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SEEING OURSELVES
Classic, Contemporary,
and Cross.. .Cultural Readings
in Sociology
Eighth Edition
Edited by
John J. Macionis
Kenyon College
Nijole V. Benokraitis
University of Baltimore
UBRARY
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Preface xiii
About the Editor
CLASSIC
2 "Invitation tt
by Peter L. Bf.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 EB 13 12 11 10 09
ff SOciology amounts
mon sense," why doe.
ofthe surrounding w
CONTEMPORARY
-,- ".....:
Prentice H~U' ,.. .
'
3
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"Women and
is an imprl~f of ", by Patricia M.
Niebrugge-Br4
PEARSON ISBN 10: 0-205-73316-6 WOmen were among 1
www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN 13: 978-0-205-73316-3 the discipline ofsocii
3 7 The Uses of Global
Poverty: How
Economic Inequality
Benefits the West
Why don't rich nations do more to reduce the severe poverty that paralyzes much ofthe
world? This selection argues that people in rich countries, including the United States,
actually benefit from global poverty in a number ofways.
In the global village, there stand a wide variety of Nigeria with a GNI of$770 and Sierra Leone with
homes, from the stately mansion on the hill, to just $440. If we use the GNI PPP as a yardstick of
the modest abode blessed with electricity and economic power and the well-being ofpopUlations,
running water, to the adequate but unheated (or we may begin to construct a picture ofa global sys
uncooled) hut, to the flood-prone, tattered shanty tem characterized by the massive maldistribution
cobbled together from gathered scrap. Those who of wealth, economic security, and purchasing
live on the hill are aware of their neighbors, as power. Our village is one characterized by deep Western rhetoric,
their neighbors are aware of them. Most inhabi and fundamental stratification. advice seem to sU(II1OIt1
tants of the global village recognize that wealth What have been the responses of well-off states ity and its extension
and the accompanying opportunities for educa to this global class system with its extremes of less than $1 per day
tion, health care, and consumption are not evenly wealth and poverty? Not surprisingly, perhaps, lions more who eke
divided and that a substantial gap exists between political rhetoric has consistently elevated the goal above the threshold
the more and less materially blessed populations. of spreading the prosperity enjoyed by the reality ofprosperity
Not everyone agrees on why that is the case. advanced industrial states of the West around the countries, while the
Consider the following comparisons of life in globe. In remarks made at the United States Coast touches many more.
the global village: In 1999, the gross national Guard Academy commencement ceremony in PPP highlight the .
income in purchasing power parity (GNI PPP)I in 1989, President George Bush phrased it this way: lage. But what expl .
the United States was $31,910. In Germany the "What is it that we want to see? It is a growing poverty exist and
figure was $23,510, and in Australia, $23,850. By community ofdemocracies anchoring international system with a thin l~
contrast, the GNI PPP of China was $3,550, in peace and stability, and a dynamic free-market sys strata. of poor coun3"
Indonesia it was $2,660, and in Pakistan, $1,860. tem generating prosperity and progress on a global explams why some . .
On the bottom tier of states, we find countries like scale.... If we succeed, the next decade and the mount while others
century beyond will be an era of unparalleled sible answers are many. ~
growth, an era which sees the flourishing of free way ofunderstanding ~
Source: Reprinted by permission of the author. dom, peace, and prosperity around the world." planet's wealthiest and PI
222
Reading 37 The Uses ofGlobal Poverty: How Economic Inequality Benefits the West 223
If shared global prosperity was the goal, it In 1971, sociologist Herbert Gans published an
seems safe to say that while there was some mod article entitled "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay
est progress made in areas like Latin America, All."2 In the article, Gans utilized a conservative
Eastern Europe, and parts of Asia, "we" did not theoretical perspective in sociology, functionalism,
really succeed, because the global wealth gap is to inquire about the persistence ofpoverty in Amer
still massive and growing. The rich countries ica. The functionalist perspective takes as its start
remain rich, and the poor countries, for the most ing point the position that essentially all institutions
part, remain trapped in desperate, dire poverty. This and social phenomena that exist in society con
has not changed. tribute in some manner to that society-that is, they
Another thing that has not changed is the rhetor are functional for society. If they did not contribute
ical commitment to spreading the wealth. In a to the social order, the functionalists maintain, they
speech in Coventry, England, in December 2000, would disappear. Using this perspective, function
President Bill Clinton laid out a "prescription for alists may inquire about, for instance, the func
how the United States might help close the gap tions, both obvious and hidden (or manifest and
between rich and poor nations." And in his farewell latent, to use sociologist Robert Merton's terms), of
address to the nation in January 2001, the Presi institutions like the education system or the family
dent declared that "the global gap requires more or social phenomena like punishment for deviance.
