Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

A new structure for continuously reinforced concrete pavement with

road performance evaluation
Sheng Li, Fan Yang ⇑, Zhaohui Liu
School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha 410004, Hunan, China

h i g h l i g h t s

We developed a new CRCP structure using a RCC basic course, a gravel cushion, and a cement concrete surface layer. In addition, an asphalt concrete
overlay is inserted between the base and surface to prevent scouring.

Continuous longitudinal and transverse steel and sliding supports are placed in traffic lanes and inside half the width of the hard shoulder.

There is an angle of 30–60° between the transverse and longitudinal steel supports, which are treated with epoxy coating.

Based on fracture mechanics, damage mechanics and numerical simulations, the results show that its fatigue-damage lifetime is substantially increased,
while the amount of crack propagation is greatly reduced.

The new CRCP structure is economical compared with the fiber-polymer steel used in recent years and provides an obvious reduction in construction
costs.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to the failure characteristics and imperfections of existing continuously reinforced concrete pave-
Received 18 March 2017 ment (CRCP), a new CRCP structure is developed. The base course uses roller compacted concrete
Received in revised form 13 September (RCC) over a gravel cushion. The surface layer is divided into two layers, where the upper layer is rubber-
2017
ized cement concrete, and the second layer is continuously reinforced concrete. An asphalt concrete layer
Accepted 15 September 2017
Available online 5 October 2017
is inserted between the base layer and the surface layer to act as an anti-scouring agent. Continuous lon-
gitudinal and transverse steel and sliding supports are placed on traffic lanes and inside half the width of
the hard shoulder, the other half of the width being plain concrete. Using concepts from fracture mechan-
Keywords:
Road engineering
ics, damage mechanics and numerical simulations, a study has been conducted to ascertain the damage
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement and fracture of the asphalt overlay in the new structure. The results show that the fatigue damage life-
Anti-erosion layer time of the overlay is substantially increased, while the crack propagation is greatly reduced. The new
Induced transverse joints CRCP was successfully applied to a civil road engineering project and was shown to provide a notable eco-
Pavement performance nomic benefit. Moreover, the new design can provide a theoretical basis for continuously reinforced con-
crete pavement and a useful reference for Chinese road development.
Ó 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction sections, which greatly affects the pavement’s performance and

During the 1980s–1990s, a large number of cement concrete
pavement roads were constructed in China. These paved roads
always need to be set with transverse and longitudinal joints to
prevent the contraction of concrete during the hardening process,
the expansion and contraction of concrete slabs, and other issues.
However, real-world engineering applications have shown that in
concrete pavement, road issues such as disengaged and broken
slabs occur more readily at these weak joints than at other
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 15234058266@163.com (F. Yang).
service life [1–4]. As a result, Chinese road researchers introduced
the continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) structure.
In contrast to traditional cement concrete pavement, there is no
expansion or contraction joints in the CRCP structure. The defor-
mation of concrete can be prevented by placing a continuous net-
work of longitudinal and transverse steel [2–5] along the course
surface. Approximately 40 km of CRCP is used in the section of road
extending from Leiyang to Yizhang section in Beijing-Hong Kong
Expressway. Despite it being open to traffic for only 8 years, seri-
ous issues with the road have occurred. In addition, the highway
experienced an overhaul in 2013, and its service life was only
approximately 1/3 of its design life. Due to its failure in practice,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.087
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1048 S. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052

