UNIT-4

Quality Control: Meaning, process control, SQC control charts, Acceptance Sampling :
single, double and sequential sampling, Introduction to TQM.
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Introduction

The rapidly increasing global competition over the past decade has led to the emergence of new
scenarios for most of the industrial sectors. The industries are now associated with rapid
technological changes and product variety proliferation in order to remain competitive. The
competitiveness of a company is mostly dependent on its ability to perform well in dimensions
such as cost, quality, delivery, dependability and speed, innovation and flexibility to adapt itself
to variations in demand.

Aiming at improving organizational performance through the effective use of production

capability and technology, operations strategy such as total quality management (TQM), quality
function deployment (QFD), six sigma, business process re-engineering (BPR), just in time (JIT),
benchmarking, performance measurement and many others are commonly used. The concept of
quality has evolved from mere specifications, controls, inspections, systems, and methods for
regulatory compliance to a harmonized relationship with business strategies aimed at satisfying
both the internal and external customer. Today, quality and value are, first and above all, givens,
and the customer expects them. Quality in the successful organization is fully integrated into all
of the business processes and is an extension of everything else that has to happen along the path
to success, both for the company and for the people involved.

MEANING OF QUALITY :

Quality is a relative term and it is generally used with reference to the end use of the product. Any
product when it meets the desired specifications, we say it is a good quality product. The quality
depends on the perception of a person in a given situation.
The standard of something as measured against other things of a similar kind; the degree of
excellence of something.

The quality of a product means the degree of excellence of the characteristics it posses.
The word quality has different meanings:
1. Fitness for the purpose: The component is said to posses good quality, if it works well in
the equipment for which it is meant.
2. Grade : Quality is distinguish feature or grade of the product in appearance, performance,
life, reliability, taste, odour, maintainability etc. Thus it is generally called quality
characteristics.
 3. Degree of preference: Quality is the degree to which a specified product is preferred over
competing products of equivalent grade, based on comparative test by customers,
normally called as customer’s preference.
DEFINITION OF QUALITY :

A modern definition of quality derives from Juran's "fitness for intended use." This
definition basically says that quality is "meeting or exceeding customer expectations."

According to the American Society for Quality, “quality” can be de-fined in the following ways:

 Based on customer’s perceptions of a product/service’s design and how well the design
matches the original specifications.
 The ability of a product/service to satisfy stated or implied needs.
 Achieved by conforming to established requirements within an organization.
Some of the definitions of the term ‘Quality', provided by quality gurus are as follows:
 Quality is fitness for use (JURAN)
 Quality is conformance to requirements (CROSBY)
 The efficient production of the quality that the market expects (DEMING)
 Quality is what the customer says, it is (FEIGENBAUM)
 Quality is the loss that a product costs to the society after being shipped to the customer
(TAGUCHI)
 The totality of features and characteristics of a product or services that bear on its ability
to satisfy stated or implied needs of the customers (ASQC)
 A quality system is the agreed on companywide and plant wide operating work structure,
documented in effective, integrated, technical and managerial procedures for guiding the
co-coordinated actions of people, the machines, or the information of company in the best
and most practical ways to assume customer quality satisfaction and economical costs of
quality. (FEIGENBAUM)

QUALITY CONTROL

MEANING OF QUALITY CONTROL

The term „Quality Control‟ consists of two words „Quality‟ and „Control‟. Thus „quality is

defined as fitness for purpose‟. The quality of an article may include such elements as design,
size, materials, chemical composition, mechanical functioning, electrical properties, finish and
appearance. Control is referred to as the comparison of actual results (finished product) with the
predetermined standards and specifications. Thus control is a system for measuring and checking
(inspecting) a phenomenon. Control is the correction in the quality of the product, when
deviations in the quality are more than expected in the process.

In Simplest term quality control is the control of quality during manufacturing. Raw materials,
suppliers, parts or finished product etc. as accepted or rejected by inspection. If control is
effective, there is less need of inspection.
Quality control gives the causes for variation in the characteristics of products. It also gives
solutions by which these variations can be controlled.

Quality control can be defined as the entire collection of activities which ensures that the
operation will produce the optimum quality products at minimum cost.

DEFINITION OF QUALITY CONTROL

Quality control is the process of control where the management tries to conform the quality of
product in accordance with the pre-determined standards and specifications. The quality control is
defined as a process of checking the products to ensure that they meet the required quality
standards and specifications. The quality control may also be defined as industrial management
technique or group of techniques by means of which products of uniform acceptable quality are
manufactured. (Alford and Beatty)

According to J. A. Shobin, quality control means the recognition and removal of the identifiable
causes of defects and variations from the pre-sets standards.

DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY
The quality of a product consists of the following attributes/dimensions:

1. Performance: Performance refers to a product's primary operating characteristics. This

dimension of quality involves measurable attributes; brands can usually be ranked
objectively on individual aspects of performance.
2. Features: Features are additional characteristics that enhance the appeal of the product or
service to the user.
3. Reliability: Reliability is the likelihood that a product will not fail within a specific time
period. This is a key element for users who need the product to work without fail.
4. Conformance: Conformance is the precision with which the product or service meets the
specified standards.
5. Durability: Durability measures the length of a product’s life. When the product can be
repaired, estimating durability is more complicated. The item will be used until it is no
longer economical to operate it. This happens when the repair rate and the associated
costs increase significantly.
 6. Serviceability: Serviceability is the speed with which the product can be put into service
when it breaks down, as well as the competence and the behavior of the serviceperson.
7. Aesthetics: Aesthetics is the subjective dimension indicating the kind of response a user
has to a product. It represents the individual’s personal preference.
8. Perceived Quality: Perceived Quality is the quality attributed to a good or service based
on indirect measures.

OBJECTIVES OF QUALTITY CONTROL

Following are the objectives of quality control:
1. To assess the quality of raw materials, semi-finished goods and finished products at
various stages of production process.
2. To see whether the product confirms to the predetermined standards and specifications or
not.
3. In case the product does not satisfy the standards, then to suggest necessary remedial
steps.
4. To suggest suitable improvements in the quality of product without much increase in the
cost of production. For this purpose, new techniques in methods and machines may be
applied.
5. To develop quality consciousness in various sections of manufacturing unit.

6. To reduce the wastage of raw materials, men and machine during the process of
production. Quality control involves setting standards about how much variation is acceptable.
The aim is to ensure that a product is manufactured, or a service is provided, to meet the
specifications which ensure customer needs are met.

BENEFINTS /ADVANTAGES OF QUALITY CONTROL

Following are the benefits of quality control:
1. An efficient quality control system reduces the cost of production of the product due to
following factors:
i. Reduction in wastage of raw material
ii. Large-scale production
iii. Minimization of rework cost of substandard goods.
2 By quality control programme, the employees become quality conscious, i.e., the morale
of employees is improved.
3. There is maximum utilization of resources, i.e., the necessary control over the machine,
equipment, men and materials and all other resources is exercised.
4. Uniformity and reliability of products help in increasing sale.
5. Inspection costs and customers complaints are minimized.
6. Consumers get the quality product of standard specifications, i.e., there is consumer’s
 satisfaction.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUALITY CONTROL

1. A major problem is that individuals are not necessarily encouraged to take responsibility
for the quality of their own work.

2. Rejected product is expensive for a firm as it has incurred the full costs of production but
cannot be sold as the manufacturer does not want its name associated with substandard
product. Some rejected product can be re-worked, but in many industries it has to be
scrapped – either way rejects incur more costs,
3. A quality control approach can be highly effective at preventing defective products from
reaching the customer. However, if defect levels are very high, the company's profitability
will suffer unless steps are taken to tackle the root causes of the failures.

INSPECTION
Inspection is a function of quality control. That is, inspection finds out whether the products
manufactured are as per specifications. Inspection rejects bad products and accepts good products.
Objectives of inspection
The following are the objectives of inspection.
1. To find out and remove faulty material before it is machined. This is to avoid wastage of
material.
2. To remove defective products as soon as the defect occurs. This is to prevent further
working on the defective products.
3. To discover defects for corrective action before they become serious.
4. To ensure that defective products do not reach the customer.
5. To earn goodwill of the customer.
6. To ensure proper functioning of assembled products.
7. To ensure safe working of the products.
8. To locate defects in design.

Difference Between Inspection and Quality Control

S. No. Inspection Quality Control
1. It is one of the functions of quality It is a system of integrating quality
control development, quality maintenance and
quality improvement

2. It finds out whether the products It aims at production of only quality

manufactured are acceptable or not. products

3. It is concerned with detection of It is concerned with prevention of defects.

defects of products already made.

4. It does not deal with any corrective It finds out the causes of poor quality. It
action. takes suitable corrective action.

5. It does not control production process. It controls production process.

METHODS OF QUALITY CONTROL

There are several methods of quality control.

At its simplest, quality control is achieved through inspection. For example, in a manufacturing
business, trained inspectors examine samples of work-in-progress and finished goods to ensure
standards are being met.

For businesses that rely on a continuous process, the use of statistical process control
("SPC") is common. SPC is the continuous monitoring and charting of a process while it is
operating. Data collected is analyzed to warn when the process is exceeding predetermined limits

Statistical Quality Control

Statistics :

Statistics means the good amount of data to obtain reliable results. The Science of statistics
handles this data in order to draw certain conclusions. Its techniques find extensive applications in
quality control, production planning and control, business charts, linear programming etc.

Quality :

Quality is a relative term and is generally explained with reference to the end use of the product.
Quality is thus defined as fitness for purpose.

Control :

Control is a system for measuring and checking or inspecting a phenomenon. It suggests when to
inspect, how often to inspect and how much to inspect, how often to inspect. Control ascertains
quality characteristics of an item, compares the same with prescribed quality standards and
separates defective item from non-defective ones.
Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of statistical tools used by
quality professionals. SQC is used to analyze the quality problems and solve them.
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining
of the quality of products and services.

Benefits of Statistical Quality Control

1) It provides a means of detecting error at inspection.

