Stone as a Building Material

(With Focus on Indian Building Stone)

By Mr Abhishek Chandaliya (chandaliya.abhishek@gmail.com)

Edited by Mr Jim Mann – Stone Initiatives

1. Introduction

Stone is the one of the major building materials. It is a versatile material and hence it can be used from the

foundation to the parapet in a building and hence the scope comprises the study of use of different stones at

these places.

2. Introduction to Rocks

Rock (mineral), naturally occurring solid material consisting of one or more minerals. Minerals are solid,

naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds that are homogenous, meaning they have a definite

chemical composition and a very regular arrangement of atoms. Rocks are everywhere, in the ground,

forming mountains, and at the bottom of the oceans. Earth’s outer layer, or crust, is made mostly of ro

ck. Some common rocks include granite and basalt.

Natural stone is used in building as a facing, veneer, and decoration. The major factors affecting the s

uitability and use of stone fall under two broad, but overlapping categories: physical and structural prope

rties and aesthetic qualities. The three factors of building stone that most influence their selection by ar

chitects for aesthetic reasons are pattern, texture, and colour. Consideration also should be given to cos

ts, availability, weathering characteristics, physical properties, and size and thickness limitations.

Stone patterns are highly varied, and they provide special features that make building stone a unique m

aterial. Texture is varied, ranging from coarse fragments to fine grains and crystalline structures. Texture

also varies with the hardness of minerals composing the stone.

Pattern, texture, and colour all are affected by how the stone is fabricated and finished. Granites tend t

o hold their colour and pattern, while limestone colour and pattern changes with exposure. Textures ma

y range from rough and flamed finishes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder the stone, the better

it takes and holds a polish.

2.1 India’s Glorious Tradition

India's long history, dating back to 3200

B.C. has been influenced considerably by the disposition, development and use of stones and other con

struction materials. Dimension stones have also left deep imprints on the architectural heritage of the co

untry. Innumerable temples, forts and palaces of Ancient Indian Civilization have been carved out of loc

ally available stones. The Taj Mahal at Agra stands testimony to the age defying beauty of Indian marb
le. Some of the ancient rocks cut wonders are Khajuraho Temple, Elephanta Caves, Konark Temple, et

c. Besides, all major archaeological excavations have revealed exquisitely carved statuettes and carvings

in Stone. Ancient Buddhist monuments like the Sanchi Stupa of 3rd century BC have also been carve

d out of stone.

This tradition of Stone Architecture has continued to the present era with most of the important modern

buildings in India like the Presidential House, Parliament House and Supreme Court made from high qu

ality sandstone of Rajasthan. The Lotus Temple of New Delhi stands testimony to the relevance of mar

ble in modern Indian architecture.

Stones are still the mainstays of civil construction in India, with stones being used extensively in public

buildings, hotels, temples etc. It is increasingly being used in homes, with the use of stones now penet

rating amongst the burgeoning middle class of India.

GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

1. Igneous Rocks

2. Sedimentary Rocks

3. Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are rocks formed from a molten or partly molten material called magma. Magma forms d

eep underground when rock that was once solid melts. Overlying rock presses down on the magma, an

d the less dense magma rises through cracks in the rock. As magma moves upward, it cools and

solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground usually cools slowly, allowing large crystals to form. Magma

that reaches Earth’s surface is called

lava. Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly, form

ing very small crystals or glass. When lava erupts at the surface again and again, it can form mountai

ns called volcanoes.

Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. I

gneous rocks are named according to which minerals they

contain. Rocks rich in feldspar and quartz are called felsic; rocks rich in pyroxene, amphibole, and olivi

ne, which all contain magnesium and iron, are called mafic. Common and important igneous rocks are

granite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt. Granite and rhyolite are felsic; gabbro and basalt are mafic. Granite has

large crystals of quartz and feldspar. Rhyolite is the small-grained equivalent of granite. Gabbro has large

crystals of pyroxene and olivine. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock.
Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rock forms when loose sediment, or rock fragments, hardens. Geologists place sedimentary rocks

into three broad categories:

1) clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or broken fragments, of pre-existing rocks and minerals

2) chemical rocks, which form when minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a solution, usually seawater

or lake water; and

3) organic rocks, which form from accumulations of animal and plant remains. It is common for sedi

mentary rocks to contain all three types of sediment. Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks becau

se the processes that form igneous and metamorphic rocks prevent fossilization or would likely destroy f

ossils.

The most common types of clastic rocks are sandstone and shale (also known as mudrock). Sandstone

is made from sand, and shale is made from mud. Sand particles have diameters in the range 2.0 to

0.06 mm (0.08 to 0.002 in), while mud particles are smaller than 0.06 mm (0.002 in). Sand and mud f

orm when physical or chemical processes break down and destroy existing rocks. The sand and mud a

re carried by wind, rivers, ocean currents, and glaciers, which deposit the sediment when the wind or

water slows down or where the glacier ends. Sand usually forms dunes in deserts, or sandbars, riverbe

ds, beaches, and near-

shore marine deposits. Mud particles are smaller than sand particles, so they tend to stay in the wind

or water longer and are deposited only in very still environments, such as lake beds and the ocean flo

or.

