C1 = −F , C2 = a F , B = 2 q0 a + 2F .
MA = M (0) = C2 = a F ,
1 1
MB = M (2a) = − q0 a2 + C1 2a + C2 = − q0 a2 − aF .
2 2
The diagrams are given as
1
−aF − q0 a2
V F + q0 a 2
−F aF
−(F + q0 a) M
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Problem 5.15 Determine the shear force and bending moment dia- P5.15
grams for the depicted hinged girder system.
F F
a a a a a a
Solution In a first step, the support and hinge reactions are calculated.
From the equilibrium equations
F G1 G2 F
E 1 2 3
A B G1 C G2 D
1 ↑ :
A + B − F − G1 = 0 , A: a F − 2a B + 3a G1 = 0 ,
2 ↑ :
G1 + C − G2 = 0 , C : a G1 + a G2 = 0 ,
3 ↑ :
G2 + D − F = 0 , D: a G2 − a F = 0 ,
A=F , B = −F , C = 2F , D=0, G1 = −F , G2 = F .
ME = a F , MB = 2 a F − a F = a F , MC = −a F .
V F F
−F
−aF
M aF
124 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
A
a
B
Solution The equilibrium equations
F q0
↑: A + BV − q0 a = 0 , C D
→: F − BH = 0 ,
B : −a A + 1
2
q0 a2 − a F = 0
BH
A
yield the support reactions
BV
q0 a F q0 a 3
A= −F = − , BV = +F = F , BH = F .
2 2 2 2
We cut at the corners of the frame, directly right of C and directly left
of D. The internal forces follow as
C MC MD V DL
NCR = −F , D NDL = −F ,
F NCR NDL
VCR VCR = −F/2 , VDL = −3F/2,
A MC = 0 , BHMD = −a F .
BV
Due to the general coherences of the loadings and the internal forces,
we obtain the depicted diagrams (Remark: the bending moments do
not change at unloaded 90◦ -corners but the normal and shear forces
are interchanged!):
F 3
−F − F −aF
− 2
2
F
2 3
N − F V F M
2
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F
a a
MC = 0 , MD = ME = −a A = −2a(F + q0 a) .
N diagram V diagram
F + 2q0 a
−(F + 2q0 a) F
F
−2(F + q0 a)
−2a(F + q0 a)
M diagram
−2a(F + q0 a)
126 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
a
Solution We obtain the support
reactions with the help of the equi-
librium equations as
F
F F C
AV = F , AH = , B=− .
3 3 B
We obtain the bending moments at
the cornes C, D and E as
MC = −a F , E
D
5
MD = 2a B − a F = − a F , AH
3
1
ME = a F . AV
3
Thus, the diagrams follow as:
N diagram V diagram
1 −F
F
3
F 1
− F
3
1
− F
3
1
−F − F F
3
−aF
M diagram
1
aF
3
5
− aF
3
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1 ↑: AV + B − GV − 3q0 a = 0 ,
2 ↑: GV − q0 a = 0 ,
→: AH + GH = 0 , →: −GH − C = 0 ,
9 1
A: −2a B + 3a GV + q0 a2 = 0 , G: −a C + q0 a2 = 0 .
2 2
Thus, the support and hinge reactions follow by
q0 a q0 a 15 q0 a
AV = , AH = , B= q0 a , C= ,
4 2 4 2
q0 a
GH =− , GV = q0 a .
2
The bending moments result at B and D in
1 3 1
MB = 2a AV − (q0 2a)2 = − q0 a2 , MD = aC = q0 a2 .
2 2 2
The diagrams can be sketched as
1
− q0 a
N diagram 2
8
q0 a
4
1
V diagram q0 a
4 1
7 q0 a
− q0 a 2
4
3
− q0 a2
2
M diagram
1
Mextr. q0 a 2
2
128 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
a a 2a
Solution We obtain by the equili-
brium equations for the system F
√ A
2 1
→: A + BH = 0 , C
2
√ 2
D q0
2
↑: A + BV − F − 2q0 a = 0 , 3
2 E
BH
2
A : a F − 3a BH − 2a BV + 6q0 a = 0 4
BV
the support reactions as
√
2 16 1
A=− F, BV = F, BH = F.
5 5 5
Considering the equilibrium in the sub systems, we obtain the normal
1 up to
and shear forces for 3 as
√
2
N1 = 0 , V1 = A = − F,
5
√ √
2 2 7 √
N2 = − F , V2 = A − F =− 2F ,
2 2 10
√ √
2 6 2 F
N3 = A−F =− F , V3 = − A= .
2 5 2 5
The bending moments result in the cutting points B, C and D in
MB = −a 2q0 a = −2aF ,
√ 2
MC = a 2 A = − aF ,
5
√ 9
MD = 2a 2 A − aF = − aF .
5
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For subsection
4 , we obtain
N4 = 0 , q0
M4
x E
V4 = −q0 x = −F ,
a N4
V4
1 1 x2
M4 = − q0 x2 = − a F 2 . x
2 2 a
Remark: Since x runs from the right to the left, V4 is positive down-
wards.
Thus, the diagrams follow as depicted. Jumps are obtained in N and V
at the corners of the frame and at the point of attack of the single-forces;
bending moments are constant over the angles.
N diagram V diagram
√
2
− F
5
1 7√
−√ F − 2F
2 10
1
6
− F F
5 5
−2F
M diagram
2
− aF
5
9
− aF
5
−2aF
−2aF
130 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
a
4
− 12 qa − 5P
a a
−P Pa
V diagram M diagram
−4P a
− 12 qa −2P a
1
2
qa
4P
2P a
1
8
qa2
−2P
We start the derivation with the left beam 1 . We can conclude, due
to the linear development of the shear-force with the boundary values
±q a/2 and the parabola-shaped bending moment with the maximum
of qa2 /8, that the subsystem has to be loaded by a uniform line load.
− 12 qa
1
qa q
2
;
1
8
qa2
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P M = Pa
−P Pa
; ;
The equilibrium condition at the cut middle point yields the missing
loading:
K : MM K = M2 + M3 − M4
M2
= 2 P a − 4 P a − (−2 P a) = 0
V2
; no single moment, V1 K
M3
→: HM K = V2 − V4 = −P − (−2 P ) = P V4
V3
; horizontal single force, M4
N4
↑: VM K = V1 − V3 − N4
= − 12 qa − 4 P + 12 qa + 5 P = P
; vertical single force.