2) It leads to more uniform quality of production.

3) It improves the relationship with the customer.

4) It reduces inspection costs.

5) It reduces the number of rejects and saves the cost of material.

6) It provides a basis for attainable specifications.

7) It points out the bottlenecks and trouble spots.

8) It provides a means of determining the capability of the manufacturing process.

9) It promotes the understanding and appreciation of quality control.

Methodology & Tools of Statistical Quality Control

Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of statistical tools used by
quality professionals. SQC is used to analyze the quality problems and solve them.
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and
maintaining of the quality of products and services.
All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of services. SQC uses different tools to
analyze quality problem.
1) Descriptive Statistics
2) Statistical Process Control (SPC)
3) Acceptance Sampling

Descriptive Statistics involves describing quality characteristics and relationships. SPC involves
inspect random sample of output from process for characteristic. Acceptance Sampling involve batch
sampling by inspection.
 The seven major
tools used for
Statistical Process
Control are,

1) Histogram

2) Pareto Chart

3) Cause and Effect

Diagram

4)Defect
Concentration
Diagram

5) Control Chart

6) Scatter Diagram

7) Check Sheet

Statistical Quality Control

Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality professionals
is used to analyze the quality problems and solve them.
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining of the qua
products and services.
All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of services. SQC uses different tools to analyze quality prob
1) Descriptive Statistics
2) Statistical Process Control (SPC)
3) Acceptance Sampling

PROCESS CONTROL
Process control is the active changing of the process based on the results of process monitoring.
Once the process monitoring detects an out of control situation, the person responsible for the
process makes a change to bring the process back into control.
1. Out of Control Action Plans (OCAPS) detail the action to be taken once an out of control
situation is detected.

2. Advance Process Control Loops (APCL) are automated changes to the process that are
programmed to correct the size of the out of control measurement.
Variation in the production process leads tom quality defects and lack of production consistency.

The Intel Corporation, the world‟s largest and most profitable manufacturer of microprocessors,
has implemented a program it calls “copy exactly” at all its manufacturing facilities. The idea is
whether the chips are made in Arizona, New Mexico, Ireland, or any of its other plants they are
made in exactly the same way. This means using the same equipment, the same exact materials
and workers performing the same tasks in the same order. When a water quality was found to be
of different at one facility, Intel instituted a purification system to eliminate any differences.

Sources of Variations
Common causes of Variation: Common causes of variations are based on random causes that
we cannot identify. An important task in quality control is to find out the range of natural random
variation in a process. E.g. if the average bottle of a soft drink produced by ABC Ltd. contains 16
Ounces of liquid we may find out that the amount of natural variation is between 15.8 and 16.2
ounces. This type of difference is completely normal. We would monitor the process to make
sure that the amount stays within this range.

Assignable Cause of Variation: This type of variation can be precisely identified and
eliminated. Eg.
- Poor quality of raw material,
- An employee needs more training,
- A machine in need of repairs.

In each of these cases the problem can be identified and corrected. In the case of soft drinks bottle
filled with 15.6 Ounces of liquid would signal a problem and machine needs to be adjusted.
Process control can be divided into two categories as follows:
1. Discreet Process: These are motion based such as automotive production , robotic
assembly, Packaging application etc. These are characterized as discreet process control.
Discreet manufacturing process is mostly automated. It uses Computer Numeric Control
(CNC Computer Aided Design (CAD) Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Copying
machines and robotics etc.
2. Continuous Process: These require that specific quantities of raw materials be combined
in specific ways for particular durations tom produce an intermediate or end product such
as chemical, fuels, Plastics and food items beverages and medicines etc. Continuous
process control use Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), Distributed Control System
 (DCS) , Supervisory Control and Data acquisition (SCADA) system, etc.

CONTROL CHARTS
A control chart is a graphical presentation of the collected information. The information pertains
It is a graphical tool for monitoring the activities of an ongoing process also referred as Shewhart
control charts.
Therefore, a control chart is a diagnostic technique. A control chart detects variations in the
processing and warns if there is any departure from specified tolerance limits.
Control charts are the most important statistical tools for data analysis in quality control of
manufactured products. Control Charts showing whether a process is in control or not.

Control charts are used for process monitoring and variability reduction.

Before discussing and calculating the limits etc. of control charts, it is necessary to understand
causes of variations present in the system. Variability is an inherent feature of every process.
Production data always have some variability.

Causes of Variations
Two types of causes are present in the production system
 Special causes: Variation due to identifiable factors in the production process. Examples
of special causes include: wrong tool, wrong production method, improper raw material,
operator's skill, wrong die etc. Control of process is achieved through the elimination of
special causes. According to Deming, only 15% of the problems are due to the special
causes. Special causes or also sometimes referred as Assignable causes

 Common causes: Variation inherent in the process. Improvement of process is

accomplished through the reduction of common causes and improving the system.
According to Deming, 85% of the problems are due to the common causes.

Assignable causes are controlled by the use of statistical process charts.