Sedimentary rock forms when layers of sand and mud

accumulate. As the sediment accumulates, the weight of the layers of sediment presses down and com

pacts the layers underneath. The sediments become cemented together into a hard rock when minerals

(most commonly quartz or calcite) precipitate, or harden, from water in the spaces between grains of se

diment, binding the grains together. Sediment is usually deposited in layers, and compaction and cemen

tation preserve these layers, called beds, in the resulting sedimentary rock.

The most common types of chemical rocks are called evaporates because they form by evaporation of

seawater or lake water. The elements dissolved in the water crystallize to form minerals such as gypsu

m and halite. Gypsum is used to manufacture plaster and wallboard; halite is used as table salt.

The most common organic rock is

limestone. Many marine animals, such as corals and shellfish, have skeletons or shells made of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3). When these animals die, their skeletons sink to the seafloor and accumulate to fo
rm large beds of calcium carbonate. As more and more layers form, their weight compresses and ceme

nts the layers at the bottom, forming limestone. Details of the skeletons and shells are often preserved

in the limestone as fossils.

Coal is another common organic

rock. Coal comes from the carbon compounds of plants growing in swampy environments. Plant material

falling into the muck at the bottom of the swamp is protected from decay. Burial and compaction of th

e accumulating plant material can produce coal, an important fuel in many parts of the world. Coal

deposits frequently contain plant fossils.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rock forms when pre-

existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural changes resulting from high temperatures and press

ures. These changes occur in the rock while it remains solid (without melting).

The changes can occur while the rock is still solid because each mineral is stable only over a specific

range of temperature and pressure. If a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its stability range, it b

reaks down and forms another mineral. For example, quartz is stable at room temperature and at press

ures up to 2 Gigapascals (corresponding to the pressure found about 65 km [about 40 mi] underground

). At pressures above 2 Gigapascals, quartz breaks down and forms the mineral coesite, in which the s

ilicon and oxygen atoms are packed more closely together.

In the same way, combinations of minerals are stable over specific ranges of temperature and pressure.

At temperatures and pressures outside the specific ranges, the minerals react to form different combina

tions of minerals. Such combinations of minerals are called mineral assemblages.

In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when its atoms move about in the

solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one mineral assemblage to another i

s called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the rock gains energy, which fuels the c

hemical reactions that cause metamorphism. As temperature and pressure decrease, the rock cools; ofte

n, it does not have enough energy to change back to a low-temperature and low-

pressure mineral assemblage. In a sense, the rock is stuck in a state that is characteristic of its earlier

high-temperature and high-

pressure environment. Thus, metamorphic rocks carry with them information about the history of tempera

tures and pressures to which they were subjected.

The size, shape, and distribution of mineral grains in a rock are called the texture of the rock. Many

metamorphic rocks are named for their main texture. Textures give important clues as to how the rock
formed. As the pressure and temperature that form a metamorphic rock increase, the size of the miner

al grains usually increases. When the pressure is equal in all directions, mineral grains form in random

orientations and point in all directions. When the pressure is stronger in one direction than another, min

erals tend to align themselves in particular directions. In particular, thin plate-

shaped minerals, such as mica, align perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure, giving rise to

a layering in the rock that is known as foliation. Compositional layering, or bands of different minerals,

can also occur and cause foliation. At low pressure, foliation forms fine, thin layers, as in the rock slat

e. At medium pressure, foliation becomes coarser, forming schist. At high pressure, foliation is very coarse,

forming gneiss. Commonly, the layering is folded in complex, wavy patterns from the pressure.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF STONES

Igneous Rocks

2.3.1. Granite -

Granite is an igneous rock, ordinarily composed of feldspar, mica, and silica or quartz. It is formed by t

he cooling and crystallization of matter below the earth's surface under conditions of heat and pressure

which do not obtain in the case of lava ejected on the surface in a molten state. It is found in the ea

stern part of the United States, in Canada, in many sections of the Rocky Mountains and as a rule,

wherever the later rock formations have been worn away by the weather, and the igneous rock has be

en exposed.

2.3.1.1 Planes of Fracture -

The structure of granite is quite uniform, but there are often planes of cleavage caused by stresses pro

duced while the molten material was cooling. The plane along which the rock can be split most easily i

s known as rift; it is often nearly horizontal. Rock can also be split along a plane, known as the grain,

which is perpendicular to the rift, but this cleavage is not so easy as that along the rift. Sometimes, t

he stresses are sufficient to cause fractures, called joints, running parallel to the surface.

2.3.1.2 Qualities of Granite -

Granite is one of the most valuable stones for construction purposes. Although the quality of granite var

ies according to the proportions of the constituents and to their method of aggregation, this kind of ston

e is generally durable, strong, and hard. The hardest and most durable granites contain a greater propo

rtion of quartz and a smaller proportion of feldspar and mica. Feldspar makes granite more susceptible

to decomposition by the solution potash contained in it, potash feldspar being less durable than lime or

soda feldspar. Mica, being easily decomposed, is an element of weakness in granite. An excess of lime
 or soda in the mica or feldspar hastens disintegration, as does also an excess of iron. Therefore, ston

es showing large and dark iron stains should be rejected for outside work. Fine-grained granite weathers

better than does granite of coarser grain.