Thus, we obtain the external loading for the structure:
M = Pa
P
√
2P
q
132 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
√
2
−(1 + )W N diagram V diagram
2 4W
√
√ −W 2 W
2 − W √
−(5 + )W 2 √
2
2
√ 2 W
−(1 + )W 2
2 2
−(6 + )W
2
15
aW
−7W 2
√
1 2
( + )aW
2 2
√
2
−(7 − )aW
2
M diagram
−7aW
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A B
a 2a a
A = B = q0 a .
1 :
N1 = −A sin α = − √25 q0 a , M1 N1
√1
S
: V1 = A cos α = 5
q0 a ,
V1
S : M1 = x1 A = x1 q0 a , x1
A q0
M2
2 →: N2 = 0 ,
S N2
↑: V2 = A − q0 x2 = q0 (a − x2 ) , V2
S : M2 = (a + x2 )A − 12 q0 x22
a x2
= q0 (a2 + ax2 − 12 x22 ) . A
q0 a
2 1
− √ q0 a √ q0 a
5 5
N diagram V diagram
3
q0 a 2
2
q0 a2
M diagram
134 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
F l
A
: N (α) = F cos α ,
M
: V (α) = −F sin α , S N
V
S : M (α) = −r F (1 − cos α) .
α
We obtain for the vertical part
F r(1 − cos α)
N = −F , V = 0, M = −2rF .
These values are related to the support reactions in A. Thus, the dia-
grams follow
−F −2rF
Remark: The internal forces and moments as well as the support reac-
tions are independet of l.
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q0 r
AV = q0 r , AH = B = . AH
2
The internal forces of the arc are determined as AV
= 12 q0 r 2 (1 − sin α − cos2 α) ,
q0 r 2
sin α2 = 1/2 ; α2 = π/6 ; M (α2 ) = − ,
8
dN
= 0 : (−4 sin α + 1) cos α = 0 ,
dα
q0 r
cos α3 = 0 ; α3 = π/2 ; N (α3 ) = − ,
2
15 17
sin α4 = 1/4 ; cos2 α4 = ; N (α4 ) = q0 r .
16 16
136 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
F
P5.26 Problem 5.26 Determine the internal
force diagrams for the depicted sys-
tem. a a a
F
Solution With the equilibrium equations 1 2
A C
↑: BV − F = 0 , a
a a
3
→: BH − A = 0 , 4
E
B : −3a A + a F = 0 5
D
BH
the reactions forces follow
BV
F F
A= , BV = F , BH = .
3 3
1 ,
Therefore, the normal and shear forces in the subsystems 2 ,
4 and
5 are obtained as
N1 = A = F/3 , V1 = 0 ,
N2 = A = F/3 , V2 = −F ,
N4 = −BH = −F/3 , V4 = BV = F ,
F
: V3 = − (sin α + 3 cos α) , F a(1 − cos α)
3
F α S
: N3 = (cos α − 3 sin α) , 1
F
3 3 M
aF V
N
S : M3 = − (4 + 3 sin α − cos α) .
3
a sin α
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1 √ 7 1 √ 5
M3 −aF − (4 + 2)aF − aF − (4 + 2 2) aF − aF
3 3 3 3
N diagram
1
F
3 F
1
− F
3
−F
−F
V diagram
1
F − F
3
1
− F
3
−aF
M diagram
7
− aF
3
1
aF
3
5
− aF
3
138 Shear-force and bending-moment diagrams
MC = −rBH = −r F .
M N
In the curved part the forces are S
F V α
: N (α) = cos α ,
2 1 r cos α
F F
: V (α) = − sin α , 2
2
rF
S : M (α) = − (1 − cos α) .
2
Therefore, the diagrams can be depicted as
N diagram V diagram 1
− F
2
1
F
1
− F F
2 2
M diagram
1
− rF −rF
2
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a
2a a
q0 GH GV
Solution The equilibrium equations
C GH D F
1 ↑ :
AV − GV − 2q0 a = 0 , GV
→: AH + GH = 0 , 2
1 BH
G: 2aAV − 2q0 a2 − 3aAH = 0 ,
AH BV
2 ↑ :
BV + GV = 0 ,
→: −GH + BH + F = 0 , AV
G: −aBV − 2aBH = 0
yield the reaction forces as
24 18 2 9
AV = F, BV = −GV = F, AH = −GH = F, BH = − F.
7 7 7 7
The bending moments are calculated as
6 18
MC = −3aAH = − aF , MD = 2aBH = − aF,
7 7
which leads to the following diagrams:
−
24
F
N diagram − 2 F 24 V diagram
7 7 F
7
18 9
− F 18 F
7 − F 7
2 7
F
7
18
6 − aF
− aF 7
7
M diagram
140 Internal forces
MC = l AH = F a , MD = −l BH = F a − F l .
For that case the moments MC , MD and the bending moment diagram
appear as
M-Verlauf
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The internal force diagrams are depicted below. At the point of loading,
we obtain a jump in the normal force of the magnitude F cos 60◦ = F/2
and in the shear force of F sin 60◦ = 0.87 F . The bending moment
experiences a kink at that point. Due to the symmetry of the structure
and the loading, N and M are symmetric and V is antisymmetric.
N diagram V diagram
1
− F
−0.93F 2
0.62F
1 1
−F − F + F
2 2
M diagram 0.07rF
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↑: AV + BV − F − q0 a = 0 , A
H
→: AH − BH = 0 , 1 2
AV F
2 G : a BV − a BH = 0 ,
BH
1 G : −a AV + 1
q a2
2 0
= 0,
BV
yield the reaction forces as
AV = F , BV = BH = AH = 2F .
N diagram V diagram
−2F
−F
−2F
F
1 √
aF −2aF ( 2 − 1)
4
−2F 2F
M diagram
144 Internal forces
F 2F
P5.32 Problem 5.32 Determine the
internal forces for the depicted sys-
a
tem.
a a a a
↑: GV + B − 2F = 0 ; GV = F/4 ,
3
G: a S3 + 2a F − 2a B = 0 ; S3 = F,
2
3
→: −GH − S3 = 0 ; GH =− F.
2
The remaining forces in the bars are obtained by the equilibrium con-
dition at point C. Note that the situation is mirror-inverted at C and
D (S1 = S5 , S2 = S4 ):
√ S2
2 3√
→: − S 1 + S 3 = 0 ; S1 = S 5 = 2F , 45◦
2 2 S1
√
2 3 S3
↑ : S2 + S1 = 0 ; S2 = S4 = − F . C
2 2
in beam-bar-systems 145
F 2F
Problem 5.33 Determine the P5.33
internal force diagrams for the
beam and also the internal a
forces in the bars.
F
q0 = a
2a
a a a a
AV = F , AH = F , B = 2F .
