Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics

Fundamental of Electricity and Electronics
FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRONICS
Dr.Narayana Swamy Ramaiah

Assoc.Prof, Dept of Computer Engineering,
Arba Minch University
Nature of Electricity Page 1

PART ONE: ELECTRICITY
So before beginning the actual study of an electrical engineering, it is necessary to discuss the
fundamental ideas about the basic elements of an electrical engineering like electromotive force,
current, resistance etc.
As you learned in physics,
FIGURE 1.1Bohr model of the atom. Electrons travel around the nucleus at incredible speeds, making billions of trips in a
fraction of a second. The force of attraction between the electrons and the protons in the nucleus keeps them in orbit.
The basic structure of Figure 1.1 applies to all elements, but each element has its own unique
combination of electrons, protons, and neutrons. For example, the hydrogen atom, the simplest of
all atoms, has one proton and one electron, while the copper atom has 29 electrons, 29 protons,
and 35 neutrons. Silicon, which is important because of its use in transistors and other electronic
devices, has 14 electrons, 14 protons, and 14 neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus in spherical orbits called shells, designated by letters K, L, M, N, and
so on (Figure 1.2). In general, a shell contains 2n2 electrons, where n represents number of shell.
For example, first or k shell can have up to 2 electrons(2*12) and second or L shell can have up
to 8 electrons(2*22) and so on.
FIGURE 1.2Simplified representation of the atom. Electrons travel in spherical orbits called “shells.”
The orbit which is closest to the nucleus is always under the tremendous force of attraction while
the orbit which is farthest from the nucleus is under very weak force of attraction. This outermost
shell (orbit) is called its valence shell, and the electron in it is called its valence electron.
Let us see the structure of two atoms:

1. Hydrogen: This atom consists of one proton and one electron revolving around the
nucleus.
2. Silicon: consists of 14 electrons. The first orbit has a maximum of 2 electrons, the second
orbit has maximum of 8 electrons and the third orbit has remaining 4 electrons.
Electrical charge
Consider again the basic atom of Figure 1.1. It has equal numbers of electrons and protons, and
since their charges are equal and opposite, they cancel, leaving the atom as a whole uncharged.
However, if the atom acquires additional electrons (leaving it with more electrons than protons),
we say that it (the atom) is negatively charged; conversely, if it loses electrons and is left with
fewer electrons than protons, we say that it is positively charged. The term “charge” in this sense
denotes an imbalance between the number of electrons and protons present in the atom.
Charge can refer to the charge on an individual electron or to the charge associated with a whole
group of electrons. In either case, this charge is denoted by the letter Q, and its unit of
measurement in the SI system is the coulomb.
Coulomb determined experimentally that the forcebetween two charges Q1 and Q2 (Figure 2–5)
is directly proportional to theproduct of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distancebetween them. Mathematically, Coulomb’s law states
Where Q1 and Q2 are the charges in coulombs, r is the center-to-center spacing between them in
meters, and k = 9 * 109.
As Coulomb’s law indicates, force decreases inversely as the square of distance; thus, if the
distance between two charges is doubled, the force decreases to (1⁄2)2= 1⁄4 (i.e., one quarter) of
its original value. Because of this relationship, electrons in outer orbits are less strongly attracted
to the nucleus than those in inner orbits; that is, they are less tightly bound to the nucleus than
those close by. Valence electrons are the least tightly bound and will, if they acquire sufficient
energy, escape from their parent atoms.
Free electrons
The amount of energy required to escape depends on the number of electrons in the valence
shell. If an atom has only a few valence electrons, only a small amount of additional energy is
needed. For example, for a metal like copper,valence electrons can gain sufficient energy from
heat alone (thermal energy),even at room temperature, to escape from their parent atoms and
wander fromatom to atom throughout the material. Note that these electrons do not leave
thesubstance, they simply wander from the valence shell of one atom to the valence shell of
another. The material therefore remains electrically neutral. Such electrons are called free
electrons. In copper, there are of the order of 1023 free electrons per cubic centimeter at room
temperature.
Ions

As noted earlier, when a previously neutral atom gains or loses an electron, it acquires a net
electrical charge. The charged atom is referred to as an ion. If the atom loses an electron, it is
called a positive ion; if it gains an electron, it is called a negative ion.
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

The atomic structure of matter affects how easily charges, i.e., electrons, move through a
substance and hence how it is used electrically. Electrically, materials are classified as
conductors, insulators, or semiconductors.
Conductors
Materials through which charges move easily are termed conductors. The most familiar
examples are metals. Good metal conductors have large numbers of free electrons that are able to
move about easily. In particular, silver, copper, gold, and aluminum are excellent conductors.
Insulators
Materials that do not conduct (e.g., glass, porcelain, plastic, rubber, and so on) are termed
insulators. The covering on electric lamp cords, for example, is an insulator. It is used to prevent
the wires from touching and to protect us from electric shock. Insulators do not conduct because
they have full or nearly full valence shells and thus their electrons are tightly bound. However,
when high enough voltage is applied, the force is so great that electrons are literally torn from
their parent atoms, causing the insulation to break down and conduction to occur. In air, you see
this as an arc or flashover. In solids, charred insulation usually results.
Semiconductors
Silicon and germanium (plus a few other materials) have half-filled valence shells and are thus
neither good conductors nor good insulators. Known as semiconductors, they have unique
electrical properties that make them important to the electronics industry. The most important
material is silicon. It is used to make transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, and other electronic
devices. Semiconductors have made possible personal computers, VCRs, portable CD players,
calculators, and a host of other electronic products.
The Unit of Electrical Charge: The coulomb

The coulomb is defined as the charge carried by 6.24 * 1018 electrons. Thus, if an electrically
neutral (i.e., uncharged) body has 6.24 * 1018 electrons removed, it will be left with a net positive
charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q = 1 C. Conversely, if an uncharged body has 6.24 * 1018 electrons
added, it will have a net negative charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q = -1 C. Usually, however, we are
more interested in the charge moving through a wire. In this regard, if 6.24 * 1018 electrons pass
through a wire, we say that the charge that passed through the wire is 1 C.
We can now determine the charge on one electron. It is Qe = 1/(6.24 *1018) = 1.60 * 10-19 C.
Example 1.1 An initially neutral body has 1.7 µC of negative charge removed. Later, 18.7 * 1011
electrons are added. What is the body’s final charge?

Solution Initially the body is neutral, i.e., Qinitial = 0 C. When 1.7 µC of electrons is removed, the
body is left with a positive charge of 1.7 µC. Now, 18.7 * 1011 electrons are added back. This is
equivalent to
1 Coulomb
18.7 ∗ 1011 electrons 6.24∗1018 electrons = 0.3 µC
of negative charge. The final charge on the body is therefore Qf= 1.7 µC - 0.3 mC = 1.4 µC.
Practice Problems
1. Positive charges Q1 = 2 µC and Q2 = 12 µC are separated center to center by 10 mm.
Compute the force between them. Is it attractive or repulsive?
2. Two equal charges are separated by 1 cm. If the force of repulsion between them is 9.7 *
10-2 N, what is their charge? What may the charges be, both positive, both negative, or
one positive and one negative?
3. After 10.61 * 1013 electrons are added to a metal plate, it has a negative charge of 3 µC.
What was its initial charge in coulombs?
Voltages
When charges are detached from one body and transferred to another, a potential difference or
voltage results between them. A difference in potential energy is defined as voltage. In general,
the amount of energy required to separate charges depends on the voltage developed and the
amount of charge moved. By definition, the voltagebetween two points is one volt if it requires
one joule of energy to moveone coulomb of charge from one point to the other. In equation form,
Where W is energy in joules, Q is charge in coulombs, and V is the resulting voltage in volts.
Note carefully that voltage is defined between points. Thus, voltage does not exist at a point by
itself; it is always determined with respect to some other point. Voltage is also called potential
difference.We often use the terms interchangeably.
EXAMPLE 1.2If it takes 35 J of energy to move a charge of 5 C from one point to another, what
is the voltage between the two points?
Solution:
𝑊 35 𝐽 𝐽
𝑉= = =7 = 7𝑉
𝑄 5𝐶 𝐶
Current
Assume now that a battery is connected as in Figure 1.3. Since electrons are attracted by the
positive pole of the battery and repelled by the negative pole, they move around the circuit,
passing through the wire, the lamp, and the battery. This movement of charge is called an
electric current. The more electrons per second that pass through the circuit, the greater is the
current. Thus, current is the rate of flow (or rate of movement) of charge.