than compassion. It requires action." These social theorists assume that institutions or
As of 2002, President George W. Bush has not phenomena exist because they are functional. and
Leone with addressed the question of non-Western develop hence their guiding question is, What function do
as a yardstick of ment specifically, though it seems relatively safe they serve?
ofpopulations, to say that he too will join the political chorus of Gans posed a similar question about poverty,
of a global sys support for global prosperity, although his admin asking, What are the uses of poverty? Clearly, the
maldistribution istration seems destined to be defined by a focus on notion that poverty is functional for society as a
and purchasing war rather than development. whole is ludicrous: Who would suggest that it is
. by deep Western rhetoric, assistance programs, and functional for those who endure economic depri
advice seem to support the goal of global prosper vation? So Gans offered a modified functionalist
ity and its extension to the 1.3 billion who live on analysis: "... instead of identifYing functions for
less than $1 per day and those millions or even bil an entire social system, I shall identifY them for
lions more who eke out a sparse existence just the interest groups, socioeconomic classes, and
above the threshold of absolute poverty. But the other population aggregates with shared values that
reality ofprosperity has touched only a relative few 'inhabit' a social system. I suspect that in a mod
countries, while the struggle to meet basic needs ern heterogeneous society, few phenomena are
touches many more. Social indicators like the GNI functional or dysfunctional for the society as a
PPP highlight the differences we find in our vil whole, and that most result in benefits to some
lage. But what explains them? Why does global groups and costs to others."
poverty exist and persist? Why does a global class Gans sought to explain the existence and per
system with a thin layer of rich states and a broad sistence ofpoverty in modem, wealthy America by
strata of poor countries exist and persist? What highlighting the way that the existence of poverty
explains why some villagers inhabit houses on the has benefits for the nonpoor-not just "evil" indi
mount while others squat in mud huts below? Pos viduals like the loan shark or the slum lord, but for
sible answers are many. This article explores one "normal" members of nonpoor classes. He identi
way ofunderstanding the yawning gap between the fied thirteen "uses" of poverty, including the
planet's wealthiest and poorest states. notions that the existence of a poor class "ensures
224 Social Stratification
that society's 'dirty work' will be done," that "the "useful" would be absurd. But it is not absurd to Against Sweatshops..
poor buy goods others do not want and thus pro ask how the existence of a class of poor states small and limited.
