2

MATRIX

2.1 Introduction

Definition 2.1
A matrix is a rectangular array of elements or entries aij involving m rows and n columns.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is said to be of order m by n and this is written m × n
matrix. Matrix can be written as A = [aij ] or A = [aij ]m× n , where the first suffix i in element aij
is called the row index of element and the second suffix j is called the column index of
element. Thus we denote an m × n matrix A with element aij by writing

 a11 a12 a13 K a1 j 

a a22 a23 K a2 j 
 21 
A =  a31 a32 a33 K a3 j  =  aij 
  m× n

M M M M 
 ai1 ai 2 ai 3 K aij 

Elements in matrix may be real or complex numbers, or even functions. For examples,
1 5 
i.   ( 2 × 2 matrix with real numbers as elements )
3 8 
 2 + 4i 5i 
ii.  3i (2 × 2 matrix with complex numbers as elements)
 8 − 2i 
cos θ cos 5θ 
iii.   ( 2 × 2 matrix with functions as elements)
 sin θ − cos θ 

Definition 2.2
i. Two matrices A =  aij  ∈ M m× n and B = bij  ∈ M r × s are said to be equal if m = r and
n = s ( are same size ) then A = B , and corresponding elements throughout must also equal
where aij = bij for all 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n .
ii. If aij for i = j , then the entries a11 , a22 , a33 ... are called the main diagonal of matrix A.

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Example 2.1
1 4 6 
 5 0 3  5 0 −3  5 0 3  
i.  2 −2 3 ≠  2 −2 4  ii.  2 −2 3 ≠  0 0 3 
     
 4 6 1 

Example 2.2
 x y + 1 1 5 
i. If A =   and B =   , then A = B . Find the values for the variables x and y
z 6  3 6 
so that the matrix are equal.
 3 a3  3 −27 
ii. It is possible P =  2  and Q = 9 4  to be equal, if so, for what value of a does
a 4  
equality occur?

Solutions:
i. If x = 1 , y + 1 = 5 (so y = 4 ), and z = 3 .
ii. The matrices are both of the same order and hence they will be equal when their
corresponding elements are equal .As corresponding elements on the principal diagonal are
indeed equal, we need only confine attention to the off-diagonal elements. Thus the
matrices will be equal if there is a common solution to the equations a 2 = 9 and a 3 = −27 .
Obviously, equality will occur if a = −3 .

Exercise 2.1
Find the values for the variables so that the matrices in each exercise are equal.
 x 2 y   4 12 
i.  =  ans: x = 4, y = 6, z = 3
 z 9  3 9 
x y + 312 5 
ii. 2 z = ans: x = 12, y = 2, z = 3
 8   6 8 


Example 2.3
 
 1 −5 π 
 5 −2   
Let A =   and B =  0 7 −6 
 −3 π   1 
 −2 11 
 2 
Determine
i. Order of matrix A and B .
ii. Elements of the leading diagonal of matrix A and B.
iii. Elements a12 , a22 , a31 and a23 of matrix A and B if it is possible.

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Solutions:
i. Order of matrix A is 2 × 2 and B is 3 × 3 .
ii. a11 = 5, a22 = π are the elements of the leading diagonal of matrix A .
a11 = 1, a22 = 7, a33 = 11 are the elements of the leading diagonal of matrix B.
iii. a12 = −2, a22 = π are the elements of matrix A .
a12 = −5, a22 = 7, a31 = −2, a23 = −2 are the elements of matrix B.

Exercise 2.2
1 −5 π e 
 4 −7 5   
If A =   and B = 0 5 −6 −π 
 −6 8 −1  
 −2 8 3 −1 
5
i. Give the order of each matrix. ans: A = 2 × 3 and B = 3 × 4
ii. Identify a23 and a32 or explain why identification is not possible.
ans: a23 = −1, a32 does not exist for matrix A and a23 = −6, a32 =8 for matrix B

2.2 Types of Matrices

There are a number of matrices that will use frequently and which have special names. These
are now described

Definition 2.3
A square matrix is any of order n × n matrix and has the same number of columns as rows.

 
 1 −5 8 
 0 3  
Both A =   and B =  0 7 −6  are square matrices.
 4 3  1 
 −2 11 
 2 

Definition 2.4
An n × n matrix is called a diagonal matrix if aii ≠ 0 and aij = 0 for i ≠ j .

Example 2.4
Determine the following matrices are diagonal matrices or not.
 2 −5 9  2 0 0
i. A = 0 4 0 ii. B = 0 3 0 

   
 1 0 2   0 0 0 

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Solutions:
i. Matrix A is not a diagonal matrix because a12 = −5, a13 = 9, a31 = 1 .
ii. Matrix B is not a diagonal matrix because a33 = 0 .

Exercise 2.3
Determine the matrices A and B are diagonal or not.
2 0 0
i. A = 0 2 0 ans: Diagonal because aii = 2 and aij = 0 for i ≠ j
 
 0 0 2 

6 0 0
ii. B = 0 2 0  ans: Diagonal because a11 = 6, a22 = 2, a33 = 5 and aij = 0 for i ≠ j
 
0 0 5 

Definition 2.5
An n × n matrix is called a scalar matrix if it is a diagonal matrix in which the diagonal
elements are equal, that is aii = k and aij = 0 for i ≠ j where k is a scalar.

Example 2.5
Determine the following matrices are scalar matrix or not.
1 0 0 
3 0
i. A=  ii. B = 0 1 0 
0 3  
0 0 6 

Solutions:
i. Matrix A is a scalar matrix where aii = 3 .
ii. Matrix B is not a scalar matrix because the diagonal elements are not equal.

Exercise 2.4
Determine the matrices either scalar matrix or not and if not state the reason.
1 1
i. A =   ans: Not scalar matrix
0 1
4 0 0
ii. B =  0 4 0  ans: Scalar matrix
 
 0 0 4 

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Definition 2.6
An n × n matrix is called identity matrix with ones “1” on the main diagonal and zeros “0”
everywhere else, that is aii = 1 and aij = 0 for i ≠ j . Identity matrices are denoted by I n×n .

1 0
The 2 × 2 identity matrix is I 2 where I 2×2 =  
0 1 
1 0 0 
The 3 × 3 identity matrix is I 3 where I 3×3 = 0 1 0 
0 0 1 

Example 2.6
Determine the following matrices are identity matrix or not.
1 0 
1 0 0 
i. A=  ii. B =  0 1 
 0 1 0   
 0 0 

Solutions:
i. Matrix A is not a identity matrix because the matrix is a 2 × 3 matrix.
ii. Matrix B is not a identity matrix because the matrix is a 3 × 2 matrix.

Definition 2.7
An m × n matrix is called a zero matrix if contains only zero elements, that is aij = 0 and
usually denoted by the symbol 0m×n .

0 0 0
The null matrix of order 2 × 3 has the form 0 2×3 = 
0 0 0 

Example 2.7
Determine the following matrices are zero matrices or not.
0 0
0 0 0
i. B =  0 0  ii. C = 
  0 0 0 
 0 0 

Solutions:
Matrices B and C are zero matrices because all the elements of the matrices are zero.

Definition 2.8
A negative matrix of A =  aij  m×n is denoted by –A where − A =  −aij  m×n .

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Example 2.8
Determine the negative matrices of A and B.
 −5 
4 1 
i. A =   ii. B =  3 
3 2  
 −1
Solutions:
4 1  −4 −1 
i. A=  hence − A =  .
3 2  −3 −2 
 −5  5
ii. B =  3  hence − B =  −3 .
   