this was the first and last time in which CRCP was used on a large- son’s ratio, and were obtained from Table 3.0.8 and Appendix
scale highway project in China. For the same reason, Chinese high- E.0.2 in the Chinese ‘‘Cement Concrete Pavement Design Specifica-
ways rarely use asphalt concrete pavements in contemporary pro- tions JTG D40-2011” [6], which are hereafter referred to
jects. However, cement concrete pavements can take full ‘‘specifications.”
advantage of abundant domestic resources such as cement, fly The composite elastic modulus of the foundation under the bot-
ash, gravel, and steel. Furthermore, the construction of concrete tom of the slab is calculated to be Et = 110 Mpa (specifications
pavement has the added benefits of reducing reliance on oil B.2.4-14). We then calculate the equivalent bending rigidity of
resources [2] and economic stimulation. Therefore, a new CRCP the composite slab of the surface course, D ~ c (specification B.6.1-
structure should be promptly developed to solve the practical 1). Next, the linear expansion coefficient of concrete is calculated
problems that currently prevent it from being used. as ac = 0.8  105/°C and the composite elastic modulus of the
top layer in the roadbed is found to be E2 = 65 MPa. Finally, we cal-
2. The structure and fatigue lifetime of a new CRCP culate the equivalent thickness of surface layer h ~ c (specification
B.6.1-2):
The purpose of developing a new CRCP structure is to find effec-
1
~ c ¼ Ec1 hc1 þEc22 hc2 þ ðhc1 þhc22 Þ2
3 3
tive solutions to the existing problems on the cement concrete D 12ð1mc2 Þ 4ð1mc2 Þ
1
Ec1 hc1
þ Ec21hc2 ¼ 39:151 MN  m
pavement structure, to improve the performance of the pavement h i
structure and to achieve better social and economic benefits than dx ¼ 12 hc2 þ EEc1c1hhc1c1ðhþEc1c2þhhc2
c2 Þ
¼ 0:122 m
its predecessor. qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
~c ¼ 2:42 D~ c ¼ 0:246 m
h Ec2 dx
2.1. The structure of new CRCP
where dx is the distance (m) from the neutral axis of the composite
slab from the surface to the bottom of following surface. Next, we
In the new CRCP structure, the base course uses roller com-
calculate the bending rigidity of the base course Db0 (specification
pacted concrete with a thickness of 20–40 cm. The cushion uses
B.6.3-1), and the relative radius of the total pavement rg (specifica-
gravel with a thickness of 20–40 cm. The surface course uses
tion B.4.1-3):
cement concrete with a thickness of 20–28 cm. Furthermore, the
surface can be divided into two layers: the upper layer is rubber- E h3
Db1 ¼ Db2 ¼ 12ð1
b b
v 2 Þ ¼ 7:769 MN  m
ized cement concrete with a thickness of 4–6 cm, and the second b

layer is continuously reinforced concrete. An asphalt concrete layer Db0 ¼ Db1 þ Db2 ¼ 15:538 MN  m
consisting of a thin, dense grading asphalt concrete with a thick-
~ 1=3
rg ¼ 1:21  Dc þD b0
¼ 0:959 m
ness of 2–3 cm is sandwiched between the base course and the Et

surface to prevent erosion. The pavement structure is shown in

where Db1 is the bending rigidity of the base course and Db2 is the
Fig. 1. In addition, the second layer can also be set continuously
bending rigidity of the sub-base (specifications B.4.1-2). Next, under
with reinforced concrete pavement, similar to that in a traditional
the standard axle load, we calculate the load stress, rps, generated
CRCP.
at the critical load position (specification B.4.1) and the load fatigue
stress, rpr, of the slab (specification B.2.1):
2.2. Changes to fatigue life with the new CRCP
1:45  103 0:65 ~2
Assume a thickness of upper surface hc1 = 5 cm, a thickness of rps ¼ r hc 1000:94 ¼ 1:266 MPa
~c g
1 þ Db0 =D
the following surface hc2 = 20 cm, a thickness of base hb = 30 cm,
and an asphalt concrete layer with a thickness of 3 cm, a gravel rpr ¼ kr kf kc rps
cushion with a thickness of 20 cm, all within design life accumula-
tive equivalent axle loads of Ne = 4  107 times. The values in 0:057
Table 1 show basic parameters, such as elastic modulus and Pois- K f ¼ Nke ¼ ð4  107 Þ ¼ 2:379

where the stress reduction factor kr = 0.87 (Specification B.2.1), the

comprehensive coefficient kc = 1.15 (Specification Table B.2.1), and
fatigue stress coefficient kf = 2.379 (specifications B.2 3-1). Assum-
ing an equivalent engineering cost, the thickness of the cement sta-
bilization base course is 40 cm, with a load fatigue stress of
3.708 MPa.
The results show that the new CRCP structure with a gravel
cushion, roller compacted concrete base, asphalt concrete layer,
and cement concrete surface course can achieve a slight increase
in strength. Such an increase greatly enhances both its structural
strength and service life. Furthermore, even without the addition
of continuous reinforcement (the current specifications cannot cal-
culate the fatigue stress of a pavement structure with reinforce-
ment), the load fatigue stress of the new CRCP structure can be
reduced by 19% when compared to the commonly used cement
concrete pavement with a cement-stabilized base.

3. Control of the erosion under slabs and cracks

The purpose of CRCP structure optimization is to eliminate

some of the problems associated with the current structure,
Fig. 1. Diagram of pavement structure. including irregular transverse cracks, large crack widths, steel
 S. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052 1049

Table 1
Basic parameters in fatigue life calculation.