Steps in constructing a control chart

 Decide what to measure or count
 Collect the sample data
 Plot the samples on a control chart
 Calculate and plot the control limits on the control chart
  Determine if the data is in control
 If non-random variation is present, discard the data (fix the problem) and recalculate
the control limits
 When data are with in the control limits we leave the process assuming there are only
chance causes present

Types of control charts.

Control Charts

Process Control Product Control

Variable Attributes Variable Attributes

X (Mean )Chart R(Range)Chart p Chart np Chart C- Chart

Advantages of Control charts

1. It indicates whether the process is in control or out of control at a particular point of time.
2. It ensures level of quality and builds up the reputation of the enterprise due to customer‟s
satisfaction.
3. It detects unusual variables taking place is a period.
4. It helps in reducing the rejections. It warns in time so that process can be rectified in time. 5 It
helps in setting tolerance limits.

Statistical Factors Based on Normal Distribution

Sample size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

A2 1.88 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308

D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.219
D4 3.263 2.574 2.2824 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.860 1.814 1.777
Control Chart for Variables Calculation procedure
1. Calculate average X and range R for each group
i. A number of samples of items manufactured are collected at regular intervals (say 1 or 2
hours)
ii. Their quality characteristics (diameter, thickness, weight, length etc. ) are measured.
iii. For sample, mean value and the range is calculated.
For example if sample size is of 5 items and dimensions are X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5

The Sample average

X1+X2+X3+X4+X5
X= --------------------------
 5

The range will be R= Highest value –Smallest value

2. Calculate Grand Average X and Average Range R.
X is the average of X
value for each group. X
X = ---------------------
N
Where X = Average of Sample mean or average And
n = Number of observations, or subgroup
Similarly, the average R, is the sum of the ranges of the subgroup or observations divided by the
number of sub group
R
R= ---------------
n
3. Calculate Control Charts for X chart:
Upper Control Limit U C L for X = X + A2 R,
Lower Control Limit L C L for X = X – A2 R.
4. Calculate Control Limits for R Chart:

UCL for R = D4 R
LCL for R= D3 R

The value of A2, D3, D4 are based on normal distribution and can be found out from standard
table for a particular sample size.
5. Plot X and R chart:
i. Central line on the X chart should be solid horizontal line at X.
ii. The upper and lower control limits for X should be drawn as dotted horizontal lines at
computed values.
iii. Similarly for R chart central solid horizontal line will indicate R, and
iv. The control limits are shown by dotted horizontal line at computed value.
v. if the size of sample is 6 or less, the lower control limit for R is zero.

Points outside the control limits are indicated with cross on the X chart, and the points outside the
limits on R chart by a circle
Control Chart for Attributes
1. Control Chart for Fraction Defectives (P- Chart)
Fraction defective may be defined as the ratio of the number of defective articles in any
inspection to the total number of articles actually inspected.
i. Take adequate number of samples.
ii. Find number of defective pieces found
iii. Calculate fraction defective
d
P = ---------------
n
iv. Calculate P (1-P)
U C L of P = P+ 3 ----------
n
CL=P

P (1-P)
L C L of P = P + 3 -------------
n

2. C- Chart (Number of Defects per Unit)

In number of cases it is more convenient to work with number of defects per unit rather than
fraction defective. For example number of defects in a bus body , air plane , TV set, etc.
C- chart deals with the defects in the piece or unit of product manufactured.
i. Samples are taken at regular intervals
ii. It may be a length(wire) , or an area( piece of cloth)
iii. Number of defects are counted
iv. Calculate C.

Total number of defects in all samples

C = ------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of samples observed

U C L of C = C + 3 C

CL= C

L C L of C = C + 3 C

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

DEFINITION OF TQM
Total quality management (TQM) is defined as a philosophy designed to make an organization
faster, flexible, focused and friendly. It creates an environment that allows organization wide
participation in planning and implementing a continuous improvement process to meet customer
needs.

The total quality management is a total approach to put quality in every aspect of management.
TQM is basically a business philosophy founded on customer satisfaction. That means low cost,
high quality and speed drive all processes.

This is defined as fitness for use or purpose.

TQM is defined as a total organization working as a team to meet the customer needs and
expectation by using systematic approach to continuous improvement.
TQM is a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organization in order to meet the
needs of customer consistently and to achieve continuous improvement in every aspect of the
organization activities.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TQM

The following characteristics of TQM :

1. TQM is a customer oriented.

2. TQM required a long term commitment for continuous improvement of all processes.
3. TQM is a teamwork.
4. TQM requires the leadership of top management and continuous involvement.
5. TQM is a strategy for continuous improving performance at all levels and in all areas of
responsibility.
6. BASIC CONCEPTS OF TQM

7. A successful TQM programme requires the following six basic concepts.

8. 1. Top Management Commitment: Top management should participate and completely

involve in the total quality programme. They should ensure their complete commitment to
the approach through management meetings, company magazines or newsletters. Also,
top management should make sure that everybody within the organization from top to
bottom is communicated about the TQM programme.

9. 2. Focus on the customer : Achieving customer satisfaction is the heart of TQM.

Customers include both internal and external customers. So focus on the customer is the
key for any TQM programme.