The joint forces and the forces S3 in the bar are determined
√ in the right
sub system. Equilibrium yields with sin 45◦ = cos 45◦ = 2/2
√
2
↑ : GV − 2F − S3 + B = 0 ,
2
√
2
→ : −GH − S3 = 0 ,
2
√
2
G : 2a F + a S3 − 2a B = 0 .
2
Therefore, we obtain
√
S3 = 2 2 F , GH = −2F , GV = 2F .
146 Internal forces
MD = 2a AH − a (q0 2a) = a F ,
ME = −a (GV + S2 ) = 2a F ,
MH = a B = 2a F .
−2F
N diagram
S2
S1 S3
−F
2F
F
V diagram
−2F −2F
F
2aF 2aF
aF
M diagram
quadr. parabola
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in beam-bar-systems 147
√ √
2 qa 2 qa
BH = B= , BV = B= , q
2 2 2 2
√ √ AH S2
2 qa 2 qa
S1H = S1 = − , S1V = S1 = − ,. AV
2 4 2 4 S1H
BH
BV S1V
NK
MK
q a2 VK
MK = a (BH + S1H ) = .
4 a
S1H
BH
BV S1V
The internal force diagrams are obtained as
1
4
qa2
3
4
qa
1 1
4
qa 4
qa
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in beam-bar-systems 149
a a a a
Solution With the help of the free-body sketch, we can determine the
reaction forces as follows.
Consideration of the
equilibrium of sub R1 = 2qa
system 5 yields BV
1 BH
CH = 0 . √
S1 BH R2 = 2 2 qa
BV
Therefore, the hori- W
4 S2
S1
zontal reaction force S2
2
S3 S4
EH vanishes, since the S4
system does not have CH S3
3 EH
any horizontal loading.
5
S5 S5
CV DV EV
↑: EV + BV − R2 = 0 .
Thus, the reaction force EV follow as
√
EV = 2 2 q a − W .
150 Internal forces
N diagram
2(qa + W )
V diagram
−W − qa
−W
W
W + qa
M diagram −W a − 12 qa2
1 1
8
qa2 8
qa2
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b
a B
Fz = 0 : Vz = VB = −q0 a ,
1
Mx = 0 : Mx = −MB = q0 a2 ,
2
My = 0 : My = x2 VB = −q0 ax2 .
Remark:
• The remaining internal forces are zero.
• The reaction forces at the clamping follow from the internal forces
of sub system 2 by
q0 a2
A = −Vz (b) = q0 a, MAx = Mx (b) = , MAy = My (b) = −q0 ab.
2
• The bending moment My in sub system 1 changes at the angle B
into the torsion moment Mx in sub system 2 .
152 Internal forces
Vy = −By = F , y1 x3 y3
1 z1
z3
Vz = Bz = F/2 , Mz
Vy
My = Bz x1 = 12 F x1 , My
By
Mz = By x1 = −F x1 , 1 Vz
Bz
2 N = −Cx = −F , x1
Cy
Vy = +Cy = +F , Vz Cx
2
Vz = −Cz = −3F/2 , My
Vy Cz
My = +Cz (a − x2 ) = + 32 F (a − x2 ) , N
Mz
a − x2
154 Internal forces
Mz = Cy (a − x2 ) = F (a − x2 ) ,
x3
Vy = −F , Mx
3
q0 F
Vz = A − q0 x3 = 2F (1 − x3 /a) , Vy
Vz
Mx = −F a , 3
My
My = A x3 − 12 q0 x23 = F (2x3 − x23 /a) , Mz A
Mz = F x3 , F x4
4
4 Vz = −F ,
My
My = −F x4 . Vz
Remark:
• The bending moment at sub system 4 changes into the torque at
sub system 3 . The latter causes in the beam BC at point D a jump
of the bending moment My .
• Analogously, the bending moment Mz of sub system
3 causes a
jump of Mz of the beam BC.
−F
−F a
3
Fa
2 bending moment
1
Fa My
2
My
+F a Fa
2F a My
−F a
Mz
Mz
−F a
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The infinitesimal moment q0 rdφ with respect to the cut yields h q0 rdφ.
We obtain from the equilibrium equation for the moments using the
lever h = r sin(α − φ):
α
M (α) = − q0 r 2 sin(α − φ) dφ = −q0 r 2 (1 − cos α) .
0
2q0 r 2 q0 2r
158 Cables
q(x)
x
x
tan α = z
z(x)
h α
η(x) z H
z
V
S
l
1
z = − q(x)
H
leads to the curve of the cable z(x) and the sag η(x):
x x
1 h
z(x) = − q(x̃) dx̃ dx̃ + C1 x + C2 , η(x) = z(x) − x.
H 0 0 l
q0 l2
1. η ∗ given: H= ,
8η ∗
2
|h| q0 l
2. S ∗ given: S∗ = H 1+ + ,
l 2H
H ' (z2
3. L∗ given: L∗ = − z 1 + z 2 + arsinhz
2 q0 z1
h q0 l h q0 l
with z1 = + , z2 = − .
l 2H l 2H
(in cases 2. and 3., H has to be determined using an implicit equation)
q̄0 x
cable tension: S(x) = H cosh ,
H
2H q̄0 l
cable length: L= sinh .
q̄0 2H
For given η ∗ , S ∗ or L∗ , the horizontal force H has to be determined
from a transcendental equation.
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160 Cables
z(0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
z (0) = 0 ; C1 = 0 ,
q0 2 q0 l2
z(l) = −h ; h= l ; H= .
2H 2h
In case of the plus sign, the value of x∗ is not between A and B. Thus,
the solution for the minus sign holds
√
H = (150 − 100 2 )q0 a ≈ 8.579 q0 a .
The maximal force in the line occurs at the position with the largest
value of z , thus at the higher support of the line:
Smax = S(0) = H 1 + z 2 (0) = 10.388 q0 a .
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162 Cables
q0 l2 ' 1 x 3 x 2 (
z(x) = − − + + C1 x + C 2 .
H 6 l l
It follows from the geometric boundary conditions
z(0) = 0 ; C2 = 0 ,
l 1 5 q0 l
z(l) = − ; C1 = − + .
3 3 6 H
Thus, the curve of the rope is given by
q0 l2 ' 1 x 3 x 2 5 x ( 1
z(x) = − − + − − x.
H 6 l l 6 l 3
The yet unknown horizontal tensile force H can be obtained from the
given force in the rope at the position x = l. The condition
S(l) = W bzw. H 1 + z (l)2 = W
164 Ropes
Mmax
H= = 500 N .
hM
The curve of the rope in the given coordinate system reads
H q̄0 x
z(x) = 1 − cosh .
q̄0 H
Thus the maximal sag is
H q̄0 l
ηmax = −z(l/2) = − 1 − cosh = 6.381 m .
q̄0 2H
The clearance height is obtained as
hD = hM − ηmax = 13.618 m .