The upper surface The following surface The gravel cushion The base course
Elastic modulus Ec1 = 31 GPa Ec2 = 27 GPa E1 = 220 MPa Eb = 27 GPa
Poisson’s ratio vc1 = 0.15 vc2 = 0.15 v1 = 0.35 vb = 0.15

corrosion at the location of transverse cracks, suboptimal steel
ratio designs, scouring under the slab and other issues [7,8]. All
these issues have a direct impact on the service life of continuously
reinforced concrete slabs and need to be optimized.
3.1. Settings of induced transverse joints
Crack width and crack spacing are the main control indices in
designing the CRCP-steel ratio. While small crack spacings are
likely to produce punch-out, a large crack width generally leads
to a larger crack width, which may lead to moisture damage to
the internal structure. As a result, the durability of CRCP is compro-
mised [9–14]. CRCP is a structure with high pro-phase investment.
Negative social impacts and failed investments may therefore
result from decreased durability due to improper control of crack
spacing. The average spacing of transverse cracks in CRCP should
be no more than 1.8 m (Specification [6]). However, punch-out
resulting from a small crack spacing may be a more significant con-
cern, especially when the average spacing is less than 1 m. In fact,
statistics on the impact of punch-out in AASHN02 demonstrate this
notion [15], where punch-out accounted for 65% of the damage
when the crack spacing had a width of 30–60 cm.
The combination of construction experience and research has
been proven that setting induced transverse joints with a length
of 40–50 cm, a depth of 2–3 cm, and an interval of 1.2–1.5 m along
the left edge of the surface course can effectively control the crack
spacing. This is shown in Fig. 2.
ratio is only approximately 1/6 of the longitudinal steel ratio. There
is a 20-cm length extension at the end of the transverse steel per-
pendicular to the longitudinal steel. The steel on slipping supports
is bundled by steel wires to create a continuous mesh, which
reduces warping. The cross-shaped slipping supports are made of
U6 mm hot-rolled plain steel welded on a circular steel plate. Slip-
ping supports with a lateral spacing of 1 m are placed under all
transverse steel. The steel connections and the position of the slip-
ping supports are shown in Fig. 4.
The most commonly used slipping supports are unibody plastic
products, such as those used in the road reconstruction project
from Xiangtan to Leiyang of the Beijing-Hong Kong and Macao
Expressway. The main problems with this type of support are as
follows: (a) the larger friction between the supports and their iso-
lation layers prevents free-sliding; (b) the supports will incline
toward the side of the plain concrete due to temperature change,
impacting the implementation and stability of the steel; and (c)
the concrete inside the hollow supports is inaccessible, and a
considerable amount of supports are made of plastic, which will

3.2. The Positions of steels and longitudinal joints

In traditional CRCP structures, longitudinal joints are generally

placed between adjacent traffic lanes or between a hard shoulder
and traffic the lanes with continuous steel configured on entire
slab. Traditional CRCPs have also used plain concrete for hard
shoulders, such as in the reconstruction project on Huanghua-
Yong’an highway. In the new CRCP structure, however, not only
is the entire slab configured for continuous steel, but half of the
inside width (L) of the hard shoulder close to the traffic lanes is also
configured with transverse and longitudinal continuous steel. In
addition, the other half of the hard shoulder is plain concrete, with
Fig. 3. Diagram of reinforcement and longitudinal joint.
an angle of 30–60° between transverse and longitudinal steel. This
configuration acts to effectively avoid the concomitance of trans-
verse cracks and steel. Longitudinal joints are located at the half
width of the hard shoulder, as shown in Fig. 3.
The steel is coated by an epoxy resin to improve its resistance to
corrosion. The steel ratio of longitudinal steel is between 0.65% and
1.05% and is double in the construction joints. The transverse steel