 −1  1 

Definition 2.9
An n × n matrix A =  aij  is called upper-triangular if every element below the leading
diagonal is zero or aij = 0 for i > j . It is called lower-triangular matrix if every element above
the leading diagonal is zero or aij = 0 for i < j .

Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

 a11 a12 a13 K a1 j   a11 0 0 K 0
0 a22 a23 K a2 n  a a22 0 K 0
   21 
0 0 a33 K a3 n   a31 a32 a33 K 0
   
M M M M
 M M M M

 0 0 0 K ann   an1 an 2 an 3 K ann 

Typical examples of such matrices of order 3 × 3 are:

1 2 2  5 0 0 
i. 0 9 7  ii. 6 2 0 
   
0 0 1  1 2 1 
Upper triangular Lower triangular

Definition 2.10
If A = [ aij ] is an m × n matrix, then the tranpose of A , AT = [ a ji ] is the n × m matrix defined
T

by [ a ji ] = [ aij ] .
T

 1 −1 4  1 4 2
For example, if A = 4 −1 3 then the transpose of A, A , is given A =  −1 −1 0 
  T T

   
 2 0 −2   4 3 −2 

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Example 2.9
State the transpose of A and B where
1
1 3
i. A =  −3  ii. B=  2 5
   
 5 

Solutions:
1 2 
A = [1 5]
T T
i. −3 ii. B = 3 5 
 

Properties of Transposition Operation

Let A, B matrices ( different order) and k , k ∈ ℜ .Then
i. ( AT )T = A
ii. ( kA)T = kAT
iii. ( A ± B )T = AT ± B T

Example 2.10
1 3  1 4 6 
Let A =   and B =   , find
 2 −3  3 −4 2 
T T
i. (A ) ii. ( AB )T

Solutions:
10 −7 
1 3 
i. T
(A ) = 
T

 ii. ( AB ) =  −8 20 
T

 2 −3   
12 6 

Exercise 2.5
1
1 2 3  
If B =   and C =  −3 , find
 4 −5 2 
 2 
2 8 
i. (2 B )
T
ans: (2 B ) =  4 −10 
T

 
 6 4 
ii. ( BC )T ans: ( BC )T = [1 23]

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Definition 2.11
An n × n matrix is called a symmetric matrix if AT = A , where the elements obey the rule
aij = a ji .

Example 2.11
1 2  T
Given A =   . Find A , then show that the matrix of A is a symmetric matrix.
 2 4 

Solution:
1 2 
AT =   = A . Hence A is a symmetric matrix.
2 4

Exercise 2.6
5 1 4
If A = 1 2 −2  , find AT and show that it is symmetric matrix.

 
 4 −2 3 
5 1 4 
ans: A =  1 2 −2  = A . Hence A is a symmetric matrix.
T

 
 4 −2 3 

Definition 2.12
An n × n matrix with real entries is called a skew symmetric matrix if AT = − A , where the
elements obey the rule aij = −a ji , so that the leading diagonal must contain zeros .

0 1 3
A typical skew symmetric matrix of order 3 × 3 is  −1 0 −6 
 
 −3 6 0 

Example 2.12
 0 −2 3
Let A =  2 0 5  , find AT . Shows that the matrix of A is a skew symmetric matrix.
 
 −3 −5 0 

Solution:
0 2 −3  0 2 −3
A = −2 0 −5 , − A =  −2 0 −5 
T  
   
 3 5 0   3 5 0 
AT = − A , hence A is a skew symmetric matrix.

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Exercise 2.7
0 1 −4 
If A =  −1 0 7  , find AT and show that it is a skew symmetric matrix.
 
 4 −7 0 
ans: AT = − A , hence A is a skew symmetric matrix.

Definition 2.13
An m × n matrix A is said to be in row echelon form (REF) if it satisfies the following
properties:
i. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the matrix.
ii. For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the first nonzero entry is 1 (called a
leading 1).
iii. For each non zero row, the number 1 appears to the right of the leading 1 of the previous
row.

Example 2.13
For the following matrices, determine the matrices to be in row echelon form or not. If the
matrices aren’t in row echelon form, give a reason.
1 0 0  1 0 0 2 
i. A = 0 0 0  ii. B = 0 1 0 0 
   
0 0 1  0 0 1 3 

Solutions:
i. Matrix A is not in row echelon form because zero row should be at the bottom of the
matrix.
ii. Matrix B is row echelon form.

Exercise 2.8
Determine whether each matrix is in row echelon form.
1 2 −1 2 
i. A = 0 0 0 0
 
 0 1 2 −4 
ans: Matrix A is not in row echelon form because the
row of all zeroes does not occur at the bottom of the matrix.
1 2 −3 4 
ii. B = 0 2 1 −2 
 
0 0 1 −3
ans: Matrix B is not in row echelon form because the
first nonzero entry in row 2 is not leading 1.

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Definition 2.14
An m × n matrix A is said to be in reduced row echelon form (RREF) if it satisfies the following
properties:
i. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the matrix.
ii. For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the first nonzero entry is 1 (called a
leading 1).
iii. For each non zero row, the number 1 appears to the right of the leading 1 of the previous
row.
iv. If a column contains a leading 1, then all other entries in the column are zero.

Example 2.14
For the following matrices, determine the matrices to be in reduced row echelon form or not. If
the matrices aren’t in reduced row echelon form, give a reason.
1 0 0 −1
0 1 0 2  0 1 0 5 
i. A =   ii. B = 0 0 1 3 
0 0 1 3   
  
 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 

Solutions:
The matrices A and B are in reduced row echelon form because every column that has a
leading 1 has zeros in every position above and below its leading 1.

Exercise 2.9
Determine whether each matrix is in reduced row echelon form.
0 1 0  1 5 −3
i. A = 1 0 0  ii. B = 0 1 4
   
0 0 1  0 0 0 

Solutions:
i. Matrix A is not RREF because not fulfill definition (iii).
ii. Matrix B is not RREF because column that contains a leading “1”, all other entries in the
column are zero not number 5.

Definition 2.15
Let A =  aij  and B = bij  are matrices of order m × n . Matrices C = A + B is defined by
C =  cij  which is cij = aij + bij for all 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n . Two matrices A and B will be
said conformable for addition only if they are both of the same order .

Example 2.15
Find A+B,given
 −1 2   1 3 2 1 0  0 1
i. A =   ,B =   ii. A=  ,B =  
 0 1  −1 2   4 0 −1  −1 3

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Solutions:
0 5
i. A+ B =   .
 −1 3
ii. A+B is undefined because A is of order 2 × 3 and B is of order 2 × 2 .

Definition 2.16
If A =  aij  and B = bij  are both m × n matrices, then the
A − B is an m × n matrix C =  cij  defined by cij = aij − bij .Two matrices A and B will be
said conformable for substraction only if they are both of the same order .

Example 2.16
3 1 1  2 6 1  −1 0 
Given A =   ,B =   ,C =   , then find
 0 −2 4 10 −3 6   3 2
i. B − A ii. B−C

Solutions:
 −1 5 0 
i. B−A=   ii. B − C ( is not possible)
10 −1 2 

Properties of Matrices Addition and Subtraction

If A, B, C , 0% ∈ M , then
m× n

i. A+ B = B+ A
ii. A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C
iii. A + 0% = A
iv. A + (− A) = 0

Definition 2.17
Let A =  aij  is an m × n matrix, α ∈ ℜ , then the scalar multiplication is denoted α A where
α A = α aij  .