10. 3. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force: This concept is
sometimes referred as ‘principle of employees involvement’ or ‘respect for people’. TQM
is a team work. Total quality recognizes that each person is responsible for the quality of
his work and for the work of the group. All persons must be trained in TQM, Statistical
Process Control (SPC), and other appropriate quality improvement skills so that they can
effectively participate on quality teams.

11. 4. Continuous improvement:: TQM is based on the quest for progress and improvement.
TQM believes that there is always a better way of doing things, way to make better use of
the company’s total quality resources, a way to be more productive. For this purpose
various quality tools and techniques may be used.

12. 5. Treating suppliers as partners: Since the suppliers influence the company’s quality,
therefore a partnering relationship should be developed between the management and the
suppliers.

13. 6. Establishing performance measures for the processes: As we know, quantitative data
are necessary to measure the continuous quality improvement activity. Therefore
performance measures such as uptime, productivity, sales turnover, absenteeism, percent
non- conforming, customer satisfaction, etc., should be determined for each functional
area. These results can be used for further improvement activities.
PRINCIPLES OF TQM

The important underlying principles of TQM are as follows:

1. Customers’ requirements must be met the first time, every time.

2. There must be agreed requirements, for both internal and external customers.
3. Everybody must be involved, from all levels and across all functions.
4. Regular communication (both formally and informally) with staff at all levels is must.
Two way communication at all levels must be promoted.
5. Identifying training needs and relating them with individual capabilities and requirements
is must.
6. Top management’s participation and commitment is must.
7. A culture of continuous improvement must be established.
8. Emphasis should be placed on purchasing and supplier management.
9. Every job must add value.
10. Quality improvement must eliminate wastes and reduce total cost.
11. There must be a focus on the prevention of problems.
12. A culture of promoting creativity must be established.
13. Performance measures is a must at organization, department and individual levels. It helps
to assess and meet objectives of quality.
14. There should be focus on team work.

STAGES IN TQM IMPLEMENTATION

The various stages in an organization during TQM implementation are:
1. Unhealthy situation
2. No relaxing situation
3. Common goal or same vision situation
4. Team work situation

Stages of development during TQM Implementation

Description of various stages
1 Unhealthy situation
This is the stage in which only few people (four) are constantly working as shown by arrows.
The other people (six) shown by dots are doing very minimal work, i.e., relaxing. This is
unhealthy situation for an organization.
2. No relaxing situation
Under this situation, there is no dot in the fig., i.e., no person is relaxing. The persons (ten)
shown by arrows are focused in different directions. This shows that there is no single focus for
the organization. Every people is working in his own way.
3. Common goal or same vision situation
As shown in the figure, all the arrows are pointing towards the same direction, i.e., all people are
working in the same direction. Therefore, all have a common goal or vision for the organization.
This is a better situation in comparison to two previous situations.
4. Team work situation
it is obvious from the figure, that the number of arrows in the same direction is increased. This
does not mean that the number of people (10) is increased but the increase is due to the fact that
effect of ten people working towards a common goal has increased. This shows a team work. It
is important to mention here that the people working as group. The team work situation shows a
tremendous increase in productivity. In other words, we can say that with input remaining the
same, the output is tremendously increased.
Implementation of TQM strategies will be effective only when the organization is in a stage 4.
So, every organization should aim to reach stage 4 at the earliest.

Key factors for stage wise Improvement

When the employees are empowered, it can be best assured that stage 2 is reached.
If the organization is in stage 2, then for movement to reach stage 3 requires a common vision. In
order to reach stage 4 from stage 3, one has to work towards teaming up the people.
Goals of TQM
1. The primary goal of TQM is total customer satisfactions so that they become loyal and long
term customers.
2. The second goal of TQM is to ensure that the product or service is delivered correctly at the
first attempt. This can be achieved by designing quality into the product or service which will
prevent defects till it reaches the customer.
TQM Process
The TQM involves the following processes:
1. Customer satisfaction.
2. Processes.
3. Continuous Improvement
4. Team work.
5. Personal Initiative

The various TQM process can be represented graphically as shown in Fig.

1. Customer Satisfaction
Customer is the buyer of goods and services and dictates production or market. The long term
success of any business therefore, depends on customer satisfaction. Losing of a customer can
be serious especially for small business.
There are two types of customers for any business:
1. External Customers are the end user of the pro0duct or service.
2. Internal Customers are the individuals or departments within an organization who receive
products and services from another department for further processing.
The customer requirements can be understood by following the steps listed below:
1. Document the results of the work performed.
2. Identify every customer who receives the output.
3. Pinpoint exactly the characteristics of the want, requirement or expectation of the
customer.
4. Verify output requirements, determine importance of requirements and understand
present level of satisfaction.

2. Processes
Processes are the tasks required to transform input into outputs. These are all tasks performed in
an organization.
For example, processes are performed in various departments such as administration, accounting,
sales maintenance, recruitment, training, etc. all processes should be properly defined.
The process can be defined by taking the following steps.
1. List team outputs and document the results of the work performed.
2. Group similar outputs and create an outline of the process.
3. Designate the process for easy reference.
4. Define the boundaries of the process as beginning and ending points.
5. List process activities and provide example of tasks involved.
6. Identify inputs and determine the resources required.

