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INTRODUCTION
The study of work motivation and performance forms one of the key issues
in research in organisational behaviour. Although a variety of motivations
may affect performance, and performance may be contingent on a multitude
of other factors, one of the more important factors affecting performance
________________
* Address for correspondence: Daan van Knippenberg, University of Amsterdam, Work &
Organizational Psychology, Roetersstraat 15, 1018 WB Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email:
ao_vanKnippenberg@macmail.psy.uva.nl
I wish to thank Alexander Haslam, Moshe Krausz, Barbara van Knippenberg, Robert
Wood, and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on previous drafts of this paper.
arguably is the motivation to perform well on the job. The present study
focuses on work motivation, and analyses it from the perspective of social
identity theory (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner, 1986)
and self-categorisation theory, which is an elaboration and extension of social
identity theory (Turner, 1985; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell,
1987). In the following, the theoretical backgrounds to the social identity
approach (i.e. including both social identity theory and self-categorisation
theory) to motivation and performance are presented, the proposition that
organisational identification affects work motivation and performance is
derived from this approach, and empirical evidence in support of this
proposition is discussed.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS
The social identity approach outlines how membership in social groups affects
the self-concept. Central to the approach is the proposition that through
social identification, the perception of oneness with or belongingness to a
group (see Mael & Ashforth, 1992), individuals define themselves in terms of
their group membership and ascribe characteristics that are typical of the
group to the self. The concept of social identity, ``that part of an individual's
self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership of a group
(or groups) together with the value and the emotional significance attached
to the membership'' (Tajfel, 1978, p. 63), reflects this internalisation of
group membership as part of ``who you are'' (Ashforth & Mael, 1989;
Haslam, in press). Identification leads individuals to perceive themselves
in terms of the characteristics they share with other members of their
ingroupsÐtheir shared social identityÐrather than in terms of the
idiosyncratic characteristics that differentiate them from other indivi-
dualsÐtheir personal identity (Turner et al., 1987). Identification thus blurs
the distinction between self and group, and turns the group, psychologically,
into a part of the self (Smith & Henry, 1996). This ``social'' or ``collective''
self lies at the heart of the perceptual, attitudinal, and behavioural effects of
group membership. The more one conceives of oneself in terms of one's
membership in a group (i.e. the more one identifies with the group), the
more likely one is to act in accordance with the group's beliefs, norms, and
values, and generally to act in ``group-typical'' ways (Ashforth & Mael,
1989; Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994; Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Turner
et al., 1987).
Even though identification with a group may lead individuals to act in
group-typical ways, this does not mean that individuals who identify with a
group always act in accordance with the social identity based in that group
membership. The influence of identification is contingent on social identity
being salient or cognitively activated. That is, even if an individual identifies
with a group, that does not mean the individual is always highly aware
of this group membership, and group membership only affects attitudes
and behaviour to the extent that the individual is ``made aware'' of the
membership in the group. Although identification itself may contribute to
social identity salience (Haslam, in press), contextual factors affect salience
as well. Roughly speaking, any ``event'' that speaks to a group membership
(i.e. rather than to the individual qua individual) may make the social
identity based in that group membership salient. The prospect of a merger
may, for instance, render organisational identity salient (van Knippenberg,
van Knippenberg, Monden, & de Lima, 1999), conflict or competition
between work groups may render work group identity salient (Kramer,
1991), and the addition of individuals from another ethnicity to a previously
ethnicly homogenous work group may focus on ethnic identity. Identity
salience may endure for longer periods of time or may change in a matter of
moments, for instance when departmental identity is salient in an inter-
departmental meeting, and a telephone call from home immediately after the
meeting focuses on family identity (for a more elaborate discussion of the
salience of social identities in organisations, see e.g. Haslam, in this issue;
Hogg & Terry, 2000; Kramer, 1991).
As the group seems to be where organisational behaviour primarily takes
place, and organisations themselves may, from a social psychological per-
spective, be viewed as social groups, the relevance of the social identity
approach to the study of organisational behaviour is readily apparent.
Social identity theory has, more or less from its conception, been applied to
the study of organisational behaviour (e.g. Brown, 1978), but the study of
social identity processes in organisations has only gained momentum in
recent years. The social identity approach has been applied in several areas
of organisational behaviour research, such as intergroup relations within the
organisation (Brown, Condor, Mathews, Wade, & Williams, 1986; Kramer,
1991), mergers and acquisitions (Terry & Callan, 1998; van Knippenberg et al.,
1999), group cohesiveness (Hogg, 1993; Hogg, Cooper-Shaw, & Holzworth,
1993), organisational demography (Ely, 1994; Tsui, Egan, & O'Reilly, 1992),
leadership (Haslam, McGarty, Brown, Eggins, Morrison, & Reynolds, 1998;
Hogg, Hains, & Mason, 1998), promotion decisions (Fajak & Haslam,
1998), and turnover (Mael & Ashforth, 1995). Most relevant to the present
discussion, the social identity approach also has clear implications for work
motivation and performance.
van Knippenberg & van Schie, in press; for a discussion of the multiple foci
of organisational identification). An obvious question from the point of
view of the social identity approach is how these identifications affect
organisational behaviour, and especiallyÐgiven that this is so central to
organisational lifeÐwork motivation and performance. The answer to this
question is that identification motivates group members to work for the
group's interests, which in turn may affect performance. These arguments
are elaborated below.
Identification elicits a sense of oneness with the target of identification.