Example 2.17
3 −1 0 

Given A = −2 1 3  . Find
 
 0 −1 −2 
i. −2 A ii. − A

Solutions:
 −6 2 0   −3 1 0 
i. −2 A =  4 −2 −6  ii. − A =  2 −1 −3
   
 0 2 4   0 1 2 
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Properties of Scalar Multiplication

If A, B,0% ∈ M m×n and α , β ∈ℜ , then
i. α ( A + B ) = α A + α B
ii. (α + β ) A = α A + β A
iii. (αβ ) A = α ( β A)
iv. IA = A
v. 0 A = 0%

Definition 2.18
Suppose A is an m × n matrix and B is a p × q matrix. For the product AB to exist, it must be
that n = p , that is the number of columns in A must be the same as the number of rows in B.

Example 2.18
4 2
2 3 4 2 6 1 2 
Given A =  6 1  , B =   ,C =   and D =   . Find each product is
   −1 −2 0  −1 −3 3 6 
 3 5 
defined:

i. AB ii. BA
iii. CD iv. DC

Solutions:
 6 8 16 
 38 27 
i. AB = 11 16 24  ii. BA =  
   −16 −4 
 1 −1 12 
 20 40  0 0
iii. CD =   iv. DC = 
 −10 −20  0 0 

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

If A, B and C are matrices, I identity matrix and 0% zero matrix, then
i. A(B + C) = AB + AC (distributive law)
ii. (B + C)A = BA + CA (distributive law)
iii. A(BC) = (AB)C (associative law)
iv. α (AB) = ( α A)B

Exercise 2.10
 4 0
5 1  1 −1
If A =  −3 5  , B =  and C =  −1 1  , perform the indicated matrix operations. If
   −2 −2   
 0 1 
an operation is not defined, state the reason.

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17 7 
i. 4 B − 3C ans: 
 −5 −11
 11 −1
ii. BC + CB ans:  
 −7 −3
 24 0 
iii. A( B + C ) ans:  −33 −5
 
 −3 −1
iv. A − C ans: not defined
v. B − A ans: not defined
 16 −16 
vi. A( BC ) ans:  −12 12 
 
 0 0 

2.3 Determinants

In this section, we are going to associate with each square matrix of a real number, called the
determinant of the matrix. If A is a square matrix, then the determinant of A is denoted by det A,
or simply by writing the array of elements in A using vertical lines in place of square brackets.

2.3.1 Second Order Determinants

Definition 2.19
 a11 a12 
If A =   is a 2 × 2 matrix, then the determinant of A denoted by det [ A] = A and is
 a21 a22 
given by A = a11a22 − a12 a21 .

Example 2.19
5 6 2 4
Evaluate the determinant of A =   and B =  .
7 3  −3 −5 
Solutions:
5 6
i. A= = 5(3) − 7(6) = −27
7 3
2 4
ii. B= = 2(−5) − 4( −3) = 2
−3 −5

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Fundamental Mathematics

2.3.2 Third Order Determinants

Definition 2.20
 a11 a12 a13 
Let A =  a21 a22 a23  is a 3 × 3 matrix, then the determinant of A is given by
 
 a31 a32 a33 
A = [ a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a23 a32 ] − [ a13 a22 a31 + a11a23 a32 + a12 a21a33 ]

Method of calculation:
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32
- - - + + +

Example 2.20
 4 1 0  9 5 0
Find the determinant of A = −9 3 4 and B =  −2 −3 0  .
 
   
 −3 8 1   1 4 2 

Solutions:
i. A = [ 4(3)(1) + (1)(4)(−3) + (0)( −9)(8) ] − [ (0)(3)( −3) + (8)(4)(4) + (1)(−9)(1) ] = −182
ii. B = [ (9)(−3)(2) + (5)(0)(1) + (0)( −2)(4) ] − [ (0)( −3)(1) + (9)(0)(4) + (5)( −2)(2) ] = −34

Exercise 2.11
3 0 0  3 1 0
Evaluate the determinant of matrix A = 2 1 −5 and B =  −3 4 0  .
 
   
 2 5 −1  −1 3 −5
ans: A = 72 and B = −75

Note: Methods used to evaluate the determinant above is limited to only 2 × 2 and 3 × 3
matrices. Matrices with higher order can be solved by using minor and cofactor methods.

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 Fundamental Mathematics

2.3.3 Minors and Cofactors

Definition 2.21
Minor
Let n ≥ 2 and A =  aij  n× n . Matrices (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A is obtained by deleting the
i-th row and j-th column of A denoted by M ij .
The minor of aij is defined as M ij .

Definition 2.22
Cofactor
The cofactor Cij of aij is defined as Cij = (−1)i + j M ij .
The minor of aij is defined as M ij .

Example 2.21
 −2 0 3
Let A = 1 −6 5  .

 
 −1 2 0 
Calculate the minor and cofactor of
i. M 11 and C11 ii. M 23 and C23

Solutions:
−6 5 −6 5
i. M 11 = = − 10, C11 =(−1)1+1 = − 10
2 0 2 0
−2 0 −2 0
ii. M 23 = = − 4, C23 =( −1) 2 + 3 =4
−1 2 −1 2

Exercise 2.12
0 2 1 
Find all the minors and cofactors of A =  3 −1 2  .
 
 4 0 1 
 −1 −5 4   −1 5 4 
ans: Minor = 2 −4 −8 and Cofactor =  −2 −4 8 
 
   
 5 −3 −6   5 3 −6 

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Fundamental Mathematics

2.3.4 Higher Order Determinants

The definitions of minor and cofactor generalize completely for determinants of 3 × 3 or order
higher than 3. These concepts are illustrated for a fourth-order determinant in example 2.22.

Definition 2.23
If Cij is cofactor of matrix A , then the determinant of matrix A can be obtained by
Expanding along the i-th row
n
A = ai1Ci1 + ai 2 Ci 2 + ... + ain Cin = ∑ aij Cij
j =1

or
Expanding along the j-th column
n
A = a1 j C1 j + a2 j C2 j + ... + anj Cnj = ∑ aij Cij
i =1

Example 2.22
 0 −1 0 2 
 −5 −6 0 −3 
Find the determinant of A =   by expanding along the
 4 5 −2 6 
 
 0 3 0 −4 

i. first row ii. third row

Solutions:
i. first row
A = a11C11 + a12 C12 + a13C13 + a14 C14
−5 0 −3 −5 −6 0
1+ 2 1+ 4
= 0 + ( −1)( −1) 4 −2 6 + 0 + (2)( −1) 4 5 −2
0 0 −4 0 3 0

= (1)(−40) − 2( −30)
= 20

ii. third row

A = a31C31 + a32 C32 + a33C33 + a34 C34

−1 0 2 0 0 2 0 −1 2 0 −1 0
3 +1 3+ 2 3+ 3 3+ 4
= 4( −1) −6 0 −3 + 5( −1) −5 0 −3 + ( −2)( −1) −5 −6 −3 + 6( −1) −5 −6 0
3 0 −4 0 0 −4 0 3 −4 0 3 0
= 4(0) + 5(0) + ( −2)( −10) + 6(0)
= 20

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 Fundamental Mathematics

Exercise 2.13
4 0 0 0 1 −1 8 4
 −3 2 1   6 −5  2 6
  0 0 0 −4 
Find the determinants of A = 4 5 6 ,B =   and C =  
  1 3 1 0 2 0 2 6
 2 −3 1     
1 −2 7 3 0 2 8 0
by expanding cofactors in the second row.
ans: A = −75 , B = −60 and C = −336

Properties of Determinants
i. Suppose A is n × n matrix and k a scalar. Suppose the matrix B is obtained by
multiplying a single row or column of A by k .Then det ( B ) = k det ( A) .
ii. If the matrix A is multiplied by k , that is every element in the matrix is multiplied by k ,
then det ( kA) = k n det ( A) .
iii. If B is obtained from A by interchanging two rows or two columns then det ( B ) = − det ( A) .

iv. Adding or substraction a multiple of one row (or column) to another row (column) leaves
the determinant unchanged.
v. If A and B are two square matrices such that AB exists then det ( AB ) =det ( A) det ( B ) .
vi. If two rows or two columns of a matrix are equal, the determinant of the matrix is zero.