Granite has a pearly

lustre. The colour of common granite varies from white through yellow to deep red, and the stone is g

enerally classified as gray and red. Feldspar renders the stone lighter in colour.

Because of its uniform structure, granite can be quarried in large blocks. The rift, the grain, and the joi

nt planes are advantageous in quarrying, as it is very difficult to cut granite in other places. The uses f

or which granite is suitable depend on the texture of the stone. Medium-grained stone is best fitted for

building construction. Fine-

grained stone can be carved and polished, but, on account of its extreme hardness, it cannot be worke

d readily. Such stone is, therefore, costly when it has to be cut, Coarse-

grained granite should be used only for concrete aggregate.

2.3.2 Trap Rocks -

The term trap is generally applied to a large variety of dark-

coloured, igneous, unstratified rock~ that occur in large tabular masses rising one above another in suc

cessive steps like stairs. These rocks consist chiefly of hornblende, lime, feldspar, and augite, with som

e magnetic and titanic iron. The predominance of one or the other of these minerals gives rise to man

y distinctive names, as greenstone, olivine, etc. The colour varies, being dark gray, dark green, or nearl

y black, according to the proportions of the different constituents. The texture is usually so fine and clo

se-grained that the character of the structure cannot be determined by the naked eye.

Trap rocks are exceedingly dense, hard, and

durable. However, they are not much used for structural purposes because of their sombre and unattrac

tive appearance, the great cost of working, and the difficulty of securing large blocks on account of the

numerous joint planes. As they split and break easily, trap rocks are extensively used for paving blocks,

for the aggregate in making concrete, and for the construction of macadamized roads, for which purpo

se their fine texture especially fits them. They are also used for railroad ballast.

Sedimentary Rocks

2.3.4 Sandstone -

Sandstone consists of fragments of other rocks cemented

together. It is a stratified rock and belongs to the later geological periods. Most of the grains are quart
z, but often feldspar is also present in sandstone. The cementing material may be silica, oxide of iron,

clay, or carbonate of lime.

If the cementing material is silica, the rock is very durable, but difficult to work. Iron oxide is a good c

ementing material and gives the stone a reddish or brownish colour. Clay is a satisfactory binder, but it

readily absorbs water, which may cause destruction of the stone by freezing. Lime renders the stone

particularly liable to disintegration when exposed to an atmosphere containing gases, or when used for f

oundations in a soil that contains acid.

2.3.5 Sandstones -

Are variable in character, some being nearly as valuable as granite and others being practically useless

for permanent construction. The best stone is characterized by small grains with a small proportion of c

ementing material. When broken, it has a bright, clear, sharp

fracture. It is usually found in thick beds and shows slight evidences of stratification.

When quarried, sandstones are usually saturated with quarry water and are very soft; but on exposure t

o the air, they dry out and become hard. Water can readily penetrate between the layers of this stone;

therefore, in foundations it should be laid on its natural bed, that is, in the same position that it occup

ied in the quarry, so that the penetration of moisture and possible disintegration by freezing may be pr

evented as much as possible.

The colours of sandstone are white, cream, yellow, dark brown, blue, and red. Fine-grained blue

sandstone is known as

bluestone. This variety is widely used for trimmings and for stone sidewalks, as it readily splits into sla

bs.

2.3.6 Limestone -

All limestones are of sedimentary origin and have for their principal ingredient carbonate of lime. The pr

esence of other minerals gives rise to the division of the limestones into five classes, each of which is

designated by the name of the predominating mineral. When clay is present, the stone is called argillac

eous limestone; when silica predominates, siliceous limestone; when iron is prevalent, ferruginous limesto

ne; when magnesia is present to the extent of 15 per cent, magnesium limestone; and when the carbo

nate of lime and the carbonate of magnesia are combined in equal proportions, dolomite limestone. Lim

estones are either granular or compact.

2.3.7 Granular limestone -

Consists of grains of carbonate of lime, cemented together by some compound of lime, silica, and alum

ina. The grains are generally sea shells or fragments of shells and are often mixed with sand. This kind
of stone is always

porous. It is found in various colours, especially white and yellowish brown. In many cases, it is so soft

when first quarried that it can be cut with a knife; it hardens, however, on exposure to the air.

The variety of granular limestone called oolitic limestone is composed of egg-

shaped grains cemented together. It is one of the most important of the limestone group and is extensi

vely quarried and widely used for building purposes. Each grain is usually of concentric structure, the c

arbonate of lime enclosing a particle of sand or of some substance of either animal or vegetable origin.

2.3.8 Compact limestone -

Consists of carbonate of lime, either pure or mixed with sand or clay. This kind of limestone is generall

y devoid of crystalline structure, and has a dull, earthy appearance and a dark-

blue, gray, black, or mottled colour. In some cases, however, it is crystalline and full of organic remains

; it is then known as crystalline limestone.