long the economic usefulness of such goods," and serves wealthy states. In fact, asking such a ques popular sports
"the poor can be identified and punished as alleged tion might contribute to a berter understanding of another $50 in cost
or real deviants in order to uphold the legitimacy of the dual phenomena of global poverty and the ing for well-paid.,
conventional norms." He was not arguing that global "class" system. price ofa head ofi
poverty is good. He was suggesting that under vegetable, suddenly
standing poverty's existence and persistence means Which outrage "'....~.LlIII
Point 1; The existence of global
· But it is not absurd to Against Sweatshops. These expressions have been into a more valuable finished product. The posi
ta class of poor states small and limited. Imagine, however, the outrage if tion of the poor states in the world economy makes
asking such a ques popular sports shoes, already pricey, climbed it less likely that they can derive the full benefit of
understanding of another $50 in cost as a result ofmanufacturers opt the resources they possess for the government and
poverty and the ing for well-paid, unionized labor. Or imagine if the people. The case of oil in resource-rich but des
price of a head of iceberg lettuce, America's favorite perately poor Nigeria is an example. Seven major
vegetable, suddenly doubled in price to $3.00. foreign oil companies operate in Nigeria, all rep
Which outrage would be more potent? resenting interests in wealthy states. The vast
majority ofbenefits from Nigeria's oil has accrued
Point 2: The existence of global not to the country's people, but to the companies
poverty benefits Western companies (and consumers) of the wealthy states. There is no
and shareholders in the form attempt to hide this: John Connor, head ofTexaco's
of increased profit margins. worldwide exploration and production, talking
about a massive oil strike in January 2000, stated
Labor costs typically constitute a high percent
that the successful conclusion ofthe well test "sets
age of a company's expenditures. By reducing
the stage for development of a world-class project
labor costs, companies can both keep prices rea that will add substantially to the company's
"Made in Pak sonable (which benefits, as noted, the consumer) resource base."4 Clearly. the failure of Nigeria'~
and raise profit margins. Not surprisingly, then, people to benefit from the country's resources is
of reasonable qual
companies are not likely to locate in-and are more also linked to a succession of corrupt governments,
(but not
likely to leave-locations where wages are rela but the poverty of the masses and the powerful
tively bigh. The use of poor female workers in the position of oil companies help to ensure that resis
,.:aU1t:s such as off-
third world is, in this respect, especially "benefi
tance to exploitation of resources for the benefit
cial" to companies. Women comprise about 80 per
of non-Nigerian interests will be marginal.
cent of workers in Export Processing Zones and
are often paid 20 percent to 50 percent less than
male counterparts. The less costly the workforce, Point 4: The existence of global
the greater the opportunity for profit. Not coinci poverty helps support Western
object to experiment conditions for political or eco Point 6: The existence of global permit the importation at
nomic reasons, the dearth ofalternative health care poverty may contribute to the alteration of the law W3I
options, combined with the desire ofthe company pacification of the Western Ministry ofthe RussianB
to rapidly prepare for the maiket a potential "block proletariat, or "Workers of the that over the next decadI
buster" drug underpinned a situation in which dis world, a blue light specia/!" $21 billion from the ~
ease victims were treated as test subjects rather fuel from states like
To some degree, the broad availability ofgood,
than patients. This case highlights the way that non Korea. Likely r'ep<mlQi
inexpensive merchandise may help obscure class
poor states actually benefit from the existence of are Mayak and Kr.llSllii
divisions in the West, at least in the arena of con
poor states with struggling, sick populations. A most contaminated
sumption. It is clear that those with greater wealth
reporter for the series noted that "companies use India has also
can consume more high-quality goods, but low
the tests to produce new product and revenue for hazardous junk
end "designer" merchandise is accessible to the
streams, but they are also responding to pressure giants. The western
less well-off in cathedrals of consumption such as
from regulators, Congress, and lobbyists for dis instance, is host to
Wal-Mart. At K-Mart, for instance, Martha Stew
ease victims to develop new medicines quickly. By ing yard, where Wi
art peddles her wares, intended to transform
providing huge pools of human subjects, foreign dismantling and, osIlClli.
"homemaking chores . . . into what we like to call
trials help speed new drugs to the marketplace of"breaking" the old
where they will be sold mainly to patients in
wealthy countries."5
'domestic art.'" Thanks in part to the low-wage
workers in places like China, these goods are avail workers and the em".