FIGURE 1.3Electron flow in a conductor. Electrons are attracted to the positive pole of the battery. As electrons
move around the circuit, they are replenished at the negative pole of the battery. This flow of charge is called an
electric current.
Since charge is measured in coulombs, its rate of flow is coulombs per second. In the SI system,
one coulomb per second is defined as one ampere (commonly abbreviated A). From this, we get
that one ampere is the currentin a circuit when one coulomb of charge passes a given point in
one second.
whereQ is the charge (coulomb) and t is the time interval (sec.)
EXAMPLE 1.3If 840 coulombs of charge pass through the imaginary plane of Figure 2–10
during a time interval of 2 minutes, what is the current?
Solution Convert t to seconds. Thus,

𝑄 840 𝐶
𝐼= = = 7 𝐶 ⁄𝑠 = 7 𝐴
𝑡 2 × 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Although current equation is the theoretical definition of current, we never actually use it to
measure current. In practice, we use an instrument called an ammeter.
Symbol for DC Voltage Sources

The battery is the source of electrical energy that moves charges around the circuit. This
movement of charges is called an electric current. Because one of the battery’s terminals is
always positive and the other is always negative, current is always in the same direction. Such a
unidirectional current is called dc or direct current, and the battery is called a dc source.
Symbols for dc sources are shown in Figure 1.4. The long bar denotes the positive terminal.
Figure 1.5 battery symbols

Current Direction
In the early days of electricity, it was believed that current was a movement of positive charge
and that these charges moved around the circuit from the positive terminal of the battery to the
negative as depicted in Figure 1.5 (a). Based on this, all the laws, formulas, and symbols of
circuit theory were developed. (We now refer to this direction as the conventional
currentdirection.) After the discovery of the atomic nature of matter, it was learned that what
actually moves in metallic conductors are electrons and that they move through the circuit as in
Figure 1.5(b). This direction is called the electron flow direction.
FIGURE 1.5Conventional current versus electron flow. In this book, we use conventional current.
Alternating Current (AC)
So far, we have considered only dc. Before we move on, we will briefly mention ac or
alternating current. Alternating current is current that changes direction cyclically, i.e., charges
alternately flow in one direction, then in the other in a circuit. The most common ac source is the
commercial ac power system that supplies energy to your home.
Resistance
It is property of an electric circuit tending to prevent the flow of current and at the same time
causes electrical energy to be converted to heat. The resistance is denoted by the symbol R and is
measured in Ohm symbolically represented byΩ. The resistance of a material is dependent upon
several factors:
Factors affecting the resistance

1. Type and nature of the material: The resistance of a material is dependent upon the
type of material. For example, silver has more free electrons than copper, and so the
resistance of a silver wire will be less than the resistance of a copper wire having the
identical dimensions.
2. Length of the material: The resistance of a material is directly proportional to the
length.If we were to double the length of the wire, we can expect that the number of
collisions over the length of the wire would double, thereby causing the resistance to also
double.
3. Cross-sectional area: The resistance of a material is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the material. As the cross-sectional area is increased, the moving
electrons are able to move more freely through the material, just as water moves more
freely through a large-diameter pipe than a small-diameter pipe.
4. Temperature: the temperature of the material affects the value of the resistance.
Generally the resistance of the material increases as its temperature increases.
where
𝜌 = resistivity, in ohm-meters (Ω-m)
L = length, in meters (m)
A = cross-sectional area, in square meters (m2).
In the above equation the lowercase Greek letter rho (𝜌) is the constant of proportionality and is
called the resistivity of the material. Resistivity is a physical property of a material.
Conductance
The conductance of any material is reciprocal to its resistance and is denoted as G. It is the
indication of ease with which current can flow through the material. It is measured in siemens.
The quantity (1⁄𝜌) is called conductivity, denoted as sigma (𝜎). Thus the conductivity is the
reciprocal of resistivity.
The material having highest value of conductivity is the best conductor while having poorest
conductivity is the best insulator.
Example 1.4 The resistance of copper wire 25 long is found to be 50 Ω. If its diameter is 1mm,
calculate the resistivity of copper.
Example 1.5 Calculate the resistance of a 100 m length of wire having a uniform cross-sectional
area of 0.02 mm2 and having resistivity of 40𝜇Ω𝑐𝑚. If the wire is drawn out to four time its
original length, calculate its new resistance.
Example 1.6 A silver wire has a resistance of 2.5 Ω.What will be the resistance of a manganin
wire having a diameter, half of the silver wire and length one third? The specific resistance of
manganin is 30 times that of silver.
Ohm’s law
Ohm determined experimentally that current in a resistive circuit is directlyproportional to its

applied voltage and inversely proportional to its resistance.In equation form, Ohm’s law states
𝑉
𝐼= [𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠, 𝐴]
𝑅
Where V is the voltage in volts, R is the resistance in ohms, I is the current in amperes.
Traditionally, circuits are drawn with the source on the left and the load on the right as indicated
in Figures below. However, you will also encounter circuits with other orientations. For these,
the same principles apply

Example 1.7A 27 Ω resistor is connected to a 12-V battery. What is the current?
Solution
V 12 V
I=R= = 0.444A
27 Ω

ArbaMinch Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical & Computer Eng
1. DirectCurrent (DC) Circuit Analysis

An electric circuit is a closed path made up of any number of sources, resistors, inductors,
and capacitors combined in any manner to allow the flow of electric current.
Depending on how the elements are connected, elctric circuit can be:
 Series
 Parallel
 Series-Parallel
1.1 Series Circuits
Fig.1 Series Combination of Resistors
 Resistors are connected end to end across a voltage source:
 A series circuit provides only one path for current between two points in a circuit
so that the current is the same through each series resistor.
 The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of resistances of each resistor
Reg=R1 +R2+R3 +----Rn
I t = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . . In
 The sum of each voltage drops across each resistors is equal to the source voltage.
VS =V1 + V2 + V3 + --- Vn
 The total power dissipated by a series circuit is the sum of powers dissipated
across each resistor.
Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 1

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + ---- Pn
=I2R, + I2R2 + I2R3 + ----- I2Rn.
Two elements are in series if:
 They have only one terminal in common (i.e. one lead of one is connected to only one
lead of the others).
 The common point between the two elements is not connected to another
Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

In series combination of resistors, voltage drop across resistors varies proportionally with
resistance.
Voltage drop across any resistor-x in the series combination is given by the equation
given below:
Rx
Vx  Vt
Req
Where, Vt is the total voltage and Req is the equivalent (total) resistance
 Practice problem
Find: a, Total resistance
b, current through each resistor
c, Voltage drop across each resistor using voltage divider rule
d, total power dissipiated in the circuit

1.2 Parallel Circuits

If there are more than one current pathes (branches) between two points, then there is a
parallels circuit between those two points. Two elements, branches or networks are in
parallel if they have two points in common.
Fig.2 Parallel combination of resistors
 The voltage across parallel elements is the same.
VS=V1 = V2 = V3 = ---- Vn
 The sum of the individual brunch currents is equal to the sours current
IS = I1 + I2 + I3 + -----In
 The equivalent resistance(Req) is expressed by the following equation:
 For two resistors combined in parallel, the equivalent resistance is obtained using
product of two resistances divided by their sum
 Total power consumed by a parallel circuit is equal the sum of powers consumed
by each element.
Pt= P1+ P2 + P3 + --- Pn

Current Divider Rule(CDR)

 Is used to detrmine the current in any resistor of the parallel network, provided
that the total current in the circuit is known.
 The branch current in any resistor of parallel combination is given by the equation
given below:
 For a parallel resistors combination containing two resistors, the above equation
can be rewritten as follows:
 Find: a, unknown resistances R2 & R3

b, branch currents using current divider rule
c, Power dissipated in each resistor

1.3 Series-Parallel Circuits
Series-parallel circuits are circuits that contain both series and parallel circuit’s
configurations. To determine total resistance, identify the seriesly and parallelly
connected resistors, and then apply the formulas for series resistance and parallel
resistance. To find the total currents divide the total voltage by the total resistance.
Fig.3 Series-Parallel Circuit
 For the above particular series-parallel circuit, the equivalent resistance, banch
currents and voltage drops across various resistors can be calculated as shown
below:
𝑅2 ∗ 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇 = ( ) + 𝑅1
𝑅2 + 𝑅3
IT = I1 = E/RT = 48V/20Ω = 6A
I2 = (R3/R2+R3)*It = 4.8A
I3 = IT – I2 = 6A – 4.8A = 1.2A

Find: a, Total resistance

b. current through each resistor
c, Vab
d, Voltage drop across each resistors
1.4. DC Network Theorems

DC network theorems are mathematical techniques which are used to analyseelectric
circuits. A circuit is said to be completely analysed if all voltages and currents in different
elements of the circuit are determined. Two general approaches are used in circuit
analysis: direct method and network reduction method.
In direct method, the original circuit is left unchanged while determining its voltages and
currents. Such methods can be applied in simple circuits and include KVL, KCL,
superposition theorem, Nodal analysis, Loop analysis, branch current analysis etc.
In the case of indirect approach, the original circuit is converted in to a much simpler
equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of different quantities. Such methods include Star-
delta convrsion, Thevenin theorem, Norton’s theorem etc.
1.4.1. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

It is important law in analysing series circuits and stated as follows:
The summation of voltage rises and voltage drops in a closed loop is zero.
Symbolically this can be put as follows:
∑𝑉 = 𝑂 Or ∑ 𝐸𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ∑ 𝑉𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠

In using KVL, rising potention is given a positive sign where as falling potential is given
a negative sign.
Consider the circuit given below:
Fig.4 Kirchhoff’s Law
If we begin moving from point-a following the arbitrary current direction, KVL can be
written as follows:
E-V1-V2-V3 = 0 OR E+ (-V1) + (-V2) + (-V3) = 0
1.4.2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

It is important in analysing parallel circuits and is stated as follows:
The summation of currents entering a node is equal to currents leaviing a node.
Symolically this can be put as shown below:

Consider the diagramgiven below to understand KCL:
Fig.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 KCL: I1 +I5 = I2+I3 +I4

 8A = 8A
In writing KCL, current entering a node is usually assigned a positive sign where as that
leaving the node is assigned a negative sign
1.4.3Branch Current Analysis

This method uses KVL & KCL to find branch currents in a circuit containing one source
or more than one sorces.
While using the branch current analysis method, use the techniques listed below:
1. Assign a distinct current of arbitrary direction to each branch of the circuit

2. Indicate the polarities for each resistor as determined by the assumed current
direction.
3. Apply kirchihoff’s voltage law around each closed, independent loop of the
circuit
4. Apply kirchihoff’s current law at the minimum number of nodes that will include
all the branch currents of the circuit.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for assumed branch currents

Consider the circuit given below:
Fig.6 Branch current analysis
 Applying KVL at loop abcda: 6V- 2I1 +2I2 - 4V = 0