The compact limestones are easily worked with the saw and hammer. They resemble light granite in ap

pearance, and are extensively used for building purposes. The variety called shelly limestone, which con

sists of fossil shells that are cemented together, is sufficiently hard to take a polish; it is much used fo

r interior ornamentation. The condition of the minerals combined with the lime also furnishes a basis for

distinguishing names. Thus, the stone is called hornstone when very fine grained silica is present; cher

ty limestone, when the silica is in the form of rounded masses or nodules; ironstone, when the amount

of iron and clay is greater than the amount of lime; rottenstone, when the ironstone is decomposed; an

d hydraulic limestone, when the rock contains silica and clay in nearly equal proportions.

2.3.9 Shale -

Shale is a typical clay rock that splits readily in lines parallel to the bedding. Sand and lime carbonate

are always present in this stone and, with increase of either, the rock grades into shaly sandstone or s

haly limestone. Shale is used for light traffic roads and in the manufacture of brick, tile, and other burn

ed clay products, but it is not suitable for concrete aggregate.

2.3.10 Conglomerate -

Stratified rock composed of rounded pebbles of any material, such as limestone, quartz, shale, granite g

rains, feldspar, etc., cemented together is known as conglomerate. When the pebbles are quartz with sil

iceous binding the rock is strong and hard to quarry or dress. When the interstices between the pebble

s are not filled by the binder, the rock is very porous, and may hold great amounts of ground water. T

his stone is seldom used in building construction.

Metamorphic Rocks

2.3.11 Marble -

Metamorphosed limestone gives the masonry material known as

marble. It is easily dressed to a smooth surface and polished, and is considered one of the most valua

ble building materials. It resists frost and moisture well, but like all limestones it does not withstand fire.

Marble can be obtained in many colours, some of which are white, gray, red, blue, green, and black.

One of the most important characteristics of marble is that it is easy to carve; the finer the grains of t

he stone, the more suitable it is for this purpose. The fine white-

grained varieties that are especially prized for sculpture are called saccharoid marbles.

Some of the finest varieties of white American marble are found at Lee, Massachusetts, and in the vici

nity of Rutland, Vermont. The dark-

blue marble from the Vermont quarries is very durable and has a close grain. A fine black marble is q

uarried at Glens Falls, New York. Coloured marbles, including gray, light and dark pink, buff, chocolate,

etc., are found in Tennessee, Georgia, and other states.

2.3.12 Slate -

Slate is a laminated rock of great hardness and density. It splits readily along planes called planes of slaty

cleavage. This facility of cleavage is one of the most valuable characteristics of slate, as masses can b

e split into slabs and plates of small thickness and great area.

The most common colours of slat are dark blue, bluish black, purplish gray, bluish gray, and green; oc

casionally, red and cream-

colored slates are also found. Some slates are marked with bands or patches whose colour is different

from that of the rest of the stone. These marks do not affect the durability of the slate, but they spoil

its appearance.

Although slate is not strictly a building stone, it is used extensively for covering steps and the roofs of

buildings, for wall linings, and for sanitary purposes. Slate is sometimes used to make light traffic maca

dam, but, although it packs well, it ultimately yields much mud and dust, which are objectionable.

2.3.13 Schist -

Schist has a more crystalline structure than slate, and the crystals are easily seen. It is composed chie

fly of minerals that cleave readily, such as hornblende, mica, etc., mixed with a variable amount of gra

nular quartz and feldspar. The presence of the cleavage minerals produces a fine cleavage or foliation,

called schistosity.
Schist is sometimes used in building construction but it disintegrates very rapidly and is not durable. It

should always be set with the planes of schistosity horizontal.

2.3.14 Gneiss -

Gneiss is a coarse-

grained, laminated rock, formed by metamorphism of either sedimentary or igneous rock. It is often use

d as structural material and as concrete aggregate.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STONE

The physical characteristics of a particular stone must be suitable for its intended use. It is important to

determine the physical properties of the actual stone being used rather than using values from a gene

ric table, which can be very misleading. Considerations of the physical properties of the stone being sel

ected include modulus of rupture, shear strength, coefficient of expansion, permanent irreversible growth

and change in shape, creep deflection, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, moisture resistance,

and weatherability. Epoxy adhesives, often used with stone, are affected by cleanliness of surfaces to b

e bonded and ambient temperature. Curing time increases with cold temperatures and decreases with w

armer temperatures.

Fabrication and Installation

With the introduction of new systems of fabrication and installation and recent developments in the desi

gn and detailing of stone cutting, support, and anchorage, costs are better controlled. Correct design of

joints, selection of mortars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durability of installation. Adequate

design and detailing of the anchorage of each piece of stone are required. The size and thickness of t

he stone should be established based on physical properties of the stone, its method of anchorage, an

d the loads it must resist. Appropriate safety factors should be developed based on the variability of th

e stone properties as well as other considerations such as imperfect workmanship, method of support a

nd anchorage, and degree of exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for stone support a

nd anchorage may be necessary to preclude unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be p

rotected from staining and breakage during shipment, delivery, and installation.

Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type of stone and installation, the designer should c

onsult stone suppliers, stone-

setting specialty contractors, industry standards (such as ASTM), and other publications to help select a

nd implement a stone cladding system.

Stone Classified According To Quality Affecting Use

We can find out the properties and use of different types of stones depending upon the texture, specia

l features, parting and hardness for use in building. This can be seen as under the table 5.1

Stone Bedding

Fig 5.1 Stone Bedding according to fracture

Table 5.1 Stone Classified According To Quality Affecting Use

Table 5.2 Physical Properties of Representative Stones

Weight of Different Materials

Table 5.3 Weight of different materials

Table 5.4 Weight of different materials

PROPERTIES OF SOME IMPORTANT STONES OF RAJASTHAN

Sandstones

The Lower Blander sandstone is usually medium to fine grained, purple, reddish-

brown in colour with pale white bands and is compact, massive and having quadrangular joints. The Up
per Blander sandstone is reddish-brown in colour with cream spots. Jhalarapatan sandstone is fine-

grained, hard, compact and of different colours such as white to buff-

grey, red, cream and is acid proof. Jodhpur sandstone is coarse to medium grained, red and buff white

in colour. Khatu sandstone is fine grained, creamish-

white in colour and is specially famous for carving and used for making fine, perforated windows and ja

llies. The physical & chemical properties of Rajasthan sandstone are given in table 5.5 and table 5.6

Table 5.5 Technical Information of different Sandstones

Properties Jodhpur Karauli Dholpur Bijoliyan

Density (Kg/m 3) 2.42 2.38 2.40 2.44

Water Absorption (%) 1.25 1.20 1.20 1.20

Modulus of Rupture 220 210 208 204

(Kg/cm 3)

Compressive Strength 390 358 460 750

( Kg/cm 3)

Colour Red, Pink, Buff, Brown

Table 5.6 Chemical Properties of different Sandstones

Properties Area

Percentage Jodhpur Karauli Dholpur Bijoliyan

SiO2 96.60 96.20 98.20 97.24

Fe2O3 1.20 0.80 0.84 0.96

Al2O3 1.00 1.20 0.32 0.84

CaO 0.28 0.40 0.28 0.28

MgO 0.20 0.20 Nil Nil

L.O.I. 0.50 0.60 0.20 0.20

Marble

Table 5.7 Technical Information of different Marbles

Technical Information of Marble

Technical Details Water Absorption, % by weight Density, bulk specific gravity Modulus of rupture, N/mm2 Compressive
ASTM/Indian Standard C-97 C-97 C-99

Area Dry Wet Dry

Makrana 0.04 2.68 14 16 88

Andhi Indo 0.05 2.68 13 11 130

Andhi
0.08 2.68 14 17 94
Modern art

Jhiri Onyx 0.06 2.68 9.00 8 142

Agaria, Rajnagar 0.06 2.84 17 16 106

Morwad, Rajnagar 0.04 2.84 12 13 111

Keshariyaji Green 0.07 2.66 42 35 286

Bidasar 2.38-2.43 2.55-2.47 19-24 13-20 138-114

Phalodi 0.64 2.62 15 21 212

Table 5.8 Chemical Properties of different Marbles

Marble Area CaO MgO SiO2 Fe2O3 LOI

Jhiri, Altar 26-33 21-25 0.01-3.18 0.73-1.01 40-47

Tripura Sungari, Batswana 32 23-24 <=23.4 0.200.84 42-44

Mondale, Chittaurgarh 35.92 3.01 18.52 2.93 33.18

Sandwa, Churu 31-37 13-22.6 <=6.44 0.12-0.26 45-46

Dungarpur 48.18 2.04 10.75 1.13 35.55

Bhainslana, Jaipur 48-54 2-4 1-3 1.5-3 35-45

Phalodi, Jodhpur 39.03 9.36 8.70 0.48 42.83

Makrana, Nagaur 50-56 0.8-1.8 0.33-1.20 0.10-0.28 34.8-43.2

Rajnagar 30-33 16-25 0.01-7.6 0.12-0.95 36-44

Sirohi 51.49 0.90 8.52 0.54 39.36

Keshariyaji, Udaipur 18.56 21.29 31.51 5.33 21.82

Babarmal, Udaipur 20.79 2.21 14.35 0.28 24.00

Classification

Marble has been classified into 10 groups by Bureau of Indian Standards (Indian Standard Institute i.e.