2.3.5 Adjoint

Definition 2.24
Let A is an n × n matrix, then the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A is called the matrix
T
adjoint to A , and it is denoted by adj [ A] = Cij  .

Example 2.23
 −4 6 3
Let A =  7 −2 8  , compute adj [ A] .
 
 1 0 −5 

Solution:
−2 8 7 8 7 −2
C11 = ( −1)1+1 = 10, C12 = (−1)1+ 2 = 43 , C13 = (−1)1+ 3 = 2,
0 −5 1 −5 1 0
6 3 −4 3 −4 6
C21 = (−1) 2 +1 = 30, C22 = (−1) 2 + 2 = 17, C23 = ( −1) 2 + 3 =6
0 −5 1 −5 1 0
6 3 −4 3 −4 6
C31 = ( −1)3+1 = 54, C32 = (−1)3+ 2 = 53 , C33 = (−1)3+ 3 = −34
−2 8 7 8 7 −2

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Fundamental Mathematics

10 43 2  10 30 54 

Now we have Cij = 30 17 6 , then adj [ A] = Cij  =  43 17 53  .
 T

   
54 53 −34   2 6 −34 

Exercise 2.14
 −2 9 4 
Find the adjoint of the matrix A =  7 −6 0  .
 
 6 7 −6 
 36 82 24 
ans: adj [ A] = Cij  =  42 −12 28 
T

 
85 68 −51

2.4 The Inverse of a Square Matrix

2.4.1 Inverse of a Matrix

Consider the real number equation ax = b . To solve this equation for x , multiply each side of
the equation by a −1 ( provided that a ≠ 0 ).
ax = b
(a a ) x = a −1b
−1

(1) x = a −1b
x = a −1b
The number a −1 is called the multiplicative inverse of a because a −1a = 1 . The definition of the
multiplicative inverse of a matrix is similar.

Definition 2.25
If A is a square matrix of order n and if there exists a matrix A−1 ( read “ A inverse”) such that
AA−1 = A−1 A = I
−1
then A is called the multiplicative inverse of A or, more simply, the inverse of A .

Example 2.24
 −1 2  1 −2 
Show that B is the inverse of A , where A =   and B =  .
 −1 1  1 −1

Solution:
To show that B is the inverse of A , show that AB = BA = I , as follows
 −1 2  1 −2  1 0 
AB =   = =I
 −1 1  1 −1 0 1 
1 −2   −1 2  1 0 
BA =   = =I
1 −1  −1 1   0 1 
Hence AB = BA = I so B is the inverse of matrix A ( B = A−1 ).
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 Fundamental Mathematics

Exercise 2.15
Show that B is the inverse of A .
 2 1  3 −1
i. A =   , B =  −5 2 
 5 3  
 −2 1 
1 2 
ii. A =   ,B =  3 1
3 4   − 
2 2

Note: Not all square matrices have inverses

If A = 0 , A does not have an inverse.
If A ≠ 0 , A does have an inverse.

2.4.2 Finding the Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix

Theorem 1
a b  1 d −b 
If A =   , then A−1 = .
c d  A  −c a 
The matrix A is invertible if and only if ad − bc ≠ 0 . If ad − bc = 0 , then A does not have a
multiplication inverse.

Example 2.25
 −1 −2 
Find A−1 , if it exists, given A =   .
3 4

Solution:
A = −4 + 6 = 2 ≠ 0 (does have an inverse)
1  d −b 
A−1 =
ad − bc  −c a 
1  4 −( −2) 
=
( −1)(4) − (−2)(3)  −3 −1 
14 2
= 
2  −3 −1
 2 1 
= 3 1
− − 
 2 2

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Fundamental Mathematics

Exercise 2.16
3 −1 3 −6 
Find A−1 and B −1 , if it exists, given A =   and B=  .
 −2 2   −6 12 
1 1
2 4 −1
ans: A−1 =   and B = doesn’t have an inverse
1 3
 2 4 

2.4.3 Finding the Inverse of a 3 × 3 or Higher Matrix by Using Cofactor Method

Theorem 2
If A is n × n matrix where n > 2 and A ≠ 0 , to find A−1 :
i. Find the transpose of A , by interchanging the rows and columns of A .
ii. Replace each element of AT by its cofactor. The matrix is the adjoint of A , written adj( A )
.
1
iii. Then the inverse of A , A−1 = adj [ A] .
A

Example 2.26
 1 −2 −4 
Find A if it is invertible, given that A =  2 −3 −6  .
−1
 
 −3 6 15 

Solution:
Firstly compute the cofactor of A ,
C11 = −9, C12 = −12, C13 = 3,
C21 = 6, C22 = 3, C23 = 0,
C31 = 0, C32 = −2, C33 = 1
 −9 −12 3   −9 6 0 

Cij = 6 3 0 , Cij  =  −12 3 −2 
 T

   
 0 −2 1   3 0 1 
 −9 6 0 
Hence, adj A =  −12 3 −2  = Cij 
T

 
 3 0 1 
By choosing the first row, the determinant of A
A = a11C11 + a12 C12 + a13C13 = 3

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 Fundamental Mathematics

 
 −3 2 0 
 −9 6 0   
−1 1   2
Thus, A = −12 3 −2 = −4 1 −
3   3
 3 0 1  
1 
1 0 
 3 

Exercise 2.17
 1 −1 1  0 2 1
Find the inverse of A = 0 −2 1 and B =  3 −1
  2  ,if it is invertible.
   
 −2 −3 0   4 0 1 
3 −3 1  −1 −2 5 
ans: A =  −2  1 
−1
2 −1
−1 and B = 5 −4 3 
  14  
 −4 1 2   4 8 −6 

2.4.4 Finding the Inverse of a 3 × 3 or Higher Matrix by Elementary Row Operation

Theorem 3
 a11 a12 L a14  1 0 L 0
a a22 L a24  0 1 L 0
Let A =   and I =   both be n × n matrices.
21

M M M M  M M M 0
   
 a41 a42 L a44  0
0 L 1
If augmented matrix [ A | I ] may be reduced and will transform it to [ I | A−1 ] by using
elementary row operation (ERO).

Let A be a square matrix of order n .

i. Write the n × n matrix that consists of the given matrix A on the left and the n × n identity
matrix I on the right to obtain [ AM I ] .
ii. If possible, row reduce A to I using elementary row operations on the entire matrix
[ AM I ] . The result will be the matrix  I M A−1  . If this is not possible, A is not invertible.