The maximum force in the rope occurs at the fixing points (x = ± l/2):
q̄0 l
Smax = H cosh = 500 N cosh 0.5 = 563.8 N .
2H
166 Ropes q
with the horizontal tension H and the limits z1 , z2 given by
q l2 q (4 a)2 ql 1 ql 1
H= = = 20 qa, z1 = = , z2 = − =− .
8 η∗ a
8 10 2H 10 2H 10
1 101 1
Inserting yields LAB
= 20 a + arsinh ≈ 4.01 a .
10 100 10
From the geometry, it follows for the length of the rope in region B −C:
1
LBC = 2 wp2 + a2 or wp2 = (LBC )2 − a2 .
4
With L = LAB + LBC = 7 a and the known length LAB , the maxi-
in region B − C yields wp ≈ BC
mal sag 1.11 a. For the angle α, sin α =
(wp / wp2 + a2 ) holds. Consequently, SB can be determined from equi-
librium in vertical direction at point P :
P
↑ : 2 SBBC
sin α − P = 0 ; SB BC
= wp2 + a2 .
2 wp
AB BC α
With SB = SB and
q l 2
0 SBAB wp
AB
SB =H 1+ ≈ 20.10 q a , SBBC SBBC
2H
the magnitude of the force P yields
P
40.20 q a · 1.11 a
P ≈ √ = 29.87 q a .
1.112 a2 + a2
Ropes q2167
q1
Problem 6.7 A rope is loaded by two P6.7
piecewise constant line loads q1 and q2 .
I II
Determine the curve of the rope in the b
areas I and II for the known maximal x
rope force Smax .
Given: q1 = 1 kN/m, a = 20 m, z
q2 = 2 kN/m, b = 4 m, Smax = 100 kN. a/2 a/2
Solution Due to the jump in the load function at the position x = a/2,
the rope is divided into two regions. By integrating the differential equa-
tion of the rope z = − H1
q(x) twice, it follows for the rope curve in
the regions:
1 1
zI (x) = − q1 x2 + C1 x + C2 , zII (x) = − q2 x2 + C3 x + C4 .
2H 2H
168 Ropes
Work
A force F acting along an infinitesimally displacement dr accomplishes
the work
F α
dU = F · dr = F dr cos α . dr
dU = M · dϕ .
dU = F dr bzw. dU = M dϕ .
δU = 0 .
Remarks:
• In case that support reactions or internal forces have to be deter-
mined, it is necessary to use a free-body diagram and to introduce
the support reactions or the internal forces as external loads.
• The symbol δ indicates the relation to the variational calculus.
• The work of a force along a finite path is given by
r2
U= F · dr .
r1
Stability 171
δV = −δU .
δV = 0 .
dV
equilibrium condition = 0,
dz
+
d2 V >0 stable position,
stability
dz 2 <0 labile position.
Remarks:
2
• In case of d V2 = V = 0, it is necessary to investigate higher deri-
dz
vatives.
• The equilibrium position is indifferent, if in addition to V = 0 also
all higher derivatives are zero.
• The potential of a weight W is V = W z, if z is counted vertically
upwards from the zero level.
• The potential of a spring tensioned by x (spring constant k)
is V = 12 k x2 .
• The potential of a torsion spring tensioned by ϕ (torsion spring
constant kT ) is V = 12 kT ϕ2 .
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M α
r
A
δU = −M δα − F δf = 0 .
β
From the sketch, one obtains
f = r cos α + l cos β l
f
; δf = −r sin α δα − l sin β δβ .
a
The angle β needs to be eliminated. Based on
the sketch, it is α r
r
a = l sin β = r sin α ; sin β = sin α .
l
Differentiation yields
r r cos α
cos α δα ; δβ =
cos β δβ = δα .
l l cos β
With cos β = 1 − sin2 β = 1 − (r/l)2 sin2 α , one obtains
r r cos α
−M δα + F r sin α δα + l sin α 2
δα = 0
l l 1 − (r/l) sin α
2
or
r cos α
M = F r sin α 1 + .
l2 − r 2 sin2 α
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δU = −Q δq + F δf = 0 ,
it is found that
a) for 3 free pulleys with δf = 23 δq = 8 δq
Q
= 23 = 8 .
F
Solution In order to fulfil the requirement, the load arm AB must stay
horizontally. Thus,
δA = δB .
δA
According to the sketch, a ro- δF
tation of the upper beam with
δφ yields
δφ
δA = b δφ , δB = f δψ .
Q δq − W δA = 0
with
δq = a δφ
to
b
Q= W.
a
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P7.5 Problem 7.5 Determine the support reactions in A, B and D for the
illustrated girder with two hinges by using the principle of virtual work.
q1 = 1 kN/m F = 5 kN q2 = 2 kN/m
A B C D
3m 1 1 1 2 4
δφ δG δψ
δqI B
With
it follows that
32 12
B δψ = q1 δφ + q1 1 + δψ .
2 2
Including the geometrical relation at the hinge,
2
δG = 3 δφ = 2 δψ ; δφ = δψ ,
3
leads to
32 2 1
B = q1 + q1 1 + = 4.5 q1
2 3 2
or
B = 4.5 kN .
Support Reactions 177
A
δα
from the virtual-work equation
3
δU = −A δA + q1 δq1 dξ = 0
0
δq1 = ξ δα , δA = 3 δα
leading to
32 3
−3 A δα + q1 δα = 0 ; A= q1 = 1.5 kN .
2 2
3 1 1 3 4
The following geometrical relations hold:
⎫
3 δα = 1 δβ ⎬ δα = δγ ,
;
3 δγ = 1 δβ ⎭ δβ = 3 δγ .
For the application of the principle of virtual work, the distributed loads
are replaced by their resultant forces. Then, one obtains
3 · 1.5 δα + 1 · 0.5 δβ − 5 · 2 δγ + 8 · 2 δγ − D · 4 δγ = 0 ,
C = F + q1 · 4 + q2 · 4 − A − B − D = 8 kN .
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P7.6 Problem 7.6 For the illustrated system, composed of beams and rods,
the force S1 in the rod
1 has to be determined.
q0
1 2q0
a a a a
q0 a
δφ
S1
2q0 a 2q0 a
S1
δψ
2a δφ = a δψ ; δψ = 2 δφ .
Remark: The vertical distributed load at the lower beam can not be
replaced by one resultant load in the hinge.