ISI) (IS 1130-

1969) on the basis of colour, shade and pattern. Rajasthan is the most fortunate state where all the 10

groups specified below are occurring :

Table 5.9 Types of Marbles

1. Plain White Marble
2. Panther Marble

3. White Veined Marble 4. Plain Black Marble

5. Black Zebra Marble 6. Green Marble

7. Pink Adanga Marble 8. Pink Marble

9. Grey Marble 10. Brown Marble

Granites

Table 5.10 Technical Information of different Granites

Technical Information of Granite

Technical D
Water Absorptio Density, bulk Modulus of ru Compressive st Abrasion resista Flexural stre
etails
n, % by weight specific gravity pture, N/mm2 rength N/mm2 nce to wear ngth, N/mm2


ASTM/India IS 1237 Guideli IS 4860 Gui

C-97 C-97 C-99 C-170
n Standard nes delines

Area Avg. W Max. W

Dry Wet Dry Wet
 ear mm ear mm

Bala Flower
0.44 2.61 23 22 203 184 0.6 0.7 20
, Jalore

Chima Pink,
0.73 2.62 11 13 140 119 0.6 0.7 13
Jalore

Copper Silk
0.04 2.63 17 20 148 119 0.7 0.9 19
Jalore

Golden Pea
0.07 2.64 13 14 186 152 0.7 0.8 14
rl, Jalore
Imperial Pin
0.15 2.65 11 15 117 100 0.6 0.7 14
k, Jalore

Rosy Pink,
0.09 2.62 14 18 125 118 0.6 0.7 16
Jalore

Royal Touc
0.12 2.63 17 19 123 123 0.5 0.6 18
h, Jalore

Sunrise Yell
0.12 2.62 13 14 142 102 0.8 0.9 12
ow, Jalore

Merry Gold,
0.7 2.61 15 14 125 109 0.8 1.0 14
Barmer

Rakhee Gre
0.10 2.71 11 13 134 132 0.7 0.8 13
en, Barmer

Royal Crea
0.22 2.59 17 18 141 171 0.6 0.7 15
m, Barmer

P.White, Pa
0.20 2.65 11 11 142 133 0.9 1.00 11
li

Classification

Granites are classified under four grades depending upon the compressive strength and abrasive resista

nce as specified below

Table 5.11 classification of Granites

Compressive Strength Abrasion Value

Designation Grade
(kg/cm2 min.) (% max.)

A 2,200 32

B 1,800 36

C 1,400 40

D 1,000 45

DISINTEGRATION OF STONE

Disintegrating Agents
5.8.1 Classification of Agents

The disintegration or decay of stone is commonly referred to as weathering, and is caused by agents o

f three kinds; namely, physical or mechanical, chemical and organic. The mechanical agents are heat a

nd cold, air in the form of wind, and water in the form of rain and ice. The chemical agents are the v

arious acids present in the atmosphere. The organic agents are vegetable growths that thrive in damp

and shady places, and marine insects or boring molluscs, which perforate the stone between the high a

nd low water marks.

5.8.2 Heat and Cold

An increase in temperature causes expansion in a stone, and a decrease in temperature causes contra

ction; hence, as a result of ordinary changes in temperature, there is a continual slight movement amon

g the particles of the stone, which may destroy their cohesion, and thus produce a slow and gradual di

sintegration.

5.8.3 Fire

All building stones are injured by high temperatures. Sandstones, if somewhat porous, uncrystallised, an

d free from feldspar, are the most refractory of the common building stones. Gneiss is quite fire resistiv

e when it contains a large proportion of quartz in which the particles are of the nature of sand. Limest

ones and granitic rocks usually crack when subjected to a high temperature.

Stone is subjected to a very severe test when it is heated during a fire and then cooled suddenly by

a stream of water from a hose The exterior layer of the stone is cooled much more rapidly than the in

terior, and in some cases the uneven rate of contraction causes large pieces to break off.

5.8.4 Air and Water

Air acts mechanically in the form of wind, especially when it carries dust; it erodes the surface and re

moves small particles, much in the Same way as a sandblast apparatus, thus, exposing new surfaces t

o be acted on. Rain alone has a slight mechanical effect when simply falling on the stone and washing

loose particles away. Rain and wind together, however, act very energetically.

Water penetrates into all rocks, no matter how dense or compact they may be, and, when it freezes, it

expands and tends to split them. A volume of water occupying 100 cubic inches before freezing would

occupy 109 cubic inches after freezing. When this expansion is resisted, the pressure exerted is equal

to 150 tons per square foot, which is sufficient to split the strongest rocks.

Also act together to produce the following changes in the composition of stones: (1) rusting or oxidation

of the iron particles present in the stone; (2) reduction or de oxidation of the oxygen in iron oxide, wh

ich is caused by the presence of an organic acid or of continual moisture; (3) absorption of water by a
n oxide; (4) solution of the constituents that are soluble in water. Absorption occurs only when there is

continual moisture, as in bridge piers and abutments.

5.8.5 Acids

Pure water has but little effect in dissolving the ingredients of stone, but the air contains many acids w

hich, in combination with rain, form powerful solvents of mineral matter. The stones that are most susce

ptible to this dissolving action are limestone, sandstone, and granite containing feldspar.