3. Continuous Improvement in Processes

The continuous improvement in the performance of processes can be achieved as follows.
i. Elimination of Waste: A process can be improved by elimination of waste
associated with the process.
ii. Process Simplification
Simplification leads to fewer activities and fewer mistakes. It is easier to learn and perform a
simpler process continuously.
iii. Reduction of Cycle Time
Cycle time is the time required to deliver a product or service to a customer. It includes
processing time, checking time and delivery time. Reduction in cycle time helps prompt
deliveries to customer and reduction in costs.
4. Team Work
A team is a group of individuals who work together on one or more common processes. The
team members may be from same department, several departments, external supplier or
customer. Effective team work depends on consensus. It is a general agreement by everyone
involved and understands a decision, accept and support it.
5. Personal Initiative
TQM process encourages personal initiative in the functioning of the organization. The
employees should be trained in the concepts and techniques of TQM process. The training helps
employees to manage the process for which they are responsible for performing.
This leads to collective organizational success.

IMPLEMENTATION OF T.Q.M.

Implementation of TQM requires a total change in organizational culture, shifting of

responsibility to management and continuous participation of all in quality improvement process.
W. E. Deming, father of TQM, has suggested Plan –Do- Check-Act cycle for the
implementation of TQM in any organization. The various steps in PDCA cycle are as shown in
Fig.

PLAN DO

1. Policies and objectives 3.Education and training

2. Methods to achieve objective 4. Implementation of change

ACT CHECK

7. prevent undesired effects 5. Observe results

8. Measures for improvement 6. Analyse results
 Steps in TQM process

Deming defines quality in terms of quality of design, quality of conformance and quality of the
sales and service functions. Table summarizes his 14 principles on route to quality.

DEMING’S 14 POINTS ON ROUTE TO QUALITY

1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to
become competitive and to stay in business, and to provide jobs.

2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must
awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for
change.

3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a
mass basis by building quality into the product in the first place.

4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize total
cost. Move toward a single supplier for any one item, on a long-term relationship of
loyalty and trust.

5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality
and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.

6. Institute training on the job.

7. Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people and machines and
gadgets to do a better job. Supervision of management is in need of overhaul, as well as
supervision of production workers.

8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.

9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and
production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may
be encountered with the product or service.

10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force which ask for zero defects
and new levels of productivity. Such exhortations only create adversarial relationships,
since the bulk of the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system
and thus lie beyond the power of the workforce.
11. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership. Eliminate
management by objectives. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals,
substitute leadership.

12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be

changed from sheer numbers to quality. Remove barriers that rob people in
management and in engineering of their right to pride of workmanship. This means, for
example, abolishment of annual or merit rating and of management by objectives.

13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.

14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The
transformation is everyone’s job.

Different Views of Quality

1. From the user’s point of view, quality is an expression of the products / services
usefulness in meeting the needs and expectations and its reliability, safety, durability and
so on.
2. From the production point of view, the quality of a product is measured by the quality of
its performance which depends on the quality of design and the quality of conformance.

Benefits of TQM
(A) Advantages unique to TQM
1. It makes company a leader not follower.

2. TQM creates goal directed connection between customers, management, and workers.
Every one is motivated to contribute. It thus fosters effective team work.

3. It makes the company more sensitive to customer needs.

4. It makes the company adopt more readily to change.

(B) Benefits to customers

1. Fewer problems with the product or service.

2. Better customer care.

3. Greater satisfaction.
(C) Benefits for the company
1. Better product quality.
2. Staff are more motivated and quality-conscious.
3. Productivity improvement.
4. Reduced quality costs.
5. Enhanced problem solving capacity.
6. Increased market.
7. Increased competitive position of the firm, improved profitability.
8. Good public image of the enterprise by helping it to provide goods and services of higher
quality at lower cost to the society.
9. Improvement in human relations and work area morale.
(D) Benefits to staff
1. Empowerment.
2. Enhancement of job interest and security.
3. More training and improvement in skills.
4. More recognition.
5. Reduced employee grievances.

Six Sigma

Six Sigma is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced
by engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986. Jack Welch made it central to
his business strategy at General Electric in 1995. Today, it is used in many industrial
sectors.

Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of the output of a process by identifying and
removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and
business processes. It uses a set of quality management methods,
mainly empirical, statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within
the organization, who are experts in these methods. Each Six Sigma project carried out
within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has specific value
targets, for example: reduce process cycle time, reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase
customer satisfaction, and increase profits.

The term Six Sigma originated from terminology associated with statistical modeling of
manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by
a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A
six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some
feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects (3.4 defective features per
million opportunities). Motorola set a goal of "six sigma" for all of its manufacturing
operations, and this goal became a by-word for the management and engineering
practices used to achieve it.

Six Sigma doctrine asserts:

 Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results (e.g. by

reducing process variation) are of vital importance to business success.
 Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be defined,
measured, analyzed, improved, and controlled.
 Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire
organization, particularly from top-level management.

Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality-improvement initiatives include:

 A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any
Six Sigma project.
 An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and
support.
 A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data and
statistical methods, rather than assumptions and guesswork.

The term "six sigma" comes from statistics and is used in statistical quality control, which
evaluates process capability. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing
processes to produce a very high proportion of output within specification. Processes
that operate with "six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-
term defect levels below 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma's
implicit goal is to improve all processes, but not to the 3.4 DPMO level necessarily.
Organizations need to determine an appropriate sigma level for each of their most
important processes and strive to achieve these. As a result of this goal, it is incumbent
on management of the organization to prioritize areas of improvement.

"Six Sigma" was registered June 11, 1991 as U.S. Service Mark 74,026,418. In 2005
Motorola attributed over US$17 billion in savings to Six Sigma.
Other early adopters of Six Sigma include Honeywell (today's Honeywell is the result of
a "merger of equals" of Honeywell and Allied Signal in 1999) and General Electric, where
Jack Welch introduced the method. By the late 1990s, about two-thirds of the Fortune
500 organizations had begun Six Sigma initiatives with the aim of reducing costs and
improving quality.

In recent years, some practitioners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean
manufacturing to create a methodology named Lean Six Sigma. The Lean Six Sigma
methodology views lean manufacturing, which addresses process flow and waste issues,
and Six Sigma, with its focus on variation and design, as complementary disciplines
aimed at promoting "business and operational excellence". Companies such as
GE,[11] Verizon, GENPACT, and IBM use Lean Six Sigma to focus transformation efforts
not just on efficiency but also on growth. It serves as a foundation for innovation
throughout the organization, from manufacturing and software development to sales and
service delivery functions.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published in 2011 the first
standard "ISO 13053:2011" defining a Six Sigma process. Other "standards" are created
mostly by universities or companies that have so-called first-party certification programs
for Six Sigma.

Defects level for 6 σ Scale

Sigma Level Defect Rate per million Yield in %

6σ 3.4 99.99966

5σ 233 99.9767

4σ 6210 99.3790

3σ 66807 93.3193

2σ 308537 69.1462

1σ 690000 ____
 SIX SIGMA PROCESS DIAGRAM

Methodologies

There are two Six Sigma processes: Six Sigma DMAIC and Six Sigma DMADV, each term
derived from the major steps in the process. Six Sigm

a DMAIC is a process that defines, measures, analyzes, improves, and controls existing processes
that fall below the Six Sigma specification. Six Sigma DMADV defines, measures, analyzes,
designs, and verifies new processes or products that are trying to achieve Six Sigma quality. All
Six Sigma processes are executed by Six Sigma Green Belts or Six Sigma Black Belts, which are
then overseen by a Six Sigma Master Black Belts, terms created by Motorola.

Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Deming's Plan-Do-
Check-Act Cycle. These methodologies, composed of five phases each, bear the
acronyms DMAIC and DMADV.[9]

 DMAIC ("duh-may-ick", /dʌ.ˈmeɪ.ɪk/) is used for projects aimed at improving an

existing business process.

 DMADV ("duh-mad-vee", /dʌ.ˈmæd.vi/) is used for projects aimed at creating

new product or process designs.

DMAIC
The DMAIC project methodology has five phases:

1. Define the system, the voice of the customer and their requirements, and the
project goals, specifically.
2. Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate
the 'as-is' Process Capability.
3. Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships.
Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have
been considered. Seek out root cause of the defect under investigation.
4. Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using
techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and
standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to
establish process capability.
5. Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from the target are
corrected before they result in defects. Implement control systems such
as statistical process control, production boards, visual workplaces, and
continuously monitor the process.

Some organizations add a Recognize step at the beginning, which is to recognize the
right problem to work on, thus yielding an RDMAIC methodology.[13]

DMADV or DFSS

The DMADV project methodology, known as DFSS ("Design For Six Sigma"),features
five phases:

1. Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the
enterprise strategy.
2. Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), measure
product capabilities, production process capability, and measure risks.
3. Analyze to develop and design alternatives
4. Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous step
 5. Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it
over to the process owner(s).

BENEFITS OF SIX SIGMA

Six Sigma proponents claim that its benefits include :
 up to 50% process cost reduction,

 Cycle-time improvement,

 Less waste of materials,

 A better understanding of customer requirements,

 Increased customer satisfaction, and

 More reliable products and services.

It is acknowledged that Six Sigma can be costly to implement and can take several years before a
company begins to see bottom-line results. Texas Instruments, Scientific-Atlanta, General
Electric, and Allied Signal are a few of the companies that practice Six Sigma.

QUALITY SYSTEMS

ISO 9000 - Benefits and Problems

ISO 9000 has received much publicity. Some managers see it as a prerequisite for conducting
business. For others, it substitutes for the difficulties and vagaries of Total Quality Management
(TQM). Some see only a needless bureaucratic boondoggle. Depending on the situation, any of
these views might be correct.