asbestos, PCBs, and
able to the unwashed masses (now washed by
Martha's smart and cozy towels) as well as to better
Point 5: The existence of global situated homemakers. Consumption appears to be
poverty contributes to the one ofthe great equalizers ofmodern society. (It is
advancement of Western economies worth noting, though, that many members of the
and societies with the human Western working class are also "victims" ofglobal
capital of poor states. poverty, since many jobs have gone abroad to low
wage areas, leaving behind, for less educated work
Poorer states like India have become intellec
tual feeders of well-educated and bright individu ers, positions in the less remunerative and less
als whose skills cannot be fully rewarded in less secure service industry or leaving former indus
developed states. The magnetic draw of a better trial workers jobless.)
life in economies that amply reward their human
Point 7: Global poverty benefits the
capital pulls the brightest minds from their coun
West because poor countries make
tries of origin, a process referred to as "brain
optimal dumping grounds for goods
drain." Advanced economies such as the United
that are dangerous, expired,
States and England are beneficiaries ofbrain drain.
or illegal.
The United States has moved to take advantage of
the pool ofhighly educated workers from the devel Wealthy countries and their inhabitants may uti
oping world: Congress has passed legislation lize poorer states as repositories for dangerous or
increasing the number ofH-lB visas, or "high-tech unwanted material such as nuclear waste. The des
visas," to bring up to 600,000 workers to the United peration of cash-strapped states benefits better-off
States over the next several years. The United countries, which might otherwise have difficulty rid
States and England offer attractive opportunities ding themselves of the dangerous by-products of
to highly educated workers from poorer states. their industrial and consumer economies. For poor states. Texts on
Notably, high-tech companies often pay the for instance, in December 2000, the Russian Parliament, ing why poverty pe .
eign workers less than their domestic equivalents in an initial vote on the issue, overwhelmingly sup sity presses are only
would demand. ported the amendment of an environmental law to research. Journalists and
'11
Reading 37 The Uses qfGlobal Poverty: How Economic Inequality Benefits the west 227
:eof global permit the importation offoreign nuclear waste. The around bringing colorful, compelling representa
lite to the alteration of the law was supported by the Atomic tions of the poor to the warm living rooms of lit
Ministry ofthe Russian Federation, which suggested erate, well-off consumers. Still others are charged
that over the next decade, Russia might earn up to with the task of protecting wealthy states from
$21 billion from the importation of spent nuclear "invasions" of the poor: U.S. border patrols, for
fuel from states like Japan, Germany, and South instance, employ thousands to keep those seeking
Korea. Likely repositories ofthe radioactive refuse better fortunes out of U.S. territory.
are Mayak and Krasnoyarsk, already among the
most contaminated sites on the planet. Point 9: Global poverty benefits
India has also emerged as a dumping ground inhabitants of wealthy countries,
for hazardous junk from the world's industrial who can feel good about helping
giants. The western Indian city of Alang, for the global poor through charitable
instance, is host to the world's largest shipbreak work and charitable giving.
ing yard, where Western-owned ships are sent for
dismantling and, ostensibly, recycling. The process From the celebrity-studded musical production
of "breaking" the old vessels, however, endangers "We are the World" to trick-or-treating for
workers and the environment because it releases UNICEF, those who inhabit the wealthy corners
asbestos, PCBs, and other toxic wastes. 6 of the world feel good about themselves for shar
ing their good fortune. The Web site of World
Vision, a faith-based charity that offers the oppor
appears to be Point 8: The existence of global tunity to sponsor poor children, features a speak
society. (It is poverty provides jobs for specialists out area for contributors. On that site, a young
members of the employed to assist, advise, and study
Canadian sponsor wrote, "A few days ago I woke
"'victims" of global the world's poor and to protect
up early and turned the TV on ... looking at those
abroad to low- the "better-off" from them.
children made me realize I could help them. I
Within this group of specialists we find people thought if I have enough money to pay for the
Imoerative and less
in a variety ofprofessions. There are those who are Internet, cell phone, and a couple of other things
professional development workers, operating I didn't need, I said to myself, [then] why not give
through organizations like the United States that money to people who need it instead of spend
Agency for International Development (US AID) ing it all in (sic) luxury and things that are not
lM!nefits the
to further "America's foreign policy interests in really important. ... I immediately picked up the
expanding democracy and free markets while phone and called to sponsor a child! I am happy.