5.8.5.1 Carbonic acid

It is contained in the atmosphere to the amount of about 400 parts of acid to 1,000,000 parts of air, h

as, when combined with water, a corroding action on the carbonates, whether they form the principal c

onstituents of the stone or are only present as cementing materials. This acid transforms the insoluble

earthy carbonates of lime and magnesia into bicarbonates, which are soluble in water and can, therefor

e, be washed away. On granite, carbonic acid acts by eliminating the alkaline constituents in the form

of carbonates; a friable or crumbly residue of hydrated silicate of alumina is left, which contains the un

altered particles of quartz and mica. In the case of greenstones the acid acts on the iron present, and

also dissolves out the lime, leaving a loose, friable, and bulky stone of a red or brown colour. Sandsto

nes containing iron are disintegrated by the solution and washing away of the iron.

5.8.5.2 Nitric acid

It

is frequently present as a constituent of the atmosphere; its destructive action is exerted on the limesto

nes.

5.8.5.3 Sulphuric acid

It results from the combustion of coal, is present in the atmosphere of cities to an extent as great as

250 parts in 1,000,000. It has a marked destructive influence on all stones, and especially on granite.

The feldspar is attacked, and the potash, soda, or lime is dissolved out, and in time the stone become

s filled with small holes.

5.8.6 Living Agents

The disintegration and decay of stone by the inanimate agents are frequently hastened by many forms

of life, such as bacteria, mosses, worms, etc., all of which are in a sense destructive agents. Their pre

sence gives rise to small amounts of organic acids which exercise a corrosive influence.

5.9 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DISINTEGRATION

5.9.1 Quarrying
Disintegration of stone is hastened or retarded by the methods employed in quarrying, seasoning, finishi

ng, and setting the stone.

The excessive use of explosives in quarrying shatters the cohesion of the particles composing the stone

and causes cracks and flaws that make the stone more permeable to moisture. Small charges of pow

der, uniformly distributed over the area to be blasted, have a lesser weakening effect on the stone. Sto

ne cut out by quarrying machinery is preferable to that blasted or wedged out, because the stone is no

t jarred and cracked by this method and because denser faces are produced which render the stone le

ss permeable to moisture.

The position of the stone in the quarry also affects its durability. Stone taken from the exposed faces a

nd the top ledges of the quarry is likely to be less durable than unexposed stone.

5.9.2 Seasoning

Before a stone is placed in a structure, the interstitial moisture, called quarry water or sap, must be re

moved by evaporation. This process is termed seasoning, and should be effected by exposing the stone

to the drying action of the atmosphere for some months; the stone should be stored under cover for

protection against rain. If the stone is not seasoned, the quarry water will be alternately frozen and tha

wed during a series of years, and the stone will be broken up.

5.9.3 Finishing

The life of a stone is dependent on the style of finish given to its exposed faces. A smooth or polishe

d surface aids in prolonging the life by facilitating the rapid discharge of rainwater. The methods employ

ed in dressing the stone also affect its life. Minute fissures that render the stone more susceptible to at

mospheric influences are produced by impact; hence, stones sawed to the required dimensions are mor

e durable than those hammered and broken to size.

5.9.4 Setting

The position in which the stone is set in the structure affects its ability to resist disintegration. When str

atified stones are placed on edge, and the mortar joints are not properly filled, water enters between th

e layers and in freezing causes the stone to scale off; therefore, laminated stones should be set with t

heir layers horizontal.

The portions of a structure most liable to early decay are those under cornices, belt courses, window si

lls, etc., on which the rainwater slowly falls or drips. As a protection from this source of decay, the un

der surface of a projecting stone should have a narrow groove, called a drip, extending its whole lengt

h. The water that collects on the upper surface of the projection flows over the upper edge and down
the face to the under side, where its further progress is interrupted by the drip; it then falls to the grou

nd.

6.1 CONCLUSION

Stones are versatile

material. In order to be able to decide what kind of stone to used under given conditions, knowledge o

f the different kinds employed in the various types of construction is essential. It is not necessary to de

termine the exact composition of a stone to be used in a structure, but knowledge should be sufficient

to help in selecting or specifying the stone best adapted to the type of structure.

The properties of a stone that determine its fitness for construction purposes are durability, strength, har

dness, density, and appearance. The quality of a stone is ascertained approximately from a study of its

origin and chemical composition and from the results of tests and experiments.

6.2 Inferences

Stones are used as versatile material irrespective of the properties of it, still its use remain as same, v

arying the techniques of implementation and limitations.

6.3 SELECTION OF BUILDING STONES

For selection of the stone should be done on the basis of:

6.3.1 Importance of Preliminary Investigation.-

When an important masonry structure is to be built, it is essential to select a stone that is strong and

durable. Probably nothing in engineering construction is so neglected as the preliminary inspection of bui

lding stone.

If it is necessary to employ great quantities of building stone at points where, the stability of the structu

re depends on the strength of the stone, an inspection of the quarry from which the stone is to be obt

ained should be made. The engineer should also inspect some building or structure which contains the

same material and has been standing for a long time. It is well, however, not to depend wholly on ins

pection either at the quarry or at a building, but to subject the stone also to laboratory investigation.