Stress Resultants 179
Problem 7.7 Determine for the depicted beam the function of the in- P7.7
ternal moment between the pins by using the principle of virtual work.
q0
F
A
l a
δU = −M δϕ − M δψ − F a δψ + q0 (ξ δϕ) dξ + q0 (η δψ) dη = 0.
0 0
1 a
Obviously, proceeding from the support reaction A = q0 l − F and
2 l
1
the equilibrium equation M = A x − q0 x2 , the same result for M (x)
2
is found.
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a a
MA
δϕ
DPI P2
a δϕ 2a δϕ
For the determination of the particular centers of rotation, one pro-
ceeds from beam I. Its center of rotation DPI can be found at point
A. Due to the obtained movement abilities of points B (endpoint of
beam I), C (in horizontal direction) and D (in vertical direction), the
centers of rotation of the beams II and III can be obtained according
to the above sketch. Hence, all virtual displacements can be expressed
in terms of δϕ. The equilibrium condition is then given as
δU = MA δϕ + M δϕ + P3 a δϕ + P2 2 a δϕ − P1 2 a δϕ = 0 .
182 Equilibrium
a
2
sin α
α
W
For the investigation of the stability, the second derivative and, if ne-
cessary, higher derivatives of V are determined.
In the first case, the second and all higher derivatives of V are equal
to zero. Following this, the equilibrium for this special weight ratio is
neutral and thus equilibrium is possible in any position (see examples):
α1 α2
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184 Equilibrium a z
P7.11 Problem 7.11 For the illus-
trated system, the equilibri- α
um position α = α0 and
the corresponding limit ca-
ses should be discussed.
Assume that the rolling ra-
dii are negligibly small and W2
that the length l of the rope
b
is given.
W1
Limit cases:
W1 > 2 W2 ; no possible equilibrium
(because of sin α0 ≤ 1),
W1 = 2W2 ; α0 = π/2, i.e. a = 0 for a
finite length of the rope,
W1 = 0 ; α0 = 0.
Note: The length l of the rope and the distance b have no effect on the
solution.
and Stability 185
Solution Since all active forces are weight forces, the system is conser-
vative. Assuming an unwounded rope length l and specifying the zero
level for α = 0, the potential energy of the system for a deflection rela-
ted to a certain angle α can be computed as follows
or
186 Equilibrium
a
α
P7.13 Problem 7.13 A straw (weight W ,
length 2a) lies in a hemispherical r
glass with ideally smooth walls. W
Calculate the equilibrium position
α = α0 and investigate its stability.
Solution Specifying the zero level to lie on the edge of the glass and
using the coordinate z (directed vertically downward), the distance to
the center of gravity of the straw can be determined as follows:
z = r sin 2α − a sin α .
4 r cos2 α − a cos α − 2 r = 0
or
√
a+ a2 + 32 r 2
cos α0 = ,
8r
where only angles α > 0 are useful. With the second derivative
The equilibrium is stable since this expression is positive for 0 < α0 <
π/2.
and Stability 187
Solution Since the disc without the holes is in equilibrium in any posi-
tion, only the influence of the two holes needs to be taken into account.
Therefore, the holes are considered as “negative” weights which must
be “added” to the disc. Specifying the hinge as zero level, the potential
energy of the system can be formulated as
V = W1 b cos α − W2 b cos(60o − α) = 0 .
one obtains
V = πr22 ρg[2 cos α − cos(60o − α)] = 0
and thus
√
1 3 √
2 cos α − cos α − sin α = 0 ; tan α = 3
2 2
; α1 = 60o , α2 = 240o .
Note: Since the center of gravity of the perforated disc is located above
the support for α1 and below the support for α2 , the statement about
the stability is well illustrated.
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188 Equilibrium
l
V =W sin α − Q (L − l cos α) .
2
The equilibrium equation
dV l
= W cos α − Ql sin α = 0
dα 2
yields the required weight Q:
cot α
Q=W .
2
190 Equilibrium
This condition is fulfilled, when a < 0, i.e. the overall center of gravity
must be below the center of the semicircle:
mco zco + mal zal
zC = >0 ; mco zco > −mal zal .
mco + mal
4 h
Using the centers of gravity zco = r and zal = − , one obtains
3π 3
r2 π 4 h ρco
ρco t r > ρal t r h ; h<r 2 .
2 3π 3 ρal
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Chapter 8
Static and Kinetic Friction
8
194 Static and Kinetic
Static Friction
F
Based on the surface roughness, a W
body remains in equilibrium until
the static friction force H is smaller
than the limit force H0 . H0 is pro- W
portional to the normal force N . F
H
|H| < H0 , H0 = μ0 N α
N
Kinetic Friction
As a result of surface roughness, a direction of motion
moving body is affected by the ki- F
netic friction force R. The kinetic W
friction force is an active force. It
is proportional to the normal force W
N (Coulomb’s friction law): F
R = μN R
N ρ
Friction 195
Problem Types:
1. Static friction: H < μ0 N
2. Limiting friction: H = μ0 N
3. Kinetic friction: R = μN
Remarks:
• The static friction force applies in the contact area of the bodies.
• The direction of the static friction force is opposite to the direction
of relative motion (that would occur if it would not be hindered by
static friction).
• The magnitude of the static friction force is independent of the con-
tact area.
• In case of static friction, the resultant of N and H is located inside
of the static friction cone with the opening angle 0 (α < 0 ).
• The coefficient of static friction is generally larger than the coeffi-
cient of kinetic friction.
• Coefficients of static and kinetic friction (approximate values) for
dry materials:
material μ0 μ
steel on steel 0.15 - 0.5 0.1 - 0.4
steel on teflon 0.04 0.04
wood on wood 0.5 0.3
leather on metal 0.4 0.3
car tyres on streets 0.7 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.8
: −F sin α − W cos α + N = 0 , N
the static friction force and the normal force can be determined:
H < μ0 N .
F < W tan(α + 0 ) .
−H < μ0 N
yielding
sin α − μ0 cos α
F >W ; F > W tan(α − 0 ) .
cos α + μ0 sin α
Thus, one obtains
F
tan(α − 0 ) < < tan(α + 0 ) .
W
one obtains
sin α
F =W , μ0 > tan α .
1 − sin α
one obtains
μ0 (1 + μ0 )
F =W .