Characteristics of Elementary Row Operations (ERO)

i. Interchange the elements i -th row and j -th row of a matrix, written as bi ↔ b j .
ii. Multiply the i -th row of a matrix by a nonzero scalar k ,written as kbi .
iii. Add or subtract a constant multiple of i -th row to the j -th row, written as kbi + b j or
kbi − b j .

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Fundamental Mathematics

Example 2.27
Find the inverse of
 1 −1 1 
A =  0 −2 1 
 
 −2 −3 0 
by using elementary row operations (ERO) .

Solution:
Form the augmented matrix

1 −1 1 1 0 0
 1 −1 1 1 0 0  1 −1 1 1 0 0   
  + 2 R 0 −2 1 0 1 0  − 1 R 0 1 − 1 0 − 1 0
 0 −2 1 0 1 0  R uuuuuuuu
3 r1   uuuuur
2 
2
2 2 
 −2 −3 0 0 0 1  0 −5 2 2 0 1  0 −5 2 2 0
 1 
 1 1   1 1 
1 0 1 − 0  1 0 1 − 0
2 2 2 2
   
R 
+ R2 0 1 − 0 −
1 1 
0 R  1
+ 5 Rr2 0 1 − 0 −
1
0  −uuuur
2 R3
uuuuuur
1
 2 2  uuuuuuuu
3
 2 2 
 0 −5 2 2 0 1   
  0 0 − 1 2 − 5 1
   2 2 
 1 1 
1 0 2 1 − 2 0
1 0 0 3 −3 1
   1 0 0 3 −3 1 
1   1 
0 1 − 1 0 − 1 0  R2 + R3 0 1 0 −2 2 −1
1 1
0  R1 − R3  0 1 − 0 −
 2 2  uuuuuuuur
2  2 2 2 r
 uuuuuuuuu 
 0 0 1 −4 5     0 0 1 −4 5 −2 

−2  0 0 1 −4 5 −2 
 
 
 3 −3 1 
The inverse of A is A−1 =  −2 2 −1
 
 −4 5 −2 

Exercise 2.18
 −15 −2 −5 
 −1 −1 −1  7 7 7
i. A=4 5 0 ans: A =  12
−1 3 4 
   7 7 7
 0 1 3   −4 −1 1 
 7 7 7 

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 Fundamental Mathematics

4 0 −1
1 0 1   1
ii. B = 1 2 0 
1
ans: B −1 =  −2 
   2 2
3 0 4   −3 0
 1 

2.5 Types of Solutions to Systems of Linear Equations

When a system of linear equations is solved, there are three possible outcomes. A linear system
may behave in any one of three possible ways

2.5.1 A System with Unique Solution

For example, consider the system

x1 + 6 x2 = 14
0 x1 + x2 = 4
This system has a unique solution, x1 = −10 and x2 = 4 .The corresponding augmented matrix
1 6 14 
is  .
0 1 4 

2.5.2 A System with Infinitely Many Solutions

Consider the system

x1 + 2 x2 = 4
0 x1 + 0 x2 = 0
There is only one equation here because the second states that 0 = 0 . There is an infinite
number of solutions of the first equation. For example, x2 = 1 and x1 = 3 . In general whatever
the value of x2 , the equation is satisfied if x1 = 4 − 2 x2 . We write this as follows ;letting x2 = s ,
say, then x1 = 4 − 2 s .This is true for any value of s we choose, so s is called a free variable.
1 2 4 
The corresponding augmented matrix is  .
0 0 0 

2.5.3 A System with No Solution

Finally we consider the system

x1 + 2 x2 = 4
0 x1 + 0 x2 = 2
The second equation seems to state that 0 = 2 . This is nonsense. There are no solutions and the
1 2 4 
augmented matrix is  .
0 0 2 

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Fundamental Mathematics

2.6 Solving Systems of Equations

2.6.1 Inverses of Matrices

System of linear equations with m equations and n unknowns.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + K + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + K + a2 n xn = b2
.
.
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + K + amn xn = bm
 a11 a12 L a1n   x1 
 b1 
a a22  
L a2 n x 2  b 
System can be written as    =  2
21

 M M M M  M   M 
    
 am1 am 2 L amn   xn  bn 

Consider a system of equations written in form, that is AX = B , where

 a11 a12 L a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 L a2 n   x  b 
A=  , X =  2  and B =  2 
21

 M M M M  M M
     
 a m1 am 2 L amn   xn  bn 

Where A is a square matrix. Note that A and B are matrices with numerical elements. To find
an expression for the unknowns, that is the elements of X . Premultiplying both sides of the
equation by the inverse of A , if it exists, to obtain
A−1 AX = A−1 B (1)

The left-hand side can be simplified by noting that multiplying a matrix by its inverse gives the
identity matrix, that is A−1 A = 1 .
Hence
A−1 AX = ( A−1 A) X
= IX
Multiplying a matrix by the identity matrix has no effect and so IX = X . So the left-hand side
of equation (1) simplifies to
A−1 AX = X
IX = X
and so, from (1), X = A−1 B

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 Fundamental Mathematics

Example 2.28
Solve the system by using A−1 , the inverse of the coefficient matrix:
x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
−2 x2 + x3 = 2
−2 x1 − 3 x2 = 3

Solution:
 1 −1 1   x1  2
A = 0 −2 1 , X = x2 , B =  2 
   
     
 −2 −3 0   x3   3 
 1 −1 1   x1   2 
AX = B ,  0 −2 1   x2  =  2 
    
 −2 −3 0   x3   3 
A =1
3 −3 1  3 −3 1 
1
−1 =  −2 2 −1 .

−1 1
A = adj A = −2 2
A 1   
 −4 5 −2   −4 5 −2 

 3 −3 1   2 
X = A B =  −2 2 −1  2 
−1
  
 −4 5 −2   3 
Hence x1 = 3, x2 = −3 and x3 = −4 .

Exercise 2.19
Solve the following system of linear equations using the inverse matrix.
i. x1 + x2 + x3 = 6 ans: x1 = 1, x2 = 2, x3 = 3
2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 3
3 x1 − x3 = 0

ii. 2 x1 + 2 x3 = 2 ans: x1 = −4, x2 = 8, x3 = 5

5 x1 + 3 x2 = 4
3 x2 − 4 x3 = 4

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Fundamental Mathematics

2.6.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination

Consider the following system of linear equations with m equations and n unknowns.
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2
.
.
am1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm

The system of linear equations can be written in the augmented form, [A | B ] matrix and state
 a11 a12 L a1n b1 
a a22 L a2 n b2 
the matrix in the following form  
21

 M M M M M
 
 am 1 am 2 L amn bm 
By using elementary row operations (ERO) on this matrix such that the matrix A may reduce in
the row echelon form (REF). It is called a Gaussian elimination process. By using the
elementary row operations (ERO) on this matrix such that the matrix A may reduce in the
reduced row echelon form (RREF). The procedure to reduce a matrix to reduced row echelon
form is called Gauss-Jordan elimination.