 Applying KVL at loop cefdc: 4I3 + 2V+4V -2I2 = 0
 Applying KCLat loop c : I1 + I2 = I3
 The above three equations can be rewritten in the following form;
 The above three simultaneous linear equations can be solved by substitution method
or determinant method
Applying method of determinant gives the solutions for the branch currents as shown
below:

1.4.4. Mesh or Loop Analysis

This method reduces the number of simultaneous linear equations and hence makes the
analysis simpler as compared to branch current analysis.
Mesh analysis applies KVL around closed loops without the need to use KCL. The
following procedures are used in solving circuits using Mesh analysis:
 1. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current direction to each interior closed loop

 2. Using the assigned loop currents, indicate the voltage polarities across all resistors
 3.Using KVL, write the loop equations

 4. Solve the resultant ssimultaneous equations

 5. Determine the branch currents by algebraically combining the loop currents
Consider the following circuit:
Fig.7 Mesh Current Analysis
 Step.1: Loop currents are assigned as shown in Fig.7

 Step.2: Voltage polarities of resistors are indicated as shown in the Fig.7
 Step.3: The following loop equations are obtained:
When simplified, the above loop equations can be put as shown below:
By using determinant, the solutions to the above simultaneous euations become:

Using these loop currents, the branch currents are determined as follows:
IR1 = I1 =1.2A
IR3 = I2 = 1.4A
IR2 = IR3 – IR2 = 0.2A ( In the direction of IR3 )
1.4.5Nodal Analysis
Nodal analysis uses KCL to determine the potential difference (Voltage) any node with
respect to some arbitrary reference point in a network.
The following steps are used in solving circuits using Nodal analysis:
 Step1. Arbirarily assign a reference node in a circuit which is used as a

ground(Usually located at the bottom of circuit)
 Step.2: Convert voltage source in to current source
 Step.3: Arbitrarily assign voltages(V1, V2, V3…) on the remaining nodes
 Step.4: Arbitrarily assign current in a branch where there is no current sourceabd
write the corresponding polarities of resistors
 Step.5: Apply KCL at each node(except ground)
 Step.6: Rewrite the branch currents using voltage and known resistor
 Step.7: Solve the resulting equations for node voltages

Fig.8: Nodal Analysis
 Step.1 to 4:
 Step.5 Write KCL at each node
Node V1: I1 + I2 = 200mA + 50mA

Node V2: 200mA + I2 = I3 + 50mA

 Step.6: Expressing branch currents using node voltages
 Step.7: Writing system of linear equations
 Solving the above simultaneous equations by determinant method gives the

solutions as follows:
V1= 4.89 V
V2 = Va = 4.67V
Vab = 4.67V – 6V = -1.33V

ALTERNATE CURRENT (AC) CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Thus far our analysis has been limited for the most part to dc circuits: those circuits excited by
constant or time-invariant sources. We now begin the analysis of circuits in which the source
voltage or current is time-varying. A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine
function. A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current
reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven
by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuit.
Sinusoids
Consider the sinusoidal voltage
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where 𝑉𝑚 = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt= the argument of the sinusoid
The sinusoid is shown in Fig. 3.1(a) as a function of its argument and inFig. 3.1(b) as a function
of time. It is evident that the sinusoid repeatsitself every T seconds; thus, T is called the periodof
the sinusoid. Fromthe two plots in Fig. 3.1, we observe that ωT= 2π,
Figure A sketch of 𝑉𝑚 sin ωt: (a) as a function of ωt, (b) as a function of t.
A periodic functionis one that satisfies f (t) = f (t + nT), for all t and for all integers n.
The reciprocal of this quantity is the number of cycles per second, known as the cyclicfrequency
f of the sinusoid. Thus,
1
𝑓=
𝑇
So, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
While 𝜔 is in radians per second (rad/s), f is in hertz (Hz).
Let us now consider a more general expression for the sinusoid,
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Where(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) is the argument and 𝜑 is the phase
Let us examine the two sinusoids

𝑣1 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡)and𝑣2 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
shown in figure 3.2. The starting point of 𝑣2 in Fig. 3.2 occurs first in time. Therefore, we say
that 𝑣2 leads 𝑣1 by φ or that 𝑣1 lags 𝑣2 by φ. If φ ≠0, we also say that 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are out of phase.
If φ = 0, then 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are said to be in phase; they reach their minima and maxima at exactly
the same time.
Figure 3.2 Two sinusoids with different phases

Example 1:Given the sinusoid5 sin(4𝜋𝑡 − 60°), calculate its amplitude, phase, angular
frequency, period, and frequency.
Answer:5,−60°,12.57 rad/sec, 0.5 s, 2 Hz.
Phasors
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work with than
sine and cosine functions. A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase
of a sinusoid.
Before we completely define phasors and apply them to circuit analysis, we need to be
thoroughly familiar with complex numbers.
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦
where = √−1 ; x is the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z.

The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as
𝑧 = 𝑟 < 𝜑 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜑
wherer is the magnitude of z, and φ is the phase of z. We notice that z
can be represented in three ways:
z = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦Rectangular form
z = 𝑟 < 𝜑Polar form
z =r𝑒 𝑗𝜑 Exponential form
The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. 9.6, where the
x axis represents the real part and the y axis represents the imaginary part of a complex number.
Given x and y, we can get r and φ as
𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜑 = tan−1 𝑥
if we know r and φ, we can obtain x and y as

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜑, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜑
fig 3.3 representation of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 = 𝑟 < 𝜑
Thus, z may be written as
the following operations are important

The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity. In general,
where Re and Im stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of.
By suppressing the time factor, we transform the sinusoid from the time domain to the phasor
domain. This transformation is summarized as follows:
Example 2:
Phasor relationships for circuit elements
Now that we know how to represent a voltage or current in the phasor or frequency domain, one
may legitimately ask how we apply this to circuits involving the passive elements R, L, and C.
RESISTOR: If the current through a resistor R is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑), the voltage across it is
given by Ohm’s law as
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
The phasor form of this voltage is 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 < 𝜑
But the phasor representation of the current is𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 < 𝜑. Hence,
𝑽 = 𝑅𝑰
Figure3.4 Voltage current relations for a resistor in the:(a) time domain (b) frequency domain
(c) Phasor diagram for a resistor
INDUCTOR: assume the current through it is𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑). The voltage across the
𝑑𝑖
inductor is 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = −𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑣 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 + 90°)sincesin 𝐴 = cos(𝐴 + 90°)

Which transforms to the phasor
𝑽 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜑+90°) = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜑 𝑒 𝑗90° = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 < 𝜑𝑒 𝑗90°
𝑽 = 𝑗ωL𝐈since𝑒 𝑗90° = 𝑗 and 𝐼𝑚 < 𝜑 = 𝑰
Showing that the voltage has a magnitude of 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 and a phase of 𝜑 + 90°. The voltage and
current are 90° out of phase. Specifically, the current lags the voltage by 90°.
Figure3.5 Voltage current relations for an inductor in the: (a) time domain (b) frequency domain
(c) Phasor diagram for an inductor
CAPACITOR:assume the voltage across it is 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑). The current through the
𝑑𝑣
capacitor is 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
By following the same steps as we took for the inductor, we obtain

𝑰
𝐈 = jωC𝐕 → 𝑽 =
𝑗𝜔𝐶
Showing that the current and voltages are 90° out of phase. To be specific, the current leads the
voltage by 90°.
Figure3.6 Voltage current relations for a capacitor in the: (a) time domain (b) frequency domain
(c) Phasor diagram for a capacitor
IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
Ohm’s law in phasor form for any type of element as

𝑽
𝒁= 𝑜𝑟 𝐕 = 𝐙𝐈
𝑰
Where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.
The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is theratio of the phasor current through it to the
phasor voltage across it, or
1 𝑰
𝒀= =
𝒁 𝑽
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
For KVL, let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be the voltages around a closed loop. Then
𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 = 0
If 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , … , 𝑉𝑛 are the phasor forms of sinusoids𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑛 , then
𝑽1 + 𝑽2 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝑛 = 0
For KCL, let 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖1 , … , 𝑖𝑛 be the current leaving or entering a closed surface in a network at a
time t, then
𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛 = 0
If 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , … , 𝐼𝑛 are the phasor forms of sinosoids𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖1 , … , 𝑖𝑛 , then
𝑰1 + 𝑰2 + ⋯ + I𝑛 = 0
Example 3: Find 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) in the circuit shown below
Example 4: Find the input impedance of the circuit in figure below. Assume that the circuit
operates at 𝜔 = 50 rad/sec
ArbaMinch Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Eng
4. Measuring Instruments and Transducers

If you measure and express in number what you talk about, you know that
thing better. (Kelvin)
4.1 Introduction
Measuring physical quantities and precisely interpreting them to explain physical processes is
vital in scientific and engineering fields. Measurement is the process of determining the size,
degree or quantity of the physical variable (measurand) by comparison with accepted standards
of system units being used. There are three ways of making such measurements: mechanical
means, electrical means and electronic means. The electronic measuring instruments use built-
in amplifiers and generally have higher sensitivity, greater flexibility and faster response
than their electrical or mechanical counter parts.
Classification of measuring instruments:
 Based on the way of indicating the magnitude of measured variable:

 Analog instruments: Deflection type instruments with a scale
and pointer
Fig.1: Analog Instrument
Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics Devices 1

 Digital instruments: uses logic circuits and techniques to obtain

measurements and display it in numerical-reading(digital) form
Fig.2 Digital Instrument
Digital instruments have the following advantages over analogue insruments:
Easy readeability
Better resolution
Greater accuracy
Automatic zeroing
 Based on function:
 Indicating instruments: which indicates the instantaneous magnitude of
the quantity being measured.Ammeters and Voltmeters are examples of
such instruments
 Recording instruments:provide graphic record of quantity being measured
over a selected period of time(they use paper charts and mechanical writing
instruments (inked pen or stylus)
 Controlling instruments: Their function is to control the quantity being
measured with the help of information feed back to the by monitoring
device.They form te basis of automatic control system(automation)

4.2 The Basic Meter Movement
 Is also known as the D’ Arsonval Mter movement or Permanent magnet moving coil
(PMMC) meter movement
 Is widely used electronic instrument
 Consists of:
 Permanent hourse shoe magnetes with soft iron pole pieces
 Cylindrical shaped soft iron core
 Moving coile around the iron core
 Pointer attached to the moving coil
 Restraining spring
 Uses Electric motor principle
Fig.3: The D’Arsonval Meter construction
In the above PMMC meter movement, the pointer moves up – scale (to the right) as the coil
rotates when ncurrent passed through it and the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional
to the amount of currnt passing through it.
The amount of current that causes full deflection of pointer is usually named as full- scale
defelection current(IFSD)
The basic meter movement discussed above can be changed, with some modefications, to DC
or AC instruments to measure voltage, current and resistance.