1 + μ0 + 2μ20
AV
AH C
C e
A
B α
A
H
N
Using the equilibrium conditions
→: AH + H + F sin α = 0 ,
↑: −AV + N − F cos α = 0 ,
C : F (l − e) − AH e sin α − AV e cos α − Hr = 0
and eliminating AH and AV , one obtains
F l − N e cos α
H= .
r − e sin α
Furthermore, using the static friction condition
|H| < μ0 N ,
it follows that
→: S + H2 cos α − N2 sin α = 0 , S
r
↑: −W2 + H2 sin α + N2 cos α = 0 , A W
2
H2
A: S r − H2 r = 0 N2
and the wedge H2
N2
↑: −W1 + N1 − H2 sin α − N2 cos α = 0 , W1
: S = (W1 + W2 ) sin α ,
S
α
: N1 = (W1 + W2 ) cos α . W2
|H2 | < μ0 N2 ,
↑: 2H2 − W2 = 0
W2
and for one cylinder N2 N2
↑: N1 cos α − H2 − H1 sin α − W1 = 0 , H2 H2
→: N1 sin α + H1 cos α − N2 = 0 ,
W1
A : H2 r − H1 r = 0 , H2
H1
one obtains α r N2
W2 N1
H1 = H2 = ,
2
W2 (1 + sin α) + 2W1
N1 = ,
2 cos α
W2 (1 + sin α) + 2W1 sin α
N2 = .
2 cos α
Furthermore, using the static friction conditions
H1 < μ0 N1 , H2 < μ0 N2 ,
it follows that
2μ0 2μ0 sin α
W2 < W1 , W2 < W1 .
cos α − μ0 (1 + sin α) cos α − μ0 (1 + sin α)
With sin α ≤ 1, one obtains
2μ0 sin α
W2 < W1 .
cos α − μ0 (1 + sin α)
Note: If μ0 = cos α/(1 + sin α), the right term is tending to infinity.
Thus for μ0 > cos α/(1 + sin α), the system is self-locking.
202 Static Friction
it follows with
α 1 + cos α
cot =
2 sin α
that
1
μ01 > , μ02 > tan(α/2) .
W 2r cot2 (α/2)
+ cot (α/2)
Q l cos α
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Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the rod and for the block
l
A: N1 l sin α − H1 l cos α − WH cos α = 0 ,
2 N1 W N2
↑: H1 + H2 − W = 0 , N1
→: N1 − N2 = 0 , H1 H1 H2
A
the static friction conditions WH
and the assumption that μ01 < tan α, one determines after eliminating
H1 , H2 and N2 the two inequalities
WH 2W + WH
N1 < , < N1 .
2(tan α − μ01 ) 2(tan α + μ02 )
Thus, it follows that
2W + WH WH
<
2(tan α + μ02 ) 2(tan α − μ01 )
or
WH μ01 + μ02
W < .
2 tan α − μ01
Remarks:
• If μ01 = tan α, the denominator becomes zero. Following this, W
can be increased as required. Generally, the system is self-locking
for μ01 ≥ tan α independently from WH .
• The system is statically indeterminate. Thus, the forces Hi and Ni
can not be determined.
• Assuming the limiting friction case with H1 = μ01 N1 and H2 =
μ02 N2 , the “<”-sign needs to be replaced by the “=”-sign in the
final result.
204 Static Friction
H = H0 = μ0 N , c > 0.
This yields
1 a
F = W (μ0 cos α − sin α) , μ0 < ( + tan α) .
2 b
In order to cause tilting around the point A, the following must hold:
c = 0, H < μ0 N .
H1 = μ0 N1 , H2 = μ0 N2 .
This leads to
1 + μ0 1
<2 ; μ0 < .
1 − μ0 3
Note: Pulling the roller upwards, the contact forces between the roller
and the inclined planes disappear. The orientation of the static fric-
tion forces must be plotted correctly (in the opposite direction of the
beginning motion).
206 Static Friction
W
e μ0
f
Solution Using the equilibrium
conditions for the overall system
↑: F −W = 0, SH FS
S
for the point A SV SV SV
↑: F − 2SV = 0 , 2 SH A S H
K
for the body
1 C
H H
↑: 2H − W = 0 N
1 W
N N
and for the body
2 H
C : N d + H(f − e) − SV (f − a) − SH (b + c) = 0 ,
H < μ0 N ,
it follows that
bd
μ0 > .
ac + be
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→: N2 − N1 = 0 , H1
N1
↑: H1 + H2 − F = 0 , F
A
N2
A: F a + H1 c − N1 b = 0 ,
yields H2
b a a b
N2 = N1 , H1 = N1 − F , H2 = F (1 + ) − N1 .
c c c c
From the static friction conditions
H1 < μ0 N1 , H2 < μ0 N2 ,
one derives
b − cμ0 b + cμ0
N1 <F and F < N1
a c+a
or
b − cμ0 b + cμ0
< .
a c+a
Solving the equation for μ0 , the required value of the coefficient of static
friction follows
b
μ0 > .
c + 2a
Remarks:
• As the system is statically indeterminate, the forces N1 , N2 , H1 and
H2 cannot be determined.
• Alternatively, one can also solve the problem by discussing the li-
miting friction case. Then, the inequality is replaced by an equation
and the determined value μ∗0 corresponds to the lower limit of the
coefficient of static friction.
208 Static Friction
l
2
l
A: N1 l cos α − Sl sin α − W cos α = 0 , S
2
yields S
N1
F
W
H2 = − S tan α , N2 = S .
2
Furthermore, using the static friction condition
it follows that
W W
− S tan α < μ01 S or − + S tan α < μ01 S
2 2
depending on the orientation of H2 . Therefore, one obtains
W W
< S < .
2 (tan α + μ01 ) 2 (tan α − μ01 )
Belt friction at the pin may occur if
Inserting the lower (upper) bound of S in the left (right) term, it follows
that
e−μ02 π/2 F e+μ02 π/2
< < .
2 (tan α + μ01 ) W 2 (tan α − μ01 )
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: N − W cos α = 0 ,
F
μ0
: H + S − W sin α = 0 , W
S
lead to S
α
N = W cos α , H = W sin α − S . N
H
Furthermore, using the static friction condition
|H| < μ0 N ,
yields
W (sin α − μ0 cos α) < S < W (sin α + μ0 cos α) .
one obtains
F
e−μ0 α (sin α − μ0 cos α) < < eμ0 α (sin α + μ0 cos α) .
W
one obtains
W a − 2c
F > , N1 = N2 = W .
eμ0 π − 1 2b
μ2
P8.18 Problem 8.18 Determine the required
value of the force F such that the block W
with weight W can be raised with uni- μ
α 1
form velocity assuming that the plane F
and the curved surface are rough.
: N − W cos α = 0 ,
π
S α+ 2
: S − R − W sin α = 0 W
Friction 211
Note: Due to eμπ > 1, FL > FR holds for the same value of MB .