Example 2.29
Solve the system of linear equations by using Gaussian elimination and Gauss-Jordan
elimination.
x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 9
− x1 + 3 x2 + x3 = −2
2 x1 − 5 x2 + 5 x3 = 17

Solutions:
i. Gaussian elimination
 1 −2 3 9  1 −2 3 9  1 −2 3 9 
 −1 3 1 −2  R + R  0 1 4 7  R − 2 R 0 1 4 7 
  uuuuuur
2 1  1 
 uuuuuuur
3

 2 −5 5 17   2 −5 5 17  0 −1 −1 −1
1 −2 3 9  1 −2 3 9 
R
 1 
+ R2 0 1 4 7 R3 0 1 4 7 

uuuuuur
3  3  
 0 0 3 6  uuur  0 0 1 2 
From Gaussian elimination we have
x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 9
x2 + 4 x3 = 7
x3 = 2
The solution is x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 2 .

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 Fundamental Mathematics

ii. Gauss- Jordan elimination

 1 −2 3 9  1 −2 3 9 1 −2 3 9
 −1 3 1 −2  R + R  0 1 4 7R

− 2 R1 0 1 4 7
  uuuuuur
2 1 
 uuuuuuur
3  
 2 −5 5 17   2 −5 5 17  0 −1 −1 −1
1 −2 3 9  1 0 11 23 1 0 11 23 1 0 11 23
R

+ R2 0 1 4 7  R

+ 2 R2 0 1 4 7  R3 0 1
1  4 7 R

− 4 Rr3 0 1 0 −1
uuuuuur
3   uuuuuuur
1   3uuur   uuuuuuuu
2  
 0 0 3 6  0 0 3 6  0 0 1 2  0 0 1 2 
1 0 0 1 
R

− 11R3 0 1 0 −1
uuuuuuuur
1  
0 0 1 2 
The solution is x1 = 1, x2 = −1, x3 = 2

Exercise 2.20
Solve the system of linear equations using Gaussian elimination and Gauss-Jordan elimination.
i. 4 x1 + x2 − 3 x3 = 11 ans: x1 = 2, x2 = −3, x3 = −2
2 x1 − 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 9
x1 + x2 + x3 = −3
ii. 2 x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = 8 ans: x1 = −1, x2 = 4, x3 = 3
x1 − 3 x2 + 3 x3 = −4
4 x1 + 2 x2 − x3 = 1

2.6.3 Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule named after Gabriel Cramer (1704-1752). This rule uses determinant to write the
solution of a system of linear equations.

Theorem 4
Cramer’s rule for a 2 × 2 system
Given the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 a11 a12
with D = ≠0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2 a21 a22

b1 a12 a11 b1
b2 a22 a21 b2
Then x1 = and x2 =
D D

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Fundamental Mathematics

Theorem 5
Cramer’s rule for a 3 × 3 system
Given the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 a11 a12 a13
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 with D = a21 a22 a23 ≠ 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 a31 a32 a33

b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a21 a22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
Then x1 = , x2 = and x3 =
D D D

Step to solve n linear inhomogeneous equations in n variables proceed as follows:

i. Compute D , the determinant of the coefficient matrix, and, if D ≠ 0 , proceed to the next
step.
ii. Compute the modified coefficient determinants Di , i = 1, 2,..., n where Di is derived from
D by replacing the i-th column of D by the inhomogeneous vector B ;
D
iii. The solutions x1 , x2 ,..., xn are given by xi = i for i = 1, 2,..., n .
D
iv. If D = 0 the Cramer’s rule cannot be applied. In such a case, either a unique solution to the
system does not exist or there is no solution.

Example 2.30
Solve the system of linear equations by using Cramer’s Rule.
i. x1 + x2 = 3 ii. x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 2
2 x1 + 3 x2 = 7 2 x1 − x2 − 2 x3 = 5
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 7

Solutions:
1 1   x1   3 
i.  2 3  x  =  7 
  2  
3 1 1 3
7 3 2 2 7 1
Then, x1 = = = 2, x2 = = =1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3

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 Fundamental Mathematics

1 2 1   x1   2 
ii.  2 −1 −2   x2  =  5 
    
 2 2 3   x3  7 
Then,
2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2
5 −1 −2 2 5 −2 2 −1 5
7 2 3 −39 2 7 3 13 2 2 7 −13
x1 = = = 3, x2 = = = −1, x3 = = =1
1 2 1 −13 1 2 1 −13 1 2 1 −13
2 −1 −2 2 −1 −2 2 −1 −2
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3

Exercise 2.21
Use Cramer’s rule, if possible, to solve the system of linear equations.
i. 4 x1 − 2 x2 = 10 ans: x1 = 2, x2 = −1
3 x1 − 5 x2 = 11
4 3 8
ii. − x1 + 2 x2 − 3 x3 = 1 ans: x1 = , x2 = − , x3 = −
5 2 5
2 x1 + x3 = 0
3 x1 − 4 x2 + 4 x3 = 2

2.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Definition 2.26
Consider the n × n matrix A . The eigenvalue λ and the eigenvector X of A are defined by
AX = λ X . Equivalently, X is said to be an eigenvector corresponding to λ and λ is
eigenvalue A .

To find the eigenvalues of n × n matrix A , we rewrite

AX = λ X for some X ≠ 0
( A − λ I ) X = 0 , has X as a nontrivial solution
A − λ I is not invertible
det ( A − λ I ) = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of A ; the scalars satisfying this equation are the
eigenvalues of A . Thus the eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be computed as follows:
Step 1: Solve the characteristic equation det ( A − λ I ) = 0 and get the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , λ3 K
Step 2: For each eigenvalue λ I , solve the homogeneous system ( A − λ1 I ) = 0 and get
eigenvectors with λ1 I as the eigenvalue.

This equation has a nonzero solution if and only if

p (λ ) = A − λ I = 0

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Fundamental Mathematics

The roots of the equation p (λ ) = 0 are the eigenvalues of A . Here, p (λ ) is the expansion of
the determinant and is a polynomial in λ of degree n called the characteristic polynomial of A ,
thus
p (λ ) = λ n + pn −1λ n −1 + pn − 2 λ n − 2 + K + p1λ + p0 = 0
Where the pi′ s are the coefficients and the equation p (λ ) = 0 is called the characteristic
equation of A .

The corresponding eigenvectors are obtained by substituting λ in the matrix

equation ( A − λ I ) = 0 and solve the matrix equation by using elementary row operations such
that there exist an infinitely many solutions of ( A − λ I ) X = 0 .

Example 2.31
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors to each of these eigenvalues of the matrix using Gaussian
elimination method
0 0 −2 
A = 1 2 1 .
 
1 0 3 
Solution:
0−λ 0 −2
p (λ ) = 1 2−λ 1
1 0 3−λ
2−λ 1 1 2−λ
= (0 − λ ) + (−2)
0 3−λ 1 0
= (− λ )[(2 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 0] − 2[0 − (2 − λ )]
= (2 − λ )[( −λ )(3 − λ ) + 2]
= (2 − λ )[λ 2 − 3λ + 2]
= (2 − λ )(λ − 1)(λ − 2)
If p (λ ) = 0 , hence the eigenvalues of A are λ1 = 1, λ2 = 2, λ3 = 2 .
 −1 0 −2   x1  0 
For λ1 = 1 , we have  1 1 1 x2 =  0 
  
    
 1 0 2   x3  0 
 −1 0 −2 0  1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 
 1 1 1 0  R ↔ R  −1 0 −2 0 R  
+ R2 0 1 −1 0 R 
− Rr1 0 1 −1 0 
  uuuuuuuu
1 r2   uuuuuur
1   uuuuuu
3  
 1 0 2 0   1 0 2 0  1 0 2 0   0 −1 1 0 
1 1 1 0 
R