4.2.1 The Ammeter

 Is used to measure electric current
 Has very small internal resistance(ideally zero resistance)
 Must be connected in series with the device
 Can be obtained from PMMC meter movement by connecting suitable shunts
 For DC measurements, the positive and negative polarties of the ammeter have to be
connected to the positive and negativ epolarities of the voltage source in the circuit.
 The following diagram shows how to connect DC ammeter in circuit to measure current
Fig.4 Ammeter connection
Suppose we want to measure a current of magnitude greater than full- scale deflection, then we
connect parallel resistors (shunts) across the meter as shown below:
Fig.5: Ammeter with shunt resistor
 Applying KVL,
 IM*RM = IS*RS (But IS = IT- IS)

 RS = (IM *RM)/(IT-IM)
 RS = 1*RM/((IT/IM) – 1) = RM/(n-1)
Where ‘n’ is the multiplying factor of shunt.
Practice problem:
1. A 5mA Ammeter with Rm = 20Ω is used to measure 5A. Determine the size of shunt
resistor to be connected & multiplying factor
2. An ammeter as shown in Figure 3-9 has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of
Rm = 99 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance Rs = 1. Determine the total
current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and 0.25 FSD
4.2.2The Voltmeter
 Is used to measure voltage
 Has very large resistance(ideally infinite resistance)
 Must be connected in series with the device
 Can be converted from the PMMC meter by connecting large series resistance
The following circuit shows correct connection of voltmeter:
Fig.6 Voltmeter connection
 The maximum voltage that can be mesured with the PMMC meter is IM*RM which is very
small

 In order to measure large voltage, large series resistors(multipliers) are connected as shown
below
Fig.7 Extending the Range of PMMC meter
The maximum voltage the PMMC meter can measure without series resistor is equal to the
product of the full-scale deflection current (IFSD) and the meter internal resistance (RM).
i.e Vm = Im * Rm
But because of multiplier resistance-Rv as shown in Fig.7, the total voltage across the meter
terminalas is equal to:
 V = Im* (Rm+Rv)
 V = Vm +Im*Rv
 Rv = (V – Vm)/ Im = (V/ Im) – Rm
 The resistance multiplfication factor can be obtained as shown below:
 V/Vm = m = 1 + (Rv/Rm)
 Practice problem
1. A 50μA PMMC meter has internal resistance of 1KΩ and intended to measure a voltage
of range 100V. Determine the magnitude of the series resistance and the multiplication
factor

4.2.3 Loading effect of Instruments
In measurement, always there exists error, which can be caused due to the meter itself, human
beings or external environments.
The ideal ammeter has zero resistance and ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance. How ever,
practical ameter has some resistance and practical voltmeter has finite resistance. Therefore,
there is a decrease in current or voltage to be measured when meters are connected in the
circuit. This effect is known as loading effect of instrument. The amount o floading dependent
up on the type of instrument and circuit being measured .
Consider the following circuits:
Fig.8: Loading effect of Ammeter
As shown in the above circuits, when Ammeter of 25Ω is connected to measure the current, the
measured value is decreased from o.5mA to 0.494mA due to loading effect.
 % Accuracy = (Iwm/Iwom)*100
 %Error = [(Iwom – Iwm)/ Iwom]*100 = 1- %Accuracy = % Loading effect

Fig.9: Voltmeter loading effect
As shown in the circuits, when a voltmeter of 1MΩ internal resistance is connected across the
20Ω, the actual voltage measured is about 9.8V, which is less than the theoretical value of 10V.
 %Accuracy = [( V measured)/(Vtheoretical)] * 100% = 98%

 % Error = 1-%Accuracy = 2%
4.2.4 The Ohmmeter

 It is used to measure resistance
 Constructed from the basic PMMC meter by inserting a battery source & limiting resistance
 Is designed in such a way that maximum current passes through the meter when the two
meter leads are connected(Rx =0)
Fig.10: Ohmmeter

 On analog ohmmeters, the scaling is designed in such a way that maximum pointer
deflection (Most right point) corresponds to zero resistance and the left most point
corresponds to infinite rsistance.
N.B
 The same PMMC meter can be designed to measure the three quantities voltage ,
current and resistance by means of changing function switch and such a meter is known
as multimeter
 The basic meter can also be changed to AC volmeter or Ac ammeter by adding an extra
rectifier circuit.
4.2.5 WATTMETERS
A Wattmeter is an instrument that measures dc power or real ac power. The wattmeter uses
fixed coils to indicate current in the circuit, while the movable coil indicates voltage.The coils
LI1 and LI2 in series are the fixed coils serving as an ammeter to measure current. The two I
terminal are connected in series with the load. The movable coil Lv and its multiplier resistance
Rs are used as a voltmeter, with the V terminals connected across the line in parallel with the
load. Then the current in the fixed coils is proportional to I, while the current in the movable
coil is proportional to V. The deflection of the pointer then is proportional to the VI product,
which is power.
Fig.11 The wattmeter

In three phase systems, the ttotal power is equal to sum of powers at each phase and
measurement of the three phase power can be done by three separate watt meters (not widly
used) or by two watt meters(commonly used) as shown below.
Fig.12: Three phase wattmeters connection

4.2.6 Watthour Meter (Energy meter)

When the power being dissipated in a load is calculated in terms of time, the amount of energy
consumed by the load can be found. The unit commonly used for electric energy calculation is
the kilowathour (KWh). It is the product of Kilowatts and hours. The most common energy
measuring device is the watthour meter (Fig.13). The speed of the rotating aluminum disk
(rotor of an ac motor) is determined by the magnetic fields set up by the current and voltage
coils. The greater the power passing through the meter, the faster the disk turns. The number
of turns is a measure of the energy consumed by the load. The shaft on which the disk is
mounted is geared to a group of indicators with clocklike faces. By reading the values on their
faces at different times, you can determine how much energy passed through the meter during
the interval between readings.
Fig.13 Energymeter
4.2.7 The cathode Ray Tube (Oscilloscope)

 The cathode ray tube(CRO) is used to observe the wave shape of voltage signal above
audio frequency
 Unlike digital multimeter (DMM), CRO measures the peak value, not the RMS value of
voltage signal
 Its display screen is made up a number of grids with vertical axis(Volt/division) and
horizontal axis(Time/division)
 The divisions are graduated on 10mm by 10mm squares
 It has various controls buttons as shown in the diagram below:

Fig.14 Two channel Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)
4.3 Transducers
 Transducers are devices which are used to sense a physical quantity (temperature, light
intensity, velocity, pressure, position, level, etc) and convert them into electrical output
signals for purpose of measurement
 Transducer contains a sensing element (sensor) and signal conditioning circuits.
 The sensor is the first element that takes information about the variable being measured and
transfforms it in to a more suitable form to be measured
 The signal conditioning circuit is used to transform passive element change(ΔR, ΔC, ΔL)
into active element change(ΔV or ΔI)
 Transducer = Sensor + Signal conditioning circuit
4.3.1: Transducer Classification

 Based on physical quantity to be sensed
 Temperature transducers (Thermister, LDR, RTD,Thermocouple)
 Position transducers (Potentiometer, LVDT, Floats)
 Velocity transducers(Tachometer, optical encoder)
 Force or pressure(straingauge)

 Based on source of energy

 Active( Thermocouple, solar cell, piezo electric crystal)
 Passive(Resistive, capacitive & inductive transducers)
 Based on output variation
 Analog: Converts I/P into continous o/p quantity
 Digital: converts I/P in to elctrical o/p in the form of pulses
 Based on nature of output quantity

 Inverse transducer: converts electrical signal in to change of physical quantity

1. Introduction to Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials which have half filled valence shells. They have unique electrical
properties in that their resistance decreases (conductivity increase) by increasing temperature or by
adding a carefully controlled impurities.
One feature that differentiates semiconductors from conductors is that that conduction in
semiconductors is due to both free electrons and holes. In pure (intrinsic) semiconductors such as
Silicon or Germanium, the atoms are arranged in an ordered array forming a three-dimentional
crystal lattice. In the crystal lattice, electrons of one atom are joined to electrons of neighbouring
atom by covalent bond as shown below
Fig1. Crystal lattice of Silicon
At sufficiently high temperature, some of covalent bonds will be broken because of large kinetic
energy, and become ready for conduction.Whenever electrons leaves a crystal lattice, it creates a
vacancy called hole, which behaves as positive charge. Thus for every electron raised to conduction
band, one hole is created in the valence band, creating what is known as electron-hole pair.Thus,
due to the movement of free electrons in the cocnduction band and movement of holes(not
physically) in the valance band, electron current and hole current are come int being
Fig.2: Electron current & Hole current