212 Kinetic
Solution Using the equilibrium conditions for the wedge and the rod
1 → :
F − R1 − R2 cos α − N2 sin α = 0 ,
W
N4
↑: N1 − N2 cos α + R2 sin α = 0 ,
2
R4
2 → : N2 sin α + R2 cos α − N3 + N4 = 0 , R3
N3
↑: N2 cos α − R2 sin α − R3 − R4 − W = 0 , A
N2 R2
R2
F
A: −N3 a + N4 (l + a) = 0 1 α N2
one obtains the required force by solving the system of equations for
F , such that
μ1 (cos α − μ1 sin α) + (sin α + μ1 cos α)
F =W .
l + 2a
(cos α − μ1 sin α) − μ2 (sin α + μ1 cos α)
l
Remarks:
• The kinetic friction forces are oriented in the opposite direction of
the motion.
• If the denominator tends towards zero (F → ∞), the system is
self-locking.
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Friction 213
N = W cos α .
Friction 215
H H
N N
AH BH
H H
AV BV
F
The reaction forces can be determined by evaluating the equilibrium
conditions for the subsystems.
F
Rope ↑ : 2H − F = 0 ; H=
2
Moments of Inertia are used in beam theories (cf. Volume 2). Mo-
ments of second order of an area A, as for example of a cross sectional
area of a beam, are defined as follows:
Iy = z 2 dA
A
A
Iz = y 2 dA y
z r
A
Iyz = Izy = − yzdA dA y
A
Ip = Iy + Iz = r 2 dA z
A
2 2 2
Iy = rgy A, Iz = rgz A, Ip = rgp A.
Iy + Iz Iy − Iz
Iη = + cos 2ϕ + Iyz sin 2ϕ ,
2 2 C
y ϕ
Iy + Iz Iy − Iz
Iζ = − cos 2ϕ − Iyz sin 2ϕ ,
2 2
Iy − Iz ζ
Iηζ = − sin 2ϕ + Iyz cos 2ϕ . η
2 z
2
Iy + Iz Iy − Iz
I1,2 = ± 2 .
+ Iyz
2 2
2Iyz
tan 2ϕ∗ = .
Iy − Iz
Remarks:
• In case of symmetric areas, the axis of symmetry and the axis per-
pendicular to the axis of symmetry are principal axes.
• Moments of inertia are coefficients of a tensor (moment of inertia
tensor).
• Plotting the pairs (Iη , Iη ζ ) or (Iζ , Iη ζ ), respectively, for all possi-
ble angles in a coordinate system (abscissa = rectangular moment
of inertia, ordinate = product of inertia), one obtains the circle of
inertia. The construction of the circle of inertia is performed ana-
logously to Mohr’s stress circle (cf. Volume 2).
2
• The quantities Iη + Iζ = Ip and Iη Iζ − Iηζ are invariants,
meaning that they are independent of the angle ϕ.
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Rectangle
√
b b h3 3
Iy = , rgy = h,
12 √6
3
C hb 3
h Iz = , rgz = b,
y 12 6
Iyz = 0 ,
bh 2
z Ip = Iy + Iz = (h + b2 ) .
12
Square
√
a4 3
Iy = Iz = , rgy = rgz = a,
a 12 6
y a4
Ip = .
z 6
Circle
π r4 π d4 r
r Iy = Iz = = , rgy = rgz = ,
d 4 64 √ 2
y
π r4 π d4 2
Ip = = , rgp = r.
2 32 2
z
(Thin-walled)
Circular Ring
π 4 1
Iy = Iz = (ra − ri4 ) , rgy = rgz = ra2 + ri2 ,
4 √ 2
ra
2
t Ip = 2 Iy , rgp = ra2 + ri2 ,
y rm ri 2
with t = ra − ri and rm = (ra + ri )/2 follows
z for the thin-walled profile (t √ rm )
3 2
Iy = Iz ≈ πrm t , rgy = rgz ≈ rm .
2
Isosceles
Triangle
b h3 h
h Iy = , rgy = √ ,
C 36 3 2
3
y hb b
Iz = , rgz = √ .
b 48 2 6
z
Moments of Inertia 221
z z̄
dA = rdrdϕ , ȳ r cos ϕ
ϕ
the solution reads r sin ϕ
π/2a
dA r
2
Iz̄ = ȳ dA = (r 2 cos2 ϕ)rdrdϕ
A
0 0
a rdϕ
r 4 ϕ 1 π/2 π a4 dr
= + sin 2ϕ = , z̄
4 0 2 4 0 16
Iȳ = Iz̄ (symmetry !) ,
π/2a
a4 1 a4
Iȳz̄ = − (r cos ϕ)(r sin ϕ) r dr dϕ = − =− .
4 2 8
0 0
b) Applying the parallel-axis theorem with ȳC = z̄C = 4a/3π (cf. Cen-
ter of Gravity, pp. 32), one finds
2 π a 4 4 a 2 π a 2 π 4 4
Iy = Iz = Iȳ − z̄C A= − = − a ,
16 3π 4 16 9π
1 4
Iyz = Iȳz̄ + ȳC z̄C A = − + a4 .
8 9π y C
c) Symmetry leads to ϕ∗
ζ
ϕ∗1 = π/4 ; ϕ∗2 = ϕ∗1 + π/2 = 3 π/4 η
z
d) With Iy = Iz one can find the principal moments of inertia
π 1 4
I1 = Iy + Iyz = − a ,
16 8
π 8 1 4
I2 = Iy − Iyz = − + a .
16 9π 8
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b dA
dA = z dy , dy = − dz .
h z/2
Since the centroidal axis of the area
element dA does not coincide with
the y-axis, the parallel-axis theorem
dy
needs to be applied. With
dy z 3 z 2 1
dIy = + z dy = z 3 dy ,
12 2 3
one obtains by integration
b 0 0
b b z 4 b h3
Iy = dIy = − z 3 dz = − =
3h 3 h 4 h 12
0 h
b + h− h y b , -
z 3 b 1 3 h3 h3 2 h3 3
= dy = h − 3 y + 3 y − y dy
3 0 3 b b2 b3
0 0
1 3 3 1 1 3
= h b − h3 b + h3 b − h3 b = bh .
3 2 4 12
Clearly, the 1st approach is the simplest alternative, since the area ele-
ment has a constant distance to the reference axis.
The moment of inertia Iz can be calculated according to the procedure
for Iy by interchanging the sides h and b of the triangle:
hb3
Iz = .
12
The product of inertia is computed with the area element from the
1st approach. Since the product of
inertia vanishes with respect to the
centroidal axes, the remaining part y/2
results from the parallel-axis theo-
rem: y dz z
C
y
Iyz = − z(y dz)
2
h
1 2 z z2 z
=− zb 1 − 2 + 2 dz
2 h h
0
2
1 h 2h2 h2 b2 h2
= − b2 − + =− .