+ R2 0 1 −1 0 
uuuuuur
3  
0 0 0 0 

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 Fundamental Mathematics

So we have x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x2 − x3 = 0
Assume that x3 = s , where s is any real numbers, then x2 = s and x1 = −2 s . Thus, the
 x1   −2 s   −2 
eigenvector corresponding to λ1 = 1 is given by  x2  =  s  = s  1  .
     
 x3   s   1 
For λ2 = 2, λ3 = 2 ,
 −2 0 −2   x1  0
1 0 1   x2  =  0 
    
 1 0 1   x3   0 
 −2 0 −2 0   1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0  1 0 1 0 
1 0 1 0 R  
↔ Rr2 −2 0 −2 0 R  
+ 2 R1 0 0 0 0 R  
− Rr1 0 0 0 0 
  uuuuuuuu
1   uuuuuuur
2   uuuuuu
3  
 1 0 1 0   1 0 1 0  1 0 1 0   0 0 0 0 

so we have x1 + x3 = 0
x2 = 0
Assume that x3 = s where s is any real numbers, then x1 = − s . Thus, the eigenvector
 x1   − s   −1
corresponding to λ2 = 2, λ3 = 2 is given by x2 = 0 = s  0  .
   
     
 x3   s   1 

Exercise 2.22
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors using Gaussian elimination method of the following
matrices:
2
5
1 2 0  x1  1   x1  1  x1   

i. A = −1 −1 1           
ans: λ1 = 1, x2 = s 0 , λ2 = −1, x2 = s −1 , λ3 = −2, x2 = s  
−3
            5
 3 2 −2   x3  1   x3   1   x3   
1 
 
 1
4 0 1  x1  0  x1  − 2   x1   −1
 
ii. B =  −2 1 0 ans: λ1 = 1, x2 = s 1 , λ2 = 2,  x2  = s  1  , λ3 = 3, x2 = s  1 
     
           
 −2 0 1   x3   0   x3   1   x3   1 
 
 

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2.8 Applications of Matrices

Example 2.32
The height at time t of an object that is moving in a (vertical) line with constant acceleration a
1
is given by the position equation s = at 2 + v0t + s0 . The height s is measured in feet, t is
2
measured in seconds, v0 is the initial velocity ( in feet per second) at t = 0 and s0 is the initial
height. Find the values of a, v0 and s0 if s = 52 at t = 1 , s = 52 at t = 2 , and s = 20 at t = 3 .

Solution:
1
When t = 1 , a (1) 2 + v0 (1) + s0 = 52 ⇒ a + 2v0 + 2 s0 = 104
2
1
When t = 2 , a (2) 2 + v0 (2) + s0 = 52 ⇒ 2a + 2v0 + s0 = 52
2
1
When t = 3 , a (3) 2 + v0 (3) + s0 = 20 ⇒ 9a + 6v0 + 2 s0 = 40
2
Solving this system using Gauss-Jordan elimination

1 2 2 104 
 1 2 2 104  1 2 2 104  1 2 2 104   
 2 2 1 52  R − 2 R  0 −2 −3 −156  R − 9 R 0 −2 −3 −156  − 1 R 0 1 3
78 
  uuuuuuuur 
2 1  uuuuuuuur 
3 1  uuuuuu
2 r
2
2 
 9 6 2 40  9 6 2 40  0 −12 −16 −896  0 −12 −16 −896 
 

1 2 2 104  1 0 −1 −52  1 0 −1 −52 

      1 0 −1 −52 
78 R2 − R3  0 1 0 48 
3 3 1 3 3 
     
uuuuuuuuur 0 1
R3
+ 12 R2
2
78 R 1
− 2 R2 0 1
 uuuuuuur  2
78 R3 0 1
 uuuu
2 r 2  uuuuuuuur
2
0 0 2 40  0 0 2 40   0 0 1 20   0 0 1 20 
    

1 0 0 −32 
R

+ R3 0 1 0 48  .
uuuuuur
1  
0 0 1 20 
The solution of this system is a = −32, v0 = 48 and s0 = 20 .

Example 2.33
The standard equation of a circle is x 2 + y 2 + Ax + By + C = 0 . Find the equation of circle that
passes through the points (2, −2) , (−4, 6) and (3, 4) . Solve this system of equations using
Cramer’s rule method.

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 Fundamental Mathematics

Solution:
At point (2, −2) , (2) 2 + ( −2) 2 + A(2) + B ( −2) + C = 0 ⇒ 2 A − 2 B + C = −8
At point (−4, 6) , (−4) 2 + (6) 2 + A(4) + B (6) + C = 0 ⇒ −4 A + 6 B + C = 52
At point (3, 4) , (3) 2 + (4) 2 + A(3) + B (4) + C = 0 ⇒ 3 A + 4 B + C = −25

 2 −2 1  x1   −8 
 −4 6 1  x  =  52 
  2  
 3 4 1  x3   −25 
−8 −2 1 2 −8 1 2 −2 −8
52 6 1 −4 52 1 −4 6 52
−25 4 1 496 3 −25 1 42 3 4 −25 −556
x1 = = , x2 = = , x3 = =
2 −2 1 −44 2 −2 1 −44 2 −2 1 −44
−4 6 1 −4 6 1 −4 6 1
3 4 1 3 4 1 3 4 1
496 42 556
So, A = ,B = and C = .
−44 −44 44
496 42 556
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 − ( )x − ( )y = .
44 44 44

Exercise 2.23
A direct current electric circuit consisting of conductors (wires), resistors, and batteries. If I1 , I 2
and I 3 are the currents (in amperes) in the three branches of the circuit and V1 and V2 are the
voltages ( in volts) of two batteries, then Kirchhoff’s laws can be used to show that the currents
satisfy the following system of equations:
I1 − I 2 + I 3 = 0
I1 + I 2 = V1
I 2 + 2 I 3 = V2
Solve the system using matrices method for
i. V1 = 10 volts, V2 = 10 volts ans: I1 = 4, I 2 = 6, I 3 = 2
ii. V1 = 10 volts, V2 = 15 volts ans: I1 = 3, I 2 = 7, I 3 = 2

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Fundamental Mathematics

TUTORIAL 2

 
 1 −5 π e 
 4 −7 6   
1. Given A =   and B =  0 7 −6 −13
6 8 1  
1
 −2 11 −5 
 2 
i. Give the order of each matrix.
ii. Identify a32 and a23 or explain why identification is not possible.