Fig. 2. Diagram of induced transverse joints. Fig. 4. Diagram of reinforcement joint and sliding support.
1050 S. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052
later affect the strength and cracking of concrete [16]. Using the
new sliding supports above, friction with the asphalt layer as well
as the random deformation of steel due to temperature changes
can be effectively reduced. Moreover, since a solid connection
exists between the sliding supports and the concrete, the strength
of CRCP structure will not be weakened.
3.3. The asphalt concrete layer for scouring prevention
The main function of the asphalt concrete layer between the
base and surface course is to prevent scouring. The layer uses
dense, fine-graded asphalt concrete with a thickness of 2–3 cm,
an aggregate maximum grain size of 9.5 mm and a 2.36-mm sieve
dividing the coarse and fine aggregate. Furthermore, it can be
assumed that the aggregate’s quality percentage is 60–80%, its
porosity is no more than 1.2% and the asphalt-aggregate ratio is
approximately 7.5% through the 2.36-mm sieve. The asphalt used
in the test is a high-viscosity, high-modulus modified asphalt.
The basic parameters of this modified asphalt are described in
Table 2 [2].
To ensure the anti-scouring and anti-erosion ability of the con-
crete asphalt layer, its performance is tested using scouring exper-
iments and compared with a concrete stabilized base commonly
used in civil engineering. A number of 15 cm ⁄ 15 cm cylindrical
specimens are tested. The water surface is controlled to be
10 mm higher than the top of the specimen, and the hydrodynamic
pressure is held at 50 Kpa. After 20,000 tests, the quality loss of the
cement stabilized base is 25.9 g. In contrast, the quality of the
dense, fine-graded asphalt concrete is maintained. In addition,
the base course is protected from scouring by the asphalt concrete
layer.
This study shows that the new structure can also reduce the
interface friction between the slab and the base [17]. Since pro-
longed scouring causes void formation under the slab and leads
to breakage, an asphalt concrete layer can improve the service life
of cement concrete slabs. Consequently, the performance of the
concrete slab is improved.
4. Performance improvement analysis
4.1. Improvement of pavement structure performance
Compared to other cement concrete materials, the rubber
cement concrete surface used in the new CRCP structure can reduce
traffic noise and enhance driving comfort. Furthermore, the
induced transverse joints can limit crack widths, which leads to
increased resistance to punch-out and water damage and improves
the durability of CRCP. The inclusion of an epoxy coating improves
the corrosion resistance of steel by reducing fracture occurrences.
The 30–60° angle between the transverse and longitudinal steel
not only makes full use of the steel but also prevents the concomi-
tance of cracks and steel in the horizontal direction. Moreover, the
placement of steel on the sliding supports can reduce warping.
4.2. Durability analysis of reconstruction engineering
4.2.1. The fatigue damage analysis of asphalt overlay
Asphalt overlay is commonly used to maintain the pavement
performance of cement concrete roads. Based on the theory of
Table 2
The basic parameters of modified asphalt.
penetration (25 °C) softening point
Modified Asphalt 30–50 (0.1 mm) >70 °C
damage mechanics, we a use one-dimensional evolution equation
for fatigue damage proposed by Chaboche and Lemaitre [18]. This
is shown in type (1):
 r p
dD
dN
¼ a 1D ð1  DÞq
where:
r — stress;
D — damage variable;
N — fatigue loading times;
a⁄, p, q — damage properties of materials.
Combined with the damage mechanics and constitutive rela-
tionship of the material, Abaqus analysis and Fortran subroutines
[18–21] are used to realize the stress cycle, user material subrou-
tine (UMAT), call and damage evolution calculation, etc. We
assume (a) the longitudinal joints are in 1/2 of the width of the
hard shoulder and (b) the longitudinal joints are between the traf-
fic lanes and the hard shoulder. We then calculate the fatigue dam-
age to the bottom of the overlay where the joints are placed. The
variation of fatigue damage in these two conditions is clearly
understood after 30,000 standard axle loading tests. Reference
[20] indicates the basic theory, method and the model parameters
used. Fig. 5 shows partial results via cloud computing.
The calculation results show that the degree of damage to the
asphalt overlay was 0.2198 when a longitudinal joint is located
between the carriageway and the hard shoulder. In contrast, the
degree of damage was only 0.0071 in the new CRCP structure.
4.2.2. The crack propagation analysis for asphalt overlay
On the basis of fracture mechanics and Abaqus [21–23], and
assuming that (1) the longitudinal joints are in the 1/2 width of
the hard shoulder and (2) the longitudinal joints are between the
traffic lanes and the hard shoulder, we calculate the stress intensity
factor of type II(KII) on the cracking tip. We then observe the vari-
ation of KII when the cracking occurs at the bottom of asphalt over-
lay under eccentric loading (the cracking length is half of the
thickness of overlay). The basic theory and the model parameters
used are illustrated in reference [22], with the 3D calculation
model being shown in Fig. 6.
Assuming crack propagation is vertical under eccentric loading,
KII always affects the crack propagation regardless of whether its
value is positive or negative. Consequently, the calculation results
should take the absolute value of KII [22]. Fig. 7 shows the relation-
ship between KII and the thickness of the asphalt layer.
In the new structure, longitudinal joints are located in half of
the width of the hard shoulder. The relationship between KII and
the thickness of the asphalt overlay is shown in Fig. 8. In addition,
according to the calculation, KII can be significantly reduced when
compared to the conventional method. Using a 10-cm asphalt
overlay as an example, the KII can be reduced by 99%. As the results
suggest, the new structure can effectively reduce the occurrence of
reflective cracks in asphalt overlay and prolong its service life.
4.3. Economic and social benefits
Continuous longitudinal and transverse steel are reinforced in
traffic lanes and inside half of the width of the hard shoulder, with
the other 1/2 width of the hard shoulder being plain concrete. In a
Viscosity (60 °C) Dynamical Viscosity (135 °C) PG Grade
2000 Pas <3 Pas >PG76-22
 S. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052 1051