Sensibly applied, ISO 9000 is a qualifier for international markets or specific domestic customers.
Certification can be a valuable marketing tool. The standards are a sound blueprint for a quality
system. They can lead the way to the more difficult and sophisticated approaches of Total Quality
Management. ISO 9000 can improve a company's cost structure by 5%-20%.

Approached unwisely, ISO 9000 can be costly and unproductive. It may create a quality
bureaucracy which adds to the cost structure and slows product development. It can focus people
on paperwork instead of customers. It can divert management concentration and energy from
more vital issues.
What Is ISO 9000?

The ISO 9000 standards define minimum requirements for business quality assurance systems.
These are "consensus standards" promulgated by the International Standards Organization in
Europe and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in the United States. The ANSI
standards are officially titled the "Q90" series. They are identical to the ISO 9000 series and
people use the names interchangeably.

Conformance is voluntary. However, many European firms use them as a requirement for
suppliers. Within the United States, some firms also use the standards for supplier certification.

ISO 9000 (Q90) is a guideline for selection and use of quality system standards. It provides
insight for various situations and conditions as well as definitions and explanations.

ISO 9001 (Q91) defines minimum quality system requirements for design/development,
production, installation and servicing. It is the most complete standard. It applies to
manufacturing and service businesses engaged in all these activities.

ISO 9002 (Q92) is essentially a subset of 9001. It applies only to production and installation
activities.

ISO 9003 (Q93) applies to final inspection and test.

ISO 9004 (Q94) is a guideline for quality system elements. It is like a textbook which describes,
explains and recommends.

Requirements

The standards use proven management principles:

Policy Definition
Clear Responsibility & Authority
Appropriate Documentation
Corrective Action
Capable People & Equipment
Adequate Resources
Who Should Use ISO?

Any firm whose customers make their buying decisions on quality issues should consider using
these standards. Firms whose customers require conformance and certification as a qualifier will
need a certificate of conformance from an approved Assessor.

Firms who perceive quality as a marketing tool may obtain certification as part of their marketing
strategy.

In markets where quality is not a dominant issue firms may use the standards as a guide, but not
attempt certification.

Firms may use the standards for their own suppliers requiring certification as a condition of doing
business.

Implementation
An important implementation issue is speed. Most firms require 18 months or longer to achieve
certification. Another issue is the current state of quality. Those with severe quality problems may
need a maximum effort.
Is certification necessary for your firm? Is the need urgent enough for a maximum effort? Or
should the standards be used internally for their intrinsic value?

ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
The performance of acceptance sampling depends on the method of selecting the sample and the
acceptance level of defectives. There are a number of sampling schemes known as sampling
plans. Their choice depends upon the nature of the manufacturing system and the degree of
consumer and producer risks which one wants to cover. The sampling schemes are:
(i) Single sampling plan

(ii) Double sampling plan

(iii) Sequential sampling plan.

(i) Single Sampling Plan:

Here, a single sample of size n is drawn from a lot of size N, and the lot is accepted if the number
of defectives in the lot (d) is less than the specification (c) i.e.

A sample of size n is drawn and the items of the sample are inspected. Let the number of
defectives in the sample be d. If.

(a) d < c, the lot is accepted and the defective items i.e. d are replaced.
(b) d> c, the lot is rejected and then the entire lot is inspected and the defective items are replaced.

It is evident that single sampling plan is simple to understand and easy to execute. Moreover, the
information from each sample can be represented by a control chart.

ii) Double Sampling Plan:

This type of scheme is more economical than single sampling scheme when the quality of
incoming goods is high. Here sample is drawn in two stages. The second sample is drawn only
when clear cut decision cannot be drawn from the first sample. Let c1 and c2 be the specified
defectives in first and second samples respectively. The following are the steps in the method:
Draw a sample of size n1 from the lot. Inspect the items of the sample and let d\ be the number of
defective items. If d1 < c1, the lot is accepted after replacing the d1 defective items. d1 < C2, the
lot is rejected and all the items of the lot are inspected and defectives replaced. c\<d\< go to step
(b).
Take another sample of size n<± and let the number of defective items in the second sample be
d2. Thus, the total number of defective items in a sample of size + n2 from the lot will be d = d1 +
If d < c1, accept the lot after replacing d defective items.
d > C2, reject the lot. All the items of the lot are inspected and defectives replaced.
Double sampling plan provides another opportunity for the rejected lot of the first sample,
reducing the possibility of 100% inspection of the lot. It is experienced that lots with border line
defective items have a better opportunity of being accepted in double sampling scheme. But the
per unit inspection cost in double sampling is found to be higher than that in single sampling
scheme.

(iii) Sequential Sampling Plan:

This plan is simply an extension of double sampling plan. At each stage of sampling, the
cumulated results are analyzed to take a decision of accepting or rejecting a lot. If at any stage no
final decision can be taken, then another sample is drawn to take further decision. The scheme
helps in reducing the size of inspection to maintain a given level of protection.

The preference of any sampling scheme mainly depends on the degree of accuracy desired by the
organization as well as the resources available for inspection.

It is evident that acceptance sampling provides economy in inspection with fairly good chance of
maintaining the desired quality standards.