2. Find x, y , z and w of the following matrices.

 −16 4 5 4  16 4 2 x + 7 4 
i.  −3 13 15 12  =  −3 13 15 3y
   
 0 2 4 0   0 2 3 z − 14 0 
x + 4 8 −3   2 x + 9 8 −3
ii.  1 22 2 y  =  1 22 −8 
   
 7 −2 z + 2   7 −2 11 
 −5 x   −15 13
iii.  = 
 y 8   12 8 

 y
x x 6  4 x + y
3. Given 10  2 =  + . Find the values of x, y , z and w .
   −1 2 w   z + w 3 
z w
4 29 −5 3
ans: x = ,y= ,z = ,w =
9 18 72 8
4. Find A + B , A − B , −4 A and 3 A + 2 B for
4 1 5 9 
i. A =   ,B =  
 3 2 8 7 
1 3  2 −1
ii. A = 3 4 , B =  3 −2 

   
5 6   0 1 
2 −10 −2   6 10 −2 
iii. A = 14 12 10 , B =  0 −12 −4 

   
 4 −2 2   −5 2 −2 

2 −1
5. Given matrix A = 
 −5 3 

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 Fundamental Mathematics

i. Find matrix A2
ii. If I is an identify matrix of order 2 × 2 , and matrix 0 is the matrix of order 2 × 2 . Find
the value of m and n is A2 + mA + nI = 0 .
iii. Hence, determine A−1 and A3 .
 9 −5  3 1  3  43 −24 
ans: i.   , ii. m = −5, n = 1 , iii. A−1 =   , A =  −120 67 
 −25 14  5 2   

6. Find AB , if possible
 2 1 0 −3 0
i. A =  −3 4 , B =  4
0 2 ans: not possible
   
 −1 6   8 −2 7 
 −1 6  −2 51 
 2 3
ii. A =  −4 5 , B =   ans:  −8 33 
  0 9  
 0 3   0 27 
 
1 0 0   
5 0 0    5 0 0
 
iii. A = 0 −8 0  , B = 0 −
1
0 ans: 0 1 0
   8 
0 0 7    7
1 0 0 
0 0   2
 2
5   −15 −5 −25 −45 
iv. A =   , B = [ −3 −1 −5 −9 ] ans: 
6   −18 −6 −30 −54 

7. Evaluate the following determinants.

3 2
i. ans: 10
1 4
x 1 − x2
ii. 2
ans: x − y − xy 2 + x 2 y
y 1− y
x+2 2x + 5
iii. ans: −5 x 2 − 14 x − 1
3x − 1 x−3

8. Find the determinant of the matrix by the method of expansion by cofactors. Expand using
the indicated row or column.
 −3 2 1 
i. 4 5 6
 
 2 −3 1 
(a) row 1 ans: −75
(b) column 2 ans: −75

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Fundamental Mathematics

 6 0 −3 5 
 4 13 6 −8
ii.  
 −1 0 7 4 
 
8 6 0 2
(a) row 2 ans: 170
(b) column 2 ans: 170

9. Find all minors and cofactors of the matrix

3 4   −5 2   −5 −2 
i.   ans: minor  , cofactor 
 2 −5  4 3  −4 3 
 −4 6 3   10 −43 2  10 43 2 
ii.  7 −2 8  
ans: minor −30 17 −6 , cofactor 30 17
 6 
     
 1 0 −5  54 −53 −34  54 53 −34 

10. Show that B is the inverse of A .

 1 −1  2 1
i. A =   ,B =  
 −1 2  1 1
 2 −17 11  1 1 2
ii. A = −1 11 −7 , B =  2 4
  −3
   
 0 3 −2   −3 6 −5 
 1 0 −1 0 2 −1
iii. A = −1 1 0 , B =  0
  1 1
   
 1 2 0   −3 −2 1 

11. Find the products AB and BA to determine whether B is the multiplicative inverse of
2 7  4 −7  1 7  1 0 
i. A =   ,B =   ans: AB =   , BA =   , B = A−1
1 4  −1 3  0 5  1 5 
1 0 0  1 0 0 
ii. A = 0 2 −7 , B = 0 4 7 
  ans: AB = I 3 , BA = I 3 , B = A−1
   
 0 −1 4  0 1 2 

a b 1  d −b 
12. If A =   , A−1 = to find the inverse of each matrix, if possible.
c d  ad − bc  −c a 
Check that AA−1 = I 2 , A−1 A = I 2 .

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2 3
7 − 
2 3 7
i. A=  ans:  
 −1 2  1 2 
 7 7 
 1
3 −1 1 2
ii. A= ans:  
 −4 2  2 3
 2 
10 −2 
iii. A =  ans: does not have an inverse
 −5 1 

13. Find A−1 by performing [ A I ] and then using elementary row operation, to obtain [ I B ]
where A−1 = [ B ] . Check that AA−1 = I and A−1 A = I .
1 
2 0 0
2 0 0  
i. 0 4 0 ans:  0
1
0
   4 
 0 0 6   1
0 0 
 6 
 1 2 −1 1 0 2 
ii.  −2 0 1  ans: 1 1 1 
   
 1 −1 0   2 3 4 
1 −1 −1 
 2 2 −1  4 2 2
iii.  0 3 −1 ans:  1 1 1 
   4 2 2
 −1 −2 1  3 1 3 
 4 2 2

14. Consider the following system of linear equation:

x+ y−z=2
x + 2y + z = 3
x + y + ( a 2 − 5) z = 9
What is the value of a , if the system
i. has no solution
ii. has a unique solution
iii. has infinitely many solutions

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15. Write each linear system as a matrix equation in the form AX = B and solve the systems
using the inverse method.
i. 6 p − 10q = 14
1 p − 2q = 3 ans: p = −1, q = −2
ii. x + 3 y = 6
x − 2 z = −1
3y + z = 5 ans: x = 3, y = 1, z = 2
iii. x − 3 y + z = 1
2x − y + 2z = 2
x + 2 y − 3 z = −1 ans: x = 1 , y = 0, z = 1
2 2
16. Use Cramer’s rule to solve each system.
i. x + y + z = 0
2 x − y + z = −1
− x + 3 y − z = −8 ans: x = −5, y = −2, z = 7
ii. 4 x − 5 y − 6 z = −1
x − 2 y − 5 z = −12
2x − y = 7 ans: x = 2, y = −3, z = 4
iii. x + y + z = 4
x − 2y + z = 7
x + 3y + 2z = 4 ans: x = 3, y = −1, z = 2

17. Solve each system of equation using ERO, use method of Gaussian elimination.
i. x + y − z = −2
2x − y + z = 5
−x + 2 y + 2z = 1 ans: x = 1, y = −1, z = 2
ii. x + 3 y = 10
x + y + z =1
3 x − y − z = 11 ans: x = 3, y = 7, z = −9
iii. 2 x − y − z = 4
x + y − 5 z = −4
x − 2y = 4 ans: x = 2, y = −1, z = 1

18. Solve each system of equation using ERO, use method of Gauss-Jordan elimination.
i. x + y + z = 4
x− y−z =0
x− y+z =0 ans: x = 2, y = 2, z = 0
ii. x + 2 y = z − 1
x = 4+ y− z
x + y − 3 z = −2 ans: x = 2, y = −1, z = 1
iii. 3a − b − 4c = 3
2a − b + 2c = −8
a + 2b − 3c = 9 ans: a = −1, b = 2, c = −2
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19. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvector of the following matrices.

4 0 1
i. A =  −1 −6 −2 
 
 5 0 0 
 1
 −5   1 
 x1     x1  0   x1   3
 
ans: λ1 = −1, x2 = s − 9      
, λ = −6, x2 = s 1 , λ3 = 5, x2 = s  − 
   25  2        11 
 x3   1   x3  0   x3   1 
   
 
6 3 −8 
ii. B = 0 −2 0 
 
1 0 −3
 x1  1   x1  8 
ans: λ1,2 = −2, x2 = s 0 , λ3 = 5, x2 = s  0 
     
       
 x3  1   x3  1 

20. A total of RM12000 is interested in two funds paying 9% and 11% simple interest. The
yearly interest is RM1180 . How much is interest at each rate?
ans: 9% ⇒ RM 7000,11% ⇒ RM 5000

21. Find a quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c whose graph passes through the points
(−1, 3), (1,1) and (2, 6) .
ans: a = 2, b = −1, c = 0 and y = 2 x 2 − x

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