This psychological oneness with the group (or organisation) induces indi-
viduals to take the group's perspective and to experience the group's goals
and interests as their own (see Dutton et al., 1994). Thus, identification will
generally be associated with a motivation to achieve group goals and work
for the group's interest. Yet, whether identification with the organisation
or within-organisation subunit (i.e. team, work group) actually results in
higher performance at work is contingent on a number of other factors.
First, as outlined above, identification with the group or organisation will
only affect attitudes and behaviour to the extent that social identity is
salient. Thus, identification will only result in the motivation to exert effort
on behalf of the collective to the extent that group or organisational identity
is salient (see also Haslam, in this issue).
Second, the relationship between identification and motivation to exert
effort on behalf of the collective may be positive (although the strength of
the relationship will be contingent on social identity salience), but this does
not necessarily mean that identification results in work motivation. That is,
we should distinguish between the motivation to exert effort on behalf of the
collective and the motivation to perform well on the job (i.e. work moti-
vation). Even though identification may be associated with the willingness
to exert effort on behalf of the collective, whether this results in work
motivation is contingent on what the goals and interests of that collective
are perceived to be. Identification may only be expected to be positively
related to work motivation if high performance is perceived to be in the
collective's interest. Only then will motivation to exert effort on behalf of the
collective translate to motivation to perform well on the job. Performance
standards may, however, not be particularly high, clear, or salient as it is not
always clear in organisations or jobs what is expected or desired in terms
of performance, and high performance may not be a goal. Moreover,
performance standards may be different at the organisational and subunit
level, as arises when the organisation advocates high performance, while
informal work group norms promote minimisation of work efforts or a
focus on interpersonal relations. If the primary target of identification is
not perceived to have a commitment to high performance, identification is
unlikely to result in striving to enhance performance.
Blakely, 1995; Organ, 1988). This distinction is of interest for two reasons.
First, contextual performance may be assumed to be more under volitional
control than task performance (Organ, 1988), because behaviours like
helping others and taking others' interests into consideration are generally
less contingent on skills, ability, resources, and so on, than task perform-
ance. Moreover, contextual performance more or less by definition refers to
behaviours that individuals are not required to perform, whereas task
performance is part of job requirements. As a consequence, an employee can
more easily refrain from contextual than from task behaviours. Second, task
performance is more likely to benefit the self (e.g. in terms of career
opportunities or bonuses) than contextual performance, and may therefore
be less contingent on group-oriented motivations. These considerations
suggest that the effects of identification may be more apparent on con-
textual than on task performance. Moreover, contextual performance may
benefit the task performance of the work unit as a whole (Podsakoff,
Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997), even if it does not benefit the task perform-
ance of the individual engaging in the contextual behaviours. Even so, it
should be noted that although contextual performance may be in the
collective's best interest, individuals need not perceive it as such, and may
engage in contextual behaviours for other reasons than wanting to contri-
bute to the collective interest (e.g. because they want to help a friend). Thus,
the relationship between identification and contextual performance may not
be straightforward either.
and value orientations were measured and expectations about other group
members' task effort were manipulated. Van Leeuwen and van Knippenberg
predicted that identification would motivate group members to exert effort
on the group task, especially for group members who were not disposi-
tionally inclined to take others' interests into account (i.e. individuals with
proself as compared with prosocial value orientations). Results supported
these predictions. Performance (number of envelopes filled) was higher
for participants who identified more with their work group, and this effect
was stronger for group members with a proself rather than a prosocial
orientation. Performance was also affected by expectations about the effort
other group members would invest in the group task. Higher expected effort
from others resulted in higher own performance, but more so for partici-
pants with relatively low identification. High identifiers were motivated
to perform more or less irrespective of the effort and performance they
expected from their fellow group members. These results show that identi-
fication is positively related to performance, even if it means exerting effort
on behalf of the group while other group members are taking it easy.
Moreover, and of more importance to the present discussion, the fact that
identification was primarily related to performance of individuals who
dispositionally focus on personal self-interest showed that identification
may elicit the motivation to exert effort on behalf of the collective because it
leads individuals to experience the collective's interests as self-interest, albeit
social self-interest and not personal self-interest.
CONCLUSIONS
The number of studies of the relationship of identification with motivation
and performance is as yet rather small, but these studies do yield converging
evidence in support of the proposed social identity model of motivation and
performance, and corroborate the conclusion that identification is positively
related to work motivation, task performance, and contextual performance
to the extent that (a) social identity is salient, and (b) high performance is
perceived to be in the group's or organisation's interest. Even so, some of
the relationships proposed by the model are not tested yet, only implicated
by the results of the studies reviewed, or only established correlationally
rather than experimentally. Therefore, more extensive testing of the rela-
tions proposed in the model seems in order before more definite conclusions
about the merits of the social identity approach to motivation and perform-
ance may be drawn.
The relationship between social identity processes and performance on
simple tasks (i.e. where performance is highly dependent on motivation)
seems to be well established in the experimental research reviewed. As
proposed in the model, but not addressed in the studies reviewed here,
performance on more complex tasks (i.e. tasks on which performance is less
contingent on motivation alone) may only be contingent on social identity
processes to the extent that the individual possesses the necessary skills,
knowledge, and so on, to render performance on the task primarily an issue
of motivation. Yet, one may argue that especially on such tasks, where
individuals may be more dependent on help, cooperation, and information
from others, social identity processes may affect group performance through
contextual performance (cf. Podsakoff et al., 1997) and interpersonal co-
operation (cf. Kramer, 1991). The study of these more complex relationships
would seem to be an obvious next step both from a theoretical and from an
applied point of view.
Although the discussion has primarily focused on the positive effect
identification may have on performance, there is a definite potential for
tion, and other propositions made here, will have to await the results of
future research.
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