2 2 3 4 24
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y
a
z
+ 2
t(2a)3 at3 t z
Iy = +2 + a+ at
12 12 2
II
= 2873 cm4 ,
+ 2
(2a)t3 ta3 a t
Iz = +2 + − at
12 12 2 2
= 573 cm4 .
The product of inertia for the partial areas vanishes with respect to
their centroidal axes. Therfore, Iyz can be calculated by considering
the parallel-axis theorem for partial areas II.
t a t
Iyz = −2 a + − at = −945 cm4 .
2 2 2
Moments of Inertia 225
I2 = 235
Remarks:
• The invariants can be verified for the numerical example:
a) Iy + Iz = I1 + I2 = 3446 cm4 ,
2
b) Iy Iz − Iyz = I1 I2 = 7.5 · 105 cm8 .
• Terms of higher order can be neglected for a thin-walled profile
(t a), such that
8 3 2 3
Iy ta = 2667 cm4 , Iz ta = 667 cm4 ,
3 3
Iyz −ta3 = −1000 cm4 , ϕ∗ −22.5◦ ,
I1 3080 cm4 , I2 252 cm4 .
However, these approximations lead to inaccurate results for the
present numerical example, since the condition t a is not suffi-
ciently fulfilled.
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z
t
z̄
20 3 9 (5a)3 t 5 9 425 3
Iy = a t + 5at ( a − 2a)2 + + 5at ( a − a)2 = a t,
3 4 12 2 4 24
15 3 3 3 3 225 3
Iz = a t + 5at ( a − a)2 + 0 + 5at ( a)2 = a t,
4 2 4 4 24
3 3 9 3 5 9
Iyz = −5 a3 t − 5at ( a − a)(2 a − a) − 5at (− a)( a − a)
2 4 4 4 2 4
25 3
= − a t.
8
With these results, the directions of the principal axes are
25
2 Iyz − a3 t 3 ϕ∗1 = −18.43◦ ,
tan 2 ϕ =∗
= 4 =− ;
Iy − Iz 425 − 225 3 4 ϕ∗2 = 71.57◦ .
a t
24
One can derive the result also by consi- 2
dering the symmetry of the cross section
with respect to the axis 2–2. The slope of 1
the axis 2–2 is
ϕ∗1
1
m2−2 = 3 , y C
z h/2
Solution The area is decomposed into three
rectangles. The parallel-axis theorem is applied:
I
b
t t3 t h 2
Iy = 2 b + + t 2b +
2 12 2 2
II
I
t(h − t)3
+
12
III
II
t t3
t h 2
+ b+ +t b+ .
2 12 2 2 y
When t h, b, the expression can be simplified to
z
I II III
III
h2 h3 h2 3 1 h
Iy = 2b t +t +bt = b th2 + .
4 12 4 4 12 b
When terms of higher order are also neglected for Iz and Iyz , the fol-
lowing expressions can be derived
I III
t(2b)3 tb3 b 2
2
Iz = + (2bt)b + +bt = 3 t b3 ,
12 12 2
I III
h b h 5
Izy = − b − 2bt + − b t = t b2 h .
2 2 2 4
Remarks:
• The origin of the {y,z}-coordinate system does not coincide with
the center of gravity.
• The product of inertia Iyz vanishes for the partial areas with respect
to their centroidal axes. The above results can be derived by using
the parallel-axis theorem only.
Moments of Inertia 229
a
Problem 9.6 The ratio of the P9.6
moments of inertia for the sha-
ded area with respect to the
axes ȳ and z̄ is 1:5.
Determine the length b of the z̄
small square. a
b
ȳ
z
z̄ a/2
II
Solution a) The calculation of the A
center of gravity is carried out by consi-
dering the center of gravity of the partial I
areas:
!4 " 2
3
a 8 a − (2 a) a2 − (2 a − 4
1
√
2
a)a2 III
ȳC = ≈ 1.14 a ,
!4 " 2 !1 − 8 a2
" − a2 a2
3
a 8 a − 4 a a2 − (2 a − 4
1
√
2
a) a2
z̄C = ≈ 1.43 a .
6 a2
(4 a)4 a4 a4 17 a
Iȳ = −( + ) − ( a4 + (2 a − √ )2 a2 ) ≈ 17.75 a4 ,
12 48 16 96 4 2
(4 a)4 a4 17 a
Iz̄ = −( + 4 a4 ) − ( a4 + (2 a − √ )2 a2 ) ≈ 13.50 a4 ,
12 3 96 4 2
(4 a)4 a4 5 a
Iȳz̄ = − − (0 − ) − ( a4 − (2 a − √ )2 a2 ) ≈ −7.00 a4 .
24 2 32 4 2
Moments of Inertia 231
2
Iz = Iz̄ − ȳC A ≈ 13.50 a4 − (1.14 a)2 6 a2 ≈ 5.70 a4 ,
2a
a a a a
Solution a) The area is devided into five partial areas. Since the
area is point-symmetric with re-
spect to C, the values of the mo-
ments of inertia of the partial are-
as I and I are the same as is for II
and II.
I
I and I II III
II
a 4 a 2 I
2
Iy = 2 + 2a +
3 2
II and II III
a 4 a 2 a 2
2 a4 23 4
+2 + − + = a ,
36 6 2 12 12
b) With these results, the directions of the principal axes can be found
as
2 Iyz 90
tan 2 ϕ∗ = = ; ϕ∗1 = 11.75◦ , ϕ∗2 = 101.75◦ .
Iy − Iz 207
; I1 ≈ 19.95 a4 , I2 ≈ 1.14 a4 .
P9.9 Problem 9.9 Determine for the three cross sections the moments of
inertia about the y-axis.
b b/2 b/2 b
H h
y y y
z z z
B B B
y
a/2 a/2
z
a3 (a − b)3
Iy = (a − b) +b .
3 3
a a3 b b3 a 4 − b4 I
Iz = − = .
12 12 12
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h
a a a a
Solution It is convenient to start with
the calculation of the moments of inertia
with respect to the principal axes y and
z. Therefore, the cross section is devided
into four isosceles triangles and one rec-
tangle. For each triangle, the moment of
ȳ
inertia about the y-axis reads
y
2
2a h3 h b z̄
+ ah + . z
36 3 2
) 2 *
2a h3 h b 4a b3
Iy = 4 + ah + + .
36 3 2 12
With the cross sectional area A = 4a(h + b) and the parallel-axis theo-
rem Iȳ = Iy + (b/2)2 A , one obtains
) 2 * 2
2a h3 h b 4a b3 b
Iȳ = 4 + + ah + + 4a(h + b) .
36 3 2 12 2