In a pure semiconductor materials the electron density (electrons/m3) equals the hole density
(holes/m3)
ni = pi (ni = 1.5 * 1016 electrons/m3 @ room temperature)
Although pure semiconductors such as silicon and germanium conduct as explained, their
characteristics are still close to insulators than to conductors (conductivity varies from 10-10 to 10-2
S/cm which is very small as cmpared to that of copper (0.5* 106 S/cm)
Inorder to improve their conduction, a very small quantity (in order of 1 part to 108) of other
elements are added and the process known as doping. The impure elements (dopants) to be added
are of trivalent atoms (Al, Ga, B, etc) or pentavalent atoms (P, As, Sb, etc).
Depending up on which type of dopant is used, extrinsic semiconductors are calssified as P-type
and N-type semiconductors.
P-tppe semiconductors are obtained by adding trivalent atoms (acceptors) to the pure silicon or
germanium atoms.In the covalent bond formation, the trivalent atoms shares only three electrons
and the fourth pair contains electorn and gap which will sooner be filled by electrons around.
Fig.3 Formation of P-type semiconductor
N-type semiconductors are obtained by adding pentavalent atoms (donars) in to the parent silicon or
germaium atoms. In th covalent bond formation, the impurity atom donates one extra electron to the
crystal lattice, which is free to move

Fig.4 Formation of N-type semiconductor
An important relation ship between electron and hole densities in extrinsic semiconductors is given
by:
np = ni2 = pi2 where,
n – electron denisty
p- hole density
ni - intrinsic electron density
pi - intrinsic hole density
The conductivity of a semiconductor increases in direct proportion to the degree of doping with
impurity atoms that produce the majority carrier.
σ = nµnqn+ pµpqp
σ nµnqn for N-type material n >> p
σ pµpqp for P-type material p >> n
Where,
µn and µp are electtron and hole drifft mobility (in m2/ volt-second)
qn and qp are unit charge on electron and proton(1.6 *10-19C)

2. The P-N Junction Diode
The region where the block of p- type material is joined to a block of n- type material is called a PN
junction and is a fundamental component of many electronic devices, including transistors. Adiode
is so called because its cathode at N-region and anode at the P region.Remember that diffusion
current flows whenever there is a surplus of carriers in one region and a corresponding lack of
carriers of the same kind in another region. Consequently, at the instant the P and N blocks are
joined, electrons from the N region diffuse into the P region, and holes from the P region diffuse
into the N region.(Recall that this hole current is actually the repositioning of holes due to the
motion of valence-band electrons.)
For each electron that leaves the N region to cross the junction into the P region, a donor atom that
now has a net positive charge is left behind. Similarly, for each hole that leaves the P region (that is,
for each acceptor atom that captures an electron), an acceptor atom acquires a net negative charge.
The upshot of this process is that negatively charged donor atoms accumulate just inside the p
region, and positively charged donor atoms accumulate just inside the N region. This charge
distribution often called space charge.
Ē
Electron
Hole
hole
P N
Depletion region
Fig.5 PN junction showing charged ions after hole and electron diffusion
It is well known that accumulation of electric charge of opposite polarities in two separated regions
cause an electric field to be established between those regions. The accumulation of positive ions in
N material and negative ions in the P material established an electric field across a PN junction. The
direction of field is from the positive n region to the negative P region. Figure 8 illustrates the field
Ē developed across a PN junction.

The accumulation of negative charge in the p region prevents additional negative charge from
entering that region (like charges repel each other) and, similarly, the positively charged N region
repels additional positive charge. Therefore, after the initial surge of charge across the junction, the
diffusion current dwindles (becoming gradually less) to a negligible amount.
The direction of electric field across the PN junction enables the flow of drift current from the P to
the N region, that is, the flow of electrons from left to right and of holes from right to left, in figure
8. There is therefore a small drift of minority carriers in opposite direction from the diffusion
current. When equilibrium condition have been established, the small reverse drift current exactly
cancels the diffusion current from N to P. the net current across the junction is therefore zero.
Remember that the P-region holes have been annihilated by electrons, and the N-region electrons
have migrated to the P side. Because all charge carriers have been depleted (removed) from this
region, it is called the depletion region. It is also called barrier region because the electric field
therein acts as a barrier to further diffusion current.
The values of barrier potential, VO, depends on the doping levels in the P and N regions, the type of
material (Si and Ge), and the temperature and mathematically expressed as given below:
𝑲𝑻 𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
VO= 𝐥𝐧 where,
𝒒 𝒏𝒊𝟐
VO = barrier potential,
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23J/0k,
T = temperature of the material in Kelvin (0k = 273 + 0c),
q = electron charge = 1.6 × 10−19 c
NA = acceptor doping density in the P material,
ND = donor doping density in the N material
ni = intrinsic electron density.

KT
VT = thermal voltage = q

2.1 Forward – biased junction
When an external dc source is connected across a PN junction, the polarity of the connection can be
such that it either opposes or reinforces the barrier. Suppose a voltage source VD is connected as
shown in figure-9, with its positive terminal attached to the P side of a PN junction and its negative
terminal attached to the N side. With polarity of connections shown in the figure-9, the external
source creates an electric field component across the junction whose direction opposes the internal
field established by the space charge.
In other words, the barrier is reduced, so diffusion current is enhanced. Therefore, current flows
with relative ease through the junction, its direction of flow is from P to N, as shown in figure-9. In
this case the junction is said to be forward biased.
h Ē ē
h = hole; ē = electron
Fig.6 Forward-biased p-n junction, Narrow depletion width
When the PN junction is forward biased, electrons are forced into the N region by the external
source and holes are forced into the P region. As free electrons move toward the junction through
the N material, a corresponding number of holes progresses through the P material. Thus, current in
each region is the result of majority carrier flow.
Electrons diffuse through the depletion region and recombine with holes in the P material. For each
hole that recombines with an electron, an electron from a covalent bond leaves the P region and
enters the positive terminal of the external source, thus maintaining the equality of current entering
and leaving the source. Since there is a reduction in the electric field barrier at the forward- biased
junction, there is a corresponding reduction in the quantity of ionized acceptor and donor atoms
required to maintain the field. As a result, the depletion region narrows under forward bias.
2.2 Reverse- biased junction
When the positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side of the junction and the negative
terminal is connected to the P side (shown in figure -10) the polarity of the bias voltage reinforces,
or strengthens, the internal barrier field at the junction. Consequently, diffusion current is inhibited
to an even greater extent than it was with no bias applied. The increased field intensity must be
supported by an increase in the number of ionized donor and acceptor atoms, so the depletion
regions widens under reverse bias.
Fig.7 Reverse biased p-n junction, wide depletion region
Recall that, the unbiased PN junction has a component of drift current consisting of minority
carriers that cross the junction from the P to the N side. This reverse current is the direct result of
the electric field across the depletion region. Since a reverse – biasing voltage increases the
magnitude of that field; we can expect the reverse current to increases correspondingly. The current
magnitude is very much smaller than the current that flows under forward bias.
The distinction between the ways a PN junction reacts to a bias voltage, very little current flow
when it is reverse biased and substantial current flow when it is forward biased, makes it very useful
device in many circuit applications.
The following diagram shows the I-V charactersistic curve of diode under forward and reverse-
biased conditions
𝑽𝑫
ID = IS (𝒆𝜼𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏) where, ID is diode current, IS is saturation current, VD
is biase voltage (positive for forward bias and negative for reverse bias), VT is thermal voltage and
η = emission coefficient

Fig.8 I-V Characteristic Curve of Diode
3 Diode Applications
A semiconductor diode can be used in varity of applications such as rectifier, voltage regulator,
voltage clamper, voltage clippers (limiters) digital circits (as OR gate, AND gate), digital displays
3.1 Rectifier
Rectifier is elctronic circuit which is used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage. There are different
types of rectifiers such as half wave and full wave rectifiers; both can be of single phase or three
phase types.
Fig.9 Half wave Rectifier(conduction occurs only during positive half cycle of input signal)

Fig10: Single phase Full wave rectifier-Bridge Type (conduction occurs for full period of input
signal)
3.2 Clipper
Clipper is electronic network which is used to cut off either a positive or negative portion of input
signal. It can be built from resistor& diode or diode, ressitor and dc voltage combination. In general,
there are two types of clipers; series and parallel clippers
Fig11: Series Clipper
Fig.12: Parallel clipper

3.3 Clamper
Clamper is electronic network that adds a dc level to either a positive excursions or negative
excursions of the input signal. The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element,
but it can also employ an independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift. The magnitude of
R and C must be chosen such that the time constant 𝜏 = RC is large enough to ensure that the
voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is non-
conducting. Throughout the analysis we will assume that for all practical purposes the capacitor will
fully charge or discharge in five time constants.
Fig.13: Clamping circuit (negative clamper)
It should be noted that in clamping circuit, the total input swing must be equal to total output swing.
The following circuits show positive and biased clampers
a/ positive clamper b/ Biased clamper
3.4 Diode Resistor Logic
Digital logic gates such as AND ggate & OR gate can be implemented from resisstor & and diode
combination as shown below
a/ OR gate b/ AND gate