Fig. 5. Contour of load fatigue damage of asphalt overlay at longitudinal joint.

Fig. 8. Relations between KII and thickness of asphalt overlay in new structure.

case study of 28 m of subgrade construction, the new structure

(which costs approximately 2.75 million RMB per kilometer) can
Fig. 6. Diagram of 3D model. save approximately 25 million RMB per kilometer compared with
reinforcing the whole pavement. Using fiber-reinforced polymer
steel (such as basalt fiber steel and fiberglass steel) treated with
an epoxy coating, the construction cost of CRCP is approximately
4.2 million RMB per kilometer, which has obvious economic
advantages.
The new CRCP structure can solve the problems of the common
cement concrete pavement and the traditional CRCP structure.
Such improvements include reduced joint damage, broken boards,
driving noise, high construction costs and short service life. The
new structure has good social and economic benefits and can be
widely adapted for use in roads with heavy traffic conditions such
as highways and tunnel pavements.

5. Conclusion

1. We developed a new CRCP structure using a RCC basic course, a

gravel cushion, and a cement concrete surface layer with the
Fig. 7. Relations between KII and the thickness of asphalt overlay. upper layer being rubberized cement concrete. In addition, an
1052 S. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 157 (2017) 1047–1052
asphalt concrete overlay is inserted between the base and sur-
face to prevent scouring.
2. In the new CRCP structure, continuous longitudinal and trans-
verse steel and sliding supports are placed in traffic lanes and
inside half the width of the hard shoulder. The other 1/2 width
of the shoulder is plain concrete. Longitudinal joints are rein-
forced in the middle width of the hard shoulder, and transverse
joints are installed in the surface layer. There is an angle of 30–
60° between the transverse and longitudinal steel supports,
which are treated with epoxy coating.
3. The fatigue life and pavement performance in this new struc-
ture can be effectively improved. Based on fracture mechanics,
damage mechanics and numerical simulations, we studied the
damage and crack propagation of the asphalt overlay; the
results show that its fatigue-damage lifetime is substantially
increased, while the amount of crack propagation is greatly
reduced.
4. The new CRCP structure is economical compared with the fiber-
polymer steel used in recent years and provides an obvious
reduction in construction costs. Although the pro-phase invest-
ment costs are higher than in a traditional pavement structure,
the improved durability can fully accommodate the conditions
of heavy traffic, which therefore leads to greater economic
and social benefits.
The main research results have been authorized for a national
patent (Public on November 4, 2015, Publication Number:
CN104988823A, the author is the first inventor). Partial research
achievements have been successfully applied in the renovation
project of Qingwang Road (the East Lake section in Wuhan), with
a total length of 9.5 km. The whole road contains a continuously
reinforced concrete pavement and a cement concrete base, which
includes an asphalt concrete overlay to prevent scouring between
the surface and the base. In addition, there is a 300-m test road
with induced transverse joints installed. The joints have been in
operation since March 14, 2016 and have achieved a satisfactory
pavement performance.
The new design principles and optimization method are
believed to have solved the problems that exist with continuously
reinforced concrete pavement. These problems include scouring
under the base, low load-carrying capacity, broken slabs, traffic
noise, high construction costs, and short service lives. The results
can also serve as a theoretical basis for the rational design of CRCP
and as a reference for Chinese road design.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the assistance of the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (51678078); and the Open Fund of
State Engineering Laboratory of Highway Maintenance Technology
(kfj150102).
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