improving the lives of the citizens of the develop I can help someone who needs it!"8
ing world.''? The Peace Corps is also built around Apparently, we need not feel guilt about con
the goal of bringing Western "know-how" to the suming many times what the unfortunate inhabi
lillhabitants may uti poor with volunteer programs that promote tants of the world's poor states do if only we are
fur dangerous or entrepreneurship and agricultural development. willing to give up a few of our luxuries to help
waste. The des Academics in fields as diverse as economics, them. Indeed, not only do the poor not inspire guilt,
sociology, international affairs, political science, they may inspire positive feelings: As the World
and anthropology study, write about, and "deci Vision writer notes, she feels "happy" because she
pher" the lives of the poor and the condition of can "help someone who needs it." No less a figure
poor states. Texts on development, articles debat than the world's richest man, Bill Gates, is also
ing why poverty persists, and books from univer "dedicated to improving people's lives by sharing
pawbelmingly sup sity presses are only some of the products of this advances in health and learning with the global
IMronmental law to research. Journalists and novelists can build careers community" through the Gates Foundation.9
228 Social Stratification
A related point is that the poor we see on tele Point 11: The poorer countries,
words, "Phenom
vision or hear about in news or music give those of which reproduce at rates higher
only when they
us in wealthy countries the opportunity to feel good than Western states, are useful
ent or powerful, or
about ourselves, regardless of our position in the scapegoats for real and potential
enough power to
socioeconomic structure of our own states. Con global environmental threats.
for those who would not wish to fault the SUV NOTES
the massive flow of resources
~countriesJ words, "Phenomena like poverty can be eliminated dollars using a purchasing power parity conversion factor. in
ternational dollars indicate the amount of goods or services
.res higher only when they become dysfunctional for the afllu
one could buy in thc United States with a given amoont of
.-e useful ent or powerful, or when the powerless can obtain money. GNI PPP provides an indicator of the welfare of peo
jId potential enough power to change society.'" ple that is comparable across countries free of price and ex
change rate distortions that occur when GNI is cunverted
.threats. using market exchange rates."
CRITICAL-THINKING QUESTIONS 2. Social Policy, July/August 1971.
3. Information on issues of trade and Chinese women is
of the populations 1. The author provides a number of ways in available at http://www.womensedge.org. The information
-d consumption of which people in rich nations benefit from global cited is from the April 2000 Web issue of Notes from the
er populations of poverty. Which do you find most convincing? Edge.
Why? 4. "Texaco in massive oil strike in Nigeria" in The
ment ofthe West
Namibian, available online at http://www.namibian.com.na/
~ the growth of 2. What weaknesses do you find in the argu Netstoriesi2000iJanuaryiMarketplaceitexaca.html.
. " which is often ments? Explain. 5. Stephens, Joe, ''As Drug Testing Spreads, Profits and
:lopment, such as 3. From another angle, do you think that rich Lives Hang in Balance:' The Washington Post 17, (December
countries provide assistance to poor countries? In 2000): AI.
what ways? 6. Information on both issues is available at the Web site
of the environmental group Greenpeace at http://www
.greenpeace.org.
NOTES 7. The Web site address is http://www.usaid.gov.
8. The charity's Web site address is http://www.worldvisioll
I. The figures in this paragraph come from the Population .arg.
Reference Bureau Web site (http://www.prb.org), which pro 9. The foundation is at http://www.gatesfoundation.org.
vides excellent demographic data. According to the PRB, the 10. The article is cited at the Web site of the Competi
"GNI PPP per capita is gross national income in purchasing tive Enterprise Institute: http://www.cei.arg/CHNReader.asp?
power parity divided by mid-year population. . .. GNI PPP ID=1227.
growth or the use refers to gross national income converted to 'international'
-ng states, there is
'on given to the
it1igate consump
divert attention
caused by West-