ArbaMinch Institute of Technology, Department of Computer and Electrical Eng
Feedback Amplifier
A feedback amplifier is one in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input
circuit. This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input helps to control the output. A
feedback amplifier consists of two parts: an amplifier and feedback circuit.
There are two types of feedback in amplifiers. They are positive feedback, also called
regenerative or direct feedback, and negative feedback, also called degenerative or inverse
feedback. The difference between these two types is whether the feedback signal is in phase or
out of phase with the input signal.
Positive feedback
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to increase the input voltage (i.e. it is in phase
with it), then it is called positive feedback.
Since positive feedback produces excessive distortion, it is seldom used in amplifiers. However,
because it increases the power of the original signal, it is used in oscillator circuits.
Negative feedback
If the feedback voltage (or current) is so applied as to reduce the amplifier input (i.e. it is 180°
out of phase with it), then it is called negative feedback. It is frequently used in amplifier circuits.
Principle of Feedback Amplifiers

For an ordinary amplifier i.e. one without feedback, the voltage gain is given by the ratio of the
output voltage Vo and input voltage Vi. As shown in the block diagram of figure 1, the input
voltage Vi as amplified by a factor of A to the value Vo of the output voltage.
A = V o / Vi
This gain A is often called open-loop gain.
Figure 1
Suppose a feedback loop is added to the amplifier (fig. 2). If Vo’ is the output voltage with
feedback, the a fraction 𝛽 of this voltage is applied to the input voltage which, therefore,
becomes (𝑉𝑖 ± 𝛽𝑉0’) depending on whether the feedback voltage is in phase or antiphase with it.
Assuming Positive feedback, the input voltage will become (𝑉𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0 ’). When amplified A
times, it becomes A(𝑉𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0 ’).
A(𝑉𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉0 ’) = 𝑉0’
𝑉0’(1 − 𝛽𝐴) = 𝐴𝑉𝑖

1|Page
Figure 2
The amplifier gain A’ with feedback is given by
𝑉𝑜′ 𝐴
A’ = = 1−𝛽𝐴
𝑉𝑖
𝐴
A’ = ----positive feedback
1−𝛽𝐴
𝐴 𝐴
A’ = 1−(−𝛽𝐴) = 1+𝛽𝐴 -------negative feedback
The term ‘𝛽𝐴’ is called feedback factor whereas 𝛽 is known as feedback ratio. The expression
1 ± 𝛽𝐴 is called loop gain. The amplifier gain A’ with feedback is also referred to as closed loop
gain because it is the gain obtained after the feedback loop is closed. The sacrifice factor is
defined as S = A/A’
Negative Feedback
𝐴
The amplifier gain with negative feedback is given by A’ = 1+𝛽𝐴
Obviously, A’ < A because │1 + 𝛽𝐴│>1
Suppose, A = 90 and 𝛽= 1/10=0.1
Then, gain without feedback is 90 and with negative feedback is

𝐴 90
A’ = = =9
1+𝛽𝐴 1+0.1×90
As seen, negative feedback reduces the amplifier gain. That is why it is called degenerative
feedback. A lot of voltage gain is sacrificed due to negative feedback. When │𝛽𝐴│ >> 1, then
𝐴 1
A’ ≅ 𝛽𝐴 ≅ 𝛽
It means that A’ depends only on 𝛽. But it is very stable because it is not affected by changes in
temperature, device parameters, supply voltage and from the aging of circuit components etc.
2|Page
since resistors can be selected very precisely with almost zero temperature- coefficient of
resistance, it is possible to achieve highly precise and stable gain with negative feedback.
Positive Feedback
The amplifier gain with positive feedback is given by

𝐴
A’ = 1−𝛽𝐴 Since│1-𝛽𝐴│ < 1, A’ > A
Suppose gain without feedback is 90 and 𝛽 = 1/100=0.01, then gain with positive feedback is
𝐴
A’ = 1−(0.01×90) = 900
Since positive feedback increases the amplifier gain. It is called regenerative feedback. If 𝛽𝐴 =1,
then mathematically, the gain becomes infinite which simply means that there is an output
without any input! However, electrically speaking, this cannot happen. What actually happens is
that the amplifier becomes an oscillator which supplies its own input. In fact, two important and
necessary conditions for circuit oscillation are
1. The feedback must be positive,

2. Feedback factor must be unity i.e. 𝛽𝐴 = +1
Advantages of Negative Feedback
The numerous advantages of negative feedback outweigh its only disadvantages of reduced gain.
1. Higher fidelity i.e. more linear 5. Less harmonic distortion,

operation, 6. Less frequency distortion,
2. Increased bandwidth I.e. improved 7. Less phase distortion,
frequency response, 8. Reduced noise,
3. Highly stabilized gain 9. Input and output impedance can be
4. Less amplitude distortion. modified as desired.
3|Page
Chapter 6. Introduction to Semiconductors
 The P-N Junction Diode
 Forward – biased junction
 Reverse- biased junction
Bipolar Junction Transistor
 Junction Transistor
 PNP transistor
 NPN transistor
 Principle operation of Transistor
 Common Base (CB)configuration
 Common Emitter (CE) configuration
 Common collector (CC)configuration
 Comparison of Transistor configurations
Field Effect Transistor
 Junction field-effect transistors (JFETs)
 Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
 Advantages and Disadvantages of FET
Chapter 7. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Construction of SCR
 SCR operation
 VI characteristics of SCR
 Application of SCR
TRIAC (Triode AC Switch)
 TRIAC construction
 Operation of TRIAC
 VI characteristics of TRIAC
 Applications of TRIAC
 Comparison of SCR and TRIAC
DIAC
 DIAC operation
 VI characteristics of DIAC
 Applications
PN Junction Diode
The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being applied to
the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium. However, if we were to
make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type materials and then connect
them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the
potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as
the PN Junction Diode. A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around,
and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a
resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by
simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law. If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied
between the two ends of the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy
they require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is
decreased. By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away
from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of
increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current
flow through the diode. Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a
reverse voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the
differences in the electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical
changes taking place. One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static
I-V (current-voltage) characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the
polarity of bias voltage is altered as shown below.
Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.

But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse
Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage
which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:
 Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

 Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
 Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the
P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction
against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable and
move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known
as diffusion, as shown below.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across the
junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and
few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction. Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be
established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving in opposite directions, so that the
net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the junction is said to be in a state of
“Dynamic Equilibrium“. The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so
this state of equilibrium can be broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an
increase in the generation of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but
an electric current cannot flow since no circuit has been connected to the PN junction.
Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the
N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the
holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents
a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
Increase in the Depletion Layer due to Reverse Bias
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage
current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ). One final
point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough
value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit
current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a series
limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum
value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly
known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.
Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the
energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the
junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to
this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the
diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias
This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
“infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are
used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
Junction Diode Summary

The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
 Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons.
 The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
 A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping),
so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
 A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
 The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
 The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
 When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
 When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces
and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
 When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases
and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small
leakage current).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V characteristic are
polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode is
either Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can model these current-
voltage characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a real diode.
Bipolar Junction Transistor
In 1947 J. Barden, W. Bratterin and W. Shockley invented transistor. The word “transistor” is derived
from the words “Transfer” and “Resistor” it describes the operation of a BJT i.e. the transfer of an
input signal from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit. This type of transistor is made up
of semiconductors. Now as there are two junctions of different types of semiconductors, this is called
junction transistor. It’s called “bipolar” because the conduction takes place due to both electrons as
well as holes.
Definition of BJT
A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions
which is able to amplify or “magnify” a signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of
the BJT are the base, the collector and the emitter. A signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is
available in the amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the amplification provided by
the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC power supply to carry out the
amplification process. The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction transistors mentioned
above are given below.
From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base and collector. J E
and JC represent junction of emitter and junction of collector respectively. Now initially it is sufficient
for us to know that emitter based junction is forward biased and collector base junctions is reverse
biased. The next topic will describe the two types of this transistor.
N-P-N Bipolar Junction Transistor

As started before in n-p-n bipolar transistor one p - type semiconductor resides between two n-type
semiconductors the diagram below a n-p-n transistor is shown
Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and VCB are emitter base voltage
and collector base voltage respectively. According to convention if for the emitter, base and collector
current IE, IB and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken as positive and if
current goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative. We can tabulate the different
currents and voltages inside the n-p-n transistor.
Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
n-p-n - + + - + +
P-N-P Bipolar Junction Transistor

Similarly for p - n - p bipolar junction transistor a n-type semiconductors is sandwiched between
two p-type semiconductors. The diagram of a p - n - p transistor is shown below
For p-n-p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the emitter terminal. Like any bipolar
junction transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased. We can tabulate the emitter, base and collector current, as well as the emitter base,
collector base and collector emitter voltage for p-n-p transistors also.
Transistor type IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
p-n-p + - - + - -
Working Principle of BJT

Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor biasing), the BE junction is
forward biased whereas the CB junction is reversed biased. The width of the depletion region of the
BE junction is small as compared to that of the CB junction. The forward bias at the BE junction
reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow from the emitter to base. As the base is
thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so some of the electrons from the emitter (about
2%) recombine with the holes present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal. This
constitutes the base current, it flows due to recombination of electrons and holes (Note that the
direction of conventional current flow is opposite to that of flow of electrons). The remaining large
number of electrons will cross the reverse biased collector junction to constitute the collector current.
Thus by KCL, The base current is very small as compared to emitter and
collector current. Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The
operation of a p-n-p transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority charge
carriers are holes instead of electrons. Only a small part current flows due to majority carriers and
most of the current flows due to minority charge carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority
carrier devices.
The BJT operates in three different modes: Cutoff mode, Linear Amplification mode and Saturation
mode, Figure.
Figure: IC-VCE Characteristics Curves of an npn BJT
BJT is very important in electronics. They are used extensively in other Exhibits, especially as
Amplifiers in analog circuit and Electronic Switches in digital circuit.
B-E junction B-C junction

Applied voltages Mode (NPN)
bias (NPN) bias (NPN)
E<B<C Forward Reverse Forward-active
E<B>C Forward Forward Saturation
E>B<C Reverse Reverse Cut-off
E>B>C Reverse Forward Reverse-active
B-E junction B-C junction

Applied voltages Mode (PNP)
bias (PNP) bias (PNP)
E<B<C Reverse Forward Reverse-active
E<B>C Reverse Reverse Cut-off
E>B<C Forward Forward Saturation
E>B>C Forward Reverse Forward-active

CE, CB, CC Configurations:
Transistor Configuration:
 We know that transistor has three terminals namely emitter(E), base(B), collector(C).
 However, when a transistor is connected in a circuit, we require four terminals (ie) two
terminals for input and two terminals for output.
 This difficulty is overcome by using one of the terminals as common terminal.
 Depending upon the terminals which are used as a common terminal to the input and
output terminals, the transistors can be connected in the following three different
configuration.
1. Common base configuration
2. Common emitter configuration
3. Common collector configuration
1. Common base configuration:
 In this configuration base terminal is conncted as a common terminal.

 The input is applied between the emitter and base terminals.The output is
taken between the collector and base terminals.
2. Common emitter configuration:
 In this configuration emitter terminal is conncted as a common terminal.

 The input is applied between the base and emitter terminals.The output is
taken between the collector and base terminals.
3. Common collector configuration:
 In this configuration collector terminal is conncted as a common terminal.

 The input is applied between the base and collector terminals.The output
is taken between the emitter and collector terminals

Comparison of CE,CB,CC configurations

Introduction to Junction Field-effect Transistors (JFET)
A transistor is a linear semiconductor device that controls current with the application of a lower-
power electrical signal. Transistors may be roughly grouped into two major
divisions: bipolar and field-effect. In the last chapter we studied bipolar transistors, which utilize a
small current to control a large current. In this chapter, we’ll introduce the general concept of the
field-effect transistor—a device utilizing a small voltage to control current—and then focus on one
particular type: the junction field-effect transistor. In the next chapter we’ll explore another type of
field-effect transistor, the insulated gate variety. All field-effect transistors are unipolar rather
than bipolar devices. That is, the main current through them is comprised either of electrons
through an N-type semiconductor or holes through a P-type semiconductor. This becomes more
evident when a physical diagram of the device is seen:
In a junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, the controlled current passes from source to drain, or
from drain to source as the case may be. The controlling voltage is applied between the gate and
source. Note how the current does not have to cross through a PN junction on its way between
source and drain: the path (called a channel) is an uninterrupted block of semiconductor material.
In the image just shown, this channel is an N-type semiconductor. P-type channel JFETs are also
manufactured:
Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The reasons for this have to
do with obscure details of semiconductor theory, which I’d rather not discuss in this chapter. As
with bipolar transistors, I believe the best way to introduce field-effect transistor usage is to avoid
theory whenever possible and concentrate instead on operational characteristics. The only practical
difference between N- and P-channel JFETs you need to concern yourself with now is biasing of
the PN junction formed between the gate material and the channel.
With no voltage applied between gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for electrons to
flow. However, if a voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that it reverse-
biases the PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes limited, or
regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current. Maximum gate-
source voltage “pinches off” all current through source and drain, thus forcing the JFET into cutoff
mode. This behavior is due to the depletion region of the PN junction expanding under the
influence of a reverse-bias voltage, eventually occupying the entire width of the channel if the
voltage is great enough. This action may be likened to reducing the flow of a liquid through a
flexible hose by squeezing it: with enough force, the hose will be constricted enough to completely
block the flow.
Note how this operational behavior is exactly opposite of the bipolar junction transistor. Bipolar
transistors are normally-off devices: no current through the base, no current through the collector
or the emitter. JFETs, on the other hand, are normally-on devices: no voltage applied to the gate
allows maximum current through the source and drain. Also take note that the amount of current
allowed through a JFET is determined by a voltage signal rather than a current signal as with
bipolar transistors. In fact, with the gate-source PN junction reverse-biased, there should be nearly
zero current through the gate connection. For this reason, we classify the JFET as a voltage-
controlled device, and the bipolar transistor as a current-controlled device.If the gate-source PN
junction is forward-biased with a small voltage, the JFET channel will “open” a little more to
allow greater currents through. However, the PN junction of a JFET is not built to handle any
substantial current itself, and thus it is not recommended to forward-bias the junction under any
circumstances.
Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)
The MOSFET differs from the JFET in that it has no p-n junction structure; instead, the gate of the
MOSFET is insulated from the channel by a silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer. The two basic types of
MOSFETs are depletion (D) and enhancement (E). Because of the insulated gate, these devices are
sometimes called IGFETs.
Depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
One type of MOSFET is the depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET), and Fig. 2 illustrates its basic
structure. The drain and source are diffused into the substrate material and then connected by a narrow
channel adjacent to the insulated gate. Both n-channel and p-channel devices are shown in the figure.
Figure 4.14 representation of the basic structure of D-MOSFETs.

Advantages of FET
The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100M ohms or more. Thus,
it is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of isolation between input and output. It is a
unipolar device, depending only upon majority current flow. It is less noisy and is thus found in FM
tuners and in low-noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation.
It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal chopper. It
typically has better thermal stability than a bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
Disadvantages of FET
It has relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET has a drawback of
being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during installation.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a unidirectional semiconductor device made of silicon

which can be used to provide a selected power to the load by switching it ON for variable
amount of time. These devices are solid-state equivalent of thyratrons and are hence referred
to as thyristors or thyrode transistors. In fact, SCR is a trade name of General Electric (GE) to
the thyristor. Basically SCR is a three terminal, four-layer (hence of three junctions J1, J2
and J3) semiconductor device consisting of alternate layers of p- and n-type material doping.
Figure 1a shows the SCR with the layers pnpn which has the terminals Anode (A), Cathode
(K) and the Gate (G). Further it is to be noted that the Gate terminal will generally be the p-
layer nearer to the Cathode terminal. The symbol of the SCR used in case of circuit diagrams
is shown in Figure 1b.
These SCRs can be considered equivalent to two inter-connected transistors as shown by the
Figure 2.
Here it is seen that a single SCR is equal to a combination of pnp (Q1) and npn (Q2)
transistors where the emitter of Q1 will act as the anode terminal of the SCR while the emitter
of Q2 will be its cathode. Further, the base of Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2 and the
collector of Q1 is shorted with the base of Q2 to result in the gate terminal of the SCR. The
working of SCR can be understood by analyzing its behaviour in the following modes:
1. Reverse Blocking Mode: In this mode, the SCR is reverse biased by connecting its Anode
terminal to negative end of the battery and by providing its Cathode terminal with a
positive voltage (Figure 3a). This leads to the reverse biasing of the junctions J1 and J3,
which inturn prohibits the flow of current through the device, inspite of the fact that the
junction J2 will be forward biased. Further, in this state, the SCR behaviour will be
identical to that of a typical diode as it exhibits both the flow of reverse saturation current
(green curve in Figure 4) as well as the reverse break-down phenomenon (black curve in
Figure 4).
2. Forward Blocking Mode: Here a positive bias is applied to the SCR by connecting its
Anode to the positive of the battery and by shorting the SCR cathode to the battery's
negative terminal, as shown by Figure 3b. Under this condition, the junctions J1 and J3
gets forward biased while J2 will be reverse biased which allows only a minute amount of
current flow through the device as shown by the blue curve in Figure 4.
3. Forward Conduction Mode: SCR can be made to conduct either (i) By Increasing the
positive voltage applied between the Anode and Cathode terminals beyond the Break-Over
Voltage, VB or (ii) By applying positive voltage at its gate terminal as shown by Figure 3c.
In the first case, the increase in the applied bias causes the initially reverse biased junction
J2 to break-down at the point corresponding to Forward Break-Over Voltage, VB. This
results in the sudden increase in the current flowing through the SCR as shown by the pink
curve in Figure 4, although the gate terminal of the SCR remains unbiased. However SCRs
can be made to turn-on at a much smaller voltage level by proving small positive voltage
between the gate and the cathode terminals (Figure 3c). The reason behind this can be
better understood by considering the transistor equivalent circuit of the SCR shown in
Figure 2. Here it is seen that on applying positive voltage at the gate terminal, transistor Q 2
switches ON and its collector current flows into the base of transistor Q1. This causes Q1 to
switch ON which in turn results in the flow of its collector current into the base of Q 2. This
causes either transistor to get saturated at a very rapid rate and the action cannot be stopped
even by removing the bias applied at the gate terminal, provided the current through the
SCR is greater than that of the Latching current. Here the latching current is defined as the
minimum current required to maintain the SCR in conducting state even after the gate
pulse is removed. In such state, the SCR is said to be latched and there will be no means to
limit the current through the device, unless by using an external impedance in the circuit.
This necessitates one to resort for different techniques like Natural Commutation, Forced
Commutation or Reverse Bias Turn-Off and Gate Turn-Off to switch OFF the SCR.
Basically all of these techniques aim at reducing the Anode Current below the Holding
Current, the minimum current which is to be maintained through the SCR to keep it in its
conducting mode. Similar to turn-off techniques, there also exist different turn-on
techniques for the SCR like Triggering by DC Gate Signal, Triggering by AC Gate Signal
and Triggering by Pulsed Gate Signal, Forward-Voltage Triggering, Gate Triggering, dv/dt
Triggering, Temperature Triggering and Light Triggering. There are many variations of
SCR devices viz., Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT), Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO),
Gate Assisted Turn-Off Thyristor (GATT), Asymmetric Thyristor, Static Induction
Thyristors (SITH), MOS Controlled Thyristors (MCT), Light Activated Thyristors
(LASCR) etc. Normally SCRs have high switching speed and can handle heavy current
flow. This makes them ideal for many applications like
 Power switching circuits (for both AC and DC)
 Zero-voltage switching circuits
 Over voltage protection circuits
 Controlled Rectifiers
 Inverters
 AC Power Control (including lights, motors, etc.)
 Pulse Circuits
 Battery Charging Regulator
 Latching Relays
 Computer Logic Circuits
 Remote Switching Units
 Phase Angle Triggered Controllers
 Timing Circuits
 IC Triggering Circuits
 Welding Machine Control
 Temperature Control Systems
TRIAC
Triac is a three terminal AC switch which is different from the other silicon controlled rectifiers in
the sense that it can conduct in both the directions that is whether the applied gate signal is positive or
negative, it will conduct. Thus, this device can be used for AC systems as a switch. This is a three
terminal, four layer, bi-directional semiconductor device that controls AC power. The triac of
maximum rating of 16 kw is available in the market.
Figure shows the symbol of triac, which has two main terminals MT 1 and MT2 connected in inverse
parallel and a gate terminal.
Construction of Triac
Two SCRs are connected in inverse parallel with gate terminal as common. Gate terminals is
connected to both the N and P regions due to which gate signal may be applied which is irrespective
of the polarity of the signal. Here, we do not have anode and cathode since it works for both the
polarities which means that device is bilateral. It consists of three terminals namely, main terminal
1(MT1), main terminal 2(MT2), and gate terminal G.
Figure shows the construction of a triac. There are two main terminals namely MT 1 and MT2 and the
remaining terminal is gate terminal.
Operation of Triac
The triac can be turned on by applying the gate voltage higher than break over voltage. However,
without making the voltage high, it can be turned on by applying the gate pulse of 35 micro seconds
to turn it on. When the voltage applied is less than the break over voltage, we use gate triggering
method to turn it on. There are four different modes of operations, they are-
1. When MT2 and Gate being Positive with Respect to MT1 When this happens, current flows
through the path P1-N1-P2-N2. Here, P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward biased but N1-P2 is reverse
biased. The triac is said to be operated in positively biased region. Positive gate with respect to
MT1 forward biases P2-N2 and breakdown occurs.
2. When MT2 is Positive but Gate is Negative with Respect to MT1 The current flows through
the path P1-N1-P2-N2. But P2-N3 is forward biased and current carriers injected into P2 on the
triac.
3. When MT2 and Gate are Negative with Respect to MT1 Current flows through the path P2-
N1-P1-N4. Two junctions P2-N1 and P1-N4 are forward biased but the junction N1-P1 is reverse
biased. The triac is said to be in the negatively biased region.
4. When MT2 is Negative but Gate is Positive with Respect to MT1 P2-N2 is forward biased at
that condition. Current carriers are injected so the triac turns on. This mode of operation has a
disadvantage that it should not be used for high (di/dt) circuits. Sensitivity of triggering in
mode 2 and 3 is high and if marginal triggering capability is required, negative gate pulses
should be used. Triggering in mode 1 is more sensitive than mode 2 and mode 3.
Characteristics of a Triac
The triac characteristic is similar to SCR but it is applicable to both positive and negative triac
voltages. The operation can be summarized as follows-
First Quadrant Operation of Triac

Voltage at terminal MT2 is positive with respect to terminal MT1 and gate voltage is also positive with
respect to first terminal.
Second Quadrant Operation of Triac

Voltage at terminal 2 is positive with respect to terminal 1 and gate voltage is negative with respect to
terminal 1.
Third Quadrant Operation of Triac

Voltage of terminal 1 is positive with respect to terminal 2 and the gate voltage is negative.
Fourth Quadrant Operation of Triac
Voltage of terminal 2 is negative with respect to terminal 1 and gate voltage is positive.
When the device gets turned on, a heavy current flows through it which may damage the device,
hence in order to limit the current a current limiting resistor should be connected externally to it. By
applying proper gate signal, firing angle of the device may be controlled. The gate triggering circuits
should be used for proper gate triggering. We can use diac for triggering the gate pulse. For firing of
the device with proper firing angle, a gate pulse may be applied up to a duration of 35 micro seconds.
Advantages of Triac
1. It can be triggered with positive or negative polarity of gate pulses.
2. It requires only a single heat sink of slightly larger size, whereas for SCR, two heat sinks
should be required of smaller size.
3. It requires single fuse for protection.
4. A safe breakdown in either direction is possible but for SCR protection should be given with
parallel diode.
Disadvantages of Triac
1. They are not much reliable compared to SCR.
2. It has (dv/dt) rating lower than SCR.
3. Lower ratings are available compared to SCR.
4. We need to be careful about the triggering circuit as it can be triggered in either direction.
Uses of Triac
1. They are used in control circuits.
2. It is used in High power lamp switching.
3. It is used in AC power control.
DIAC
DIAC Construction Operation and Applications of DIAC

Diac is a device which has two electrodes. It is a member of the thyristor family. It is mainly used in
triggering of thyristor. The advantage of using this device is that it can be turned on or off simply by
reducing the voltage level below its avalanche breakdown voltage.Also, it can be either turned on or
off for both the polarity of voltages. This device works when avalanche breakdown occurs.
The figure shows a symbol of diac which resembles the connection of two diodes in series. Also it can
be called as a transistor without base.
Construction of Diac
it is a device which consists of four layers and two terminals. The construction is almost same as that
of the transistor. But there are certain points which deviate from the construction from the transistor.
The differentiating points are-
1. There is no base terminal in the diac.
2. The three regions have almost the same level of doping.
3. It gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of voltages.
Operation of Diac
From the figure, we see that it has two p-type material and three n-type materials. Also it does not
have any gate terminal in it. The diac can be turned on for both the polarity of voltages. When A2 is
more positive with respect to A1 then the current does not flows through the corresponding N-layer
but flows from P2-N2-P1-N1. When A1 is more positive A2 then the current flows through P1-N2-P2-N3.
The construction resembles the diode connected in series. When applied voltage is small in either
polarity, a very small current flows which is known as leakage current because of drift of electrons
and holes in the depletion region. Although a small current flows, but it is not sufficient enough to
produce avalanche breakdown so the device remains in the non conducting state. When the applied
voltage in either polarity exceeds the breakdown voltage, diac current rises and the device conducts in
accordance with its V-I characteristics.
The V-I characteristics resembles the english word Z. The diac acts as open circuit when the voltage
is less than its avalanche breakdown voltage. When the device has to be turned off, the voltage must
be reduced below its avalanche breakdown voltage.
Application of Diac
It can be used mainly in the triac triggering circuit. The diac is connected in the gate terminal of the
triac. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the gate voltage will
be zero and hence the triac will be turned off. The main applications are-
1. It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit.
2. It is used in the heat control circuit.
3. It is used in the speed control of a universal motor.
It is used with triac in series combination for triggering. The gate of triac is connected with a terminal
of the diac. When applied voltage across diac increases above the avalanche breakdown, then only it
can conduct. However, when the voltage across diac decreases below its avalanche breakdown
voltage it will be turned off and hence the triac will also remain in the off state.
Conclusion of Diac
The diac is an important device in the thyristor family. The main advantage of using this device is-
1. It does not switch sharply to a low voltage condition at a low current level as done by SCR
or triac.
2. It has low on state voltage drop until its current falls below the holding current level.
3. Voltage drop decreases with the increase in current.

Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Electrical and Electronics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamental of Electricity and Electronics

Dr.Narayana Swamy Ramaiah

Nature of Electricity Page 1

PART ONE: ELECTRICITY

As you learned in physics,

Let us see the structure of two atoms:

Nature of Electricity Page 2

Nature of Electricity Page 3

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

The Unit of Electrical Charge: The coulomb

Nature of Electricity Page 4

Nature of Electricity Page 5

whereQ is the charge (coulomb) and t is the time interval (sec.)

Solution Convert t to seconds. Thus,

Symbol for DC Voltage Sources

Figure 1.5 battery symbols

Nature of Electricity Page 6

Alternating Current (AC)

Factors affecting the resistance

Ohm determined experimentally that current in a resistive circuit is directlyproportional to its

Nature of Electricity Page 8

Example 1.7A 27 Ω resistor is connected to a 12-V battery. What is the current?

Nature of Electricity Page 9

1. DirectCurrent (DC) Circuit Analysis

1.1 Series Circuits

Fig.1 Series Combination of Resistors

 Resistors are connected end to end across a voltage source:

Reg=R1 +R2+R3 +----Rn

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 1

=I2R, + I2R2 + I2R3 + ----- I2Rn.

Two elements are in series if:

Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

Find: a, Total resistance

b, current through each resistor

c, Voltage drop across each resistor using voltage divider rule

d, total power dissipiated in the circuit

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 2

1.2 Parallel Circuits

Fig.2 Parallel combination of resistors

 The voltage across parallel elements is the same.

 The equivalent resistance(Req) is expressed by the following equation:

Pt= P1+ P2 + P3 + --- Pn

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 3

Current Divider Rule(CDR)

 Find: a, unknown resistances R2 & R3

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 4

1.3 Series-Parallel Circuits

Fig.3 Series-Parallel Circuit

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 5

Find: a, Total resistance

1.4. DC Network Theorems

1.4.1. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 6

Consider the circuit given below:

Fig.4 Kirchhoff’s Law

E-V1-V2-V3 = 0 OR E+ (-V1) + (-V2) + (-V3) = 0

1.4.2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The summation of currents entering a node is equal to currents leaviing a node.

Symolically this can be put as shown below:

Fundamentals of Elecricity & Electronics Devices, 2005E.C 7

Consider the diagramgiven below to understand KCL:

Fig.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

 KCL: I1 +I5 = I2+I3 +I4

1.4.3Branch Current Analysis