6.3.2 Inspection of Stone at Quarry.

Careful inspection at the quarry will frequently reveal much information regarding the durability and unifo

rmity of the stone. Exposed quarry faces will sometimes indicate the weathering properties of the stone,

as well as its liability to disintegration caused by moisture and running water containing injurious acids

and alkalis.

The various grades of stone to be had, and the amount of each grade, can be determined. In first-

class work it is imperative that only the best grade of the quarry should be employed, and it is importa
nt to find out whether a sufficient quantity of stone of satisfactory texture and colour is available to sup

ply the amount of material required for the work.

6.3.3 Inspection of Stone in Buildings.

By inspecting stone that has been in place in a building or structure for a considerable length of time,

an excellent idea may be had of its weathering properties. If, after years of exposure in the atmospher

e of an industrial city situated in the temperate zone, the building stone shows no disintegration and ha

s retained its original lustre and colour, except for the soil of dust and smoke stains, it certainly can b

e considered of the best structural value for building purposes. If a stone from a certain quarry shows

poor weathering qualities in a structure, an investigation should be made to determine whether the best

grade from the quarry has been used, before the product of the quarry is condemned.

6.3.4 Laboratory Investigation.-

Although the quarry and building inspections are of the utmost practical importance, they should, as pre

viously stated, be augmented by laboratory investigation. When the stone to be used is from a new qu

arry, the characteristics of the product are little known, and this investigation is then necessary. The lab

oratory investigation of stone usually consists of chemical analysis, microscopic examination, and mecha

nical tests.

The chemical analysis determines both qualitatively and quantitatively the chemical constituents of the st

one. In a qualitative analysis, the mineral elements and chemical combinations comprising the stone, tog

ether with the impurities and organic matter, are determined. The quantitative analysis shows the proport

ions of the different elements and chemical combinations. When the chemical composition of a stone is

determined in this way, conclusions can usually, though not always, be drawn as to the durability and t

he weathering properties of the stone.

The microscopic examination of building stone is not only less expensive but also more important than t

he chemical analysis, for by it is revealed the structure of the stone. By the microscope may be observ

ed the size and shape of the particles or crystals composing the stone, their relative closeness, and th

e character and compactness of the cementing material holding them together. Usually, the mineral con

stituents of the stone may be determined by microscopic examination, and frequently their proportions a

nd the percentage of impurities contained in the stone may be estimated. In addition, the microscope re

veals flaws in the structure, such as cracks, cavities, incipient fractures, and gas bubbles.

The mechanical tests of a stone furnish data from which a fair estimate of the durability may be made.

The purpose of these tests is to impose on the stone, as nearly as possible, conditions that in the co
urse of a few hours or a few weeks will approximate the effect produced by actual use during a period

of years.

Table 6.1 Preferable use of different types of Sandstones

Sandstone

Different types of stones and their preferable use in building

S. No. Building Elements Jodhpur Karauli Dholpur Bijoliyan Marble Granite

1 Foundation yes No Yes Yes No Yes

2 Plinth yes Yes Yes Yes No No

3 Frames yes Yes Yes Yes No No

4 Lintel yes Yes No No No No

5 Chajja yes Yes No No Yes No

6 Wall yes Yes Yes Yes No No

7 Column/pillar yes Yes No No Yes No

8 Arches yes Yes Yes No Yes No

9 Beam yes No No No No No

10 Bracket yes Yes Yes No Yes No

11 Slab yes Yes No No No No

12 Parapet yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No

13 Cladding yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

14 Aesthetics yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Table 6.2 Preferable use of different types of Granite

Granite

Different types of stones and their preferable use in building

Bala Chima Copper Golden Imperial Rosy Royal Sunrise Merry Rakhee Royal

S. Building Flower, Pink, Silk Pearl, Pink, Pink, Touch, Yellow, Gold, Green, Cream, P.White,

No. Elements Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Barmer Barmer Barmer Pali

1 Foundation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
 2 Plinth No No No No No No No No No No No No

3 Frames No No No No No No No No No No No No

4 Lintel No No No No No No No No No No No No

5 Chajja No No No No No No No No No No No No

6 Wall No No No No No No No No No No No No

Column/

7 pillar No No No No No No No No No No No No

8 Arches No No No No No No No No No No No No

9 Beam No No No No No No No No No No No No

10 Bracket No No No No No No No No No No No No

11 Slab No No No No No No No No No No No No

12 Parapet No No No No No No No No No No No No

13 Cladding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

14 Aesthetics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Table 6.3 Preferable use of different types of Marble

Marble

Different types of stones and their preferable use in building

Andhi
Building Andhi Jhiri Agaria, Morwad, Keshariyaji
S. No. Makrana Modern Bidasar Phalodi
Elements Indo Onyx Rajnagar Rajnagar Green
art

1 Foundation No No No No No No No No No

2 Plinth No No No No No No No No No

3 Frames No No No No No No No No No

4 Lintel No No No No No No No No No

5 Chajja No No No No No No No No No

6 Wall No No No No No No No No No

7 Column/pillar No

8 Arches No

9 Beam No
10 Bracket No

11 Slab No

12 Parapet No

13 Cladding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

14 Aesthetics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes