Fatigue-Crack Propagation in Steels of

Various Yield Strengths

J. M. BARSOM
Senior Research Engineer,
A p p l i e d Research L a b o r a t o r y ,
U. S. Steel C o r p o r a t i o n ,
Monroeville, Pa. M e m . ASME
The useful life of highly constrained welded structures subjected to cyclic loads often
depends on the crack-propagation behavior of the material. Thus, to predict the service
life of many structures and to establish safe inspection intervals, an understanding of the
rate of fatigue-crack propagation in steel is required. Accordingly, an investigation
was conducted to determine the fatigue-crack-growth rates in structural steels ranging in
yield strength from 36 to 191 ksi; for this study, wedge-opening-loading (WOL) speci-
mens were used. The tests were conducted at room temperature in an air environment,
and the results were compared with published fatigue-crack-growth data for steels having
similar yield strengths.
The results showed that the primary factor affecting fatigue-crack-growth rates in
structural steels is the applied stress-intensity-factor range, AKi, and that conservative
estimates of fatigue-crack growth per cycle of loading, da/dN, for martensitic steels are
obtained from the relationship

da
= 0.66 X i O " 8 (AIO) 2 - 21
dN

where a is in inches and AKj is in ksi in. Similarly, the data showed that conservative
estimates of da/dN for ferrite-pearlite steels are obtained from the relationship
da
= 3.6 X 10-m{AK,)3
IN
A s indicated in these equations, the fatigue-crack-growth rates ivere higher for marten-
sitic steels than for ferrite-pearlite steels.
The data also showed that the fatigue-crack growth per cycle accelerated for all the
steels, and that this transition from the above relationships to increased rates occurred
when the crack-opening-displacement range, AS, which is a measure of the strain range
at the crack tip, reaches a critical value. The fatigue-rate transition in martensitic
steels occurred when AS was about 1.6 X 10~s in. However, the fatigue-rate transition
in ferrite-pearlite steels occurred at a AS value slightly higher than 1.6 X 10~3 in.
A model based on micro structural considerations is presented, which accounts for these
differences in the fatigue-crack-growth behavior between martensitic and ferrite-pearlite
steels.

Introduction testing procedures or both may provide information regarding

the relative size and distribution of possible preexisting cracks
I
I HE fatigue life of structural components is deter- prior to service. However, these inspection procedures are
usually used to establish upper limits on defect size rather than
mined by the initiation of subcritical cracks and their propaga-
tion to critical dimensions. Proof-testing or nondestructive- actual crack size. These upper limits are determined by the
minimum resolution of the inspection procedure. Thus, to study
the life of structural components, it is reasonable to assume that
Contributed by the Pressure Vessels and Piping Division and pre- the component contains the largest defect that cannot be detected
sented at the First National Congress on Pressure Vessels and Piping, by the inspection method. The useful life of these structures is
May 10-12, 1971, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, February determined by the fatigue-crack-growth behavior of the material.
8,1971. Paper No. 71-PVP-12. Therefore, to predict the service life of many structures and to

1190 / NOVEMBER 1 971 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright © 1971 by ASME
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 Table 1 Chemical composition of steels investigated—percent
Type
Stef l C Mn P s Si Ni Cr Mo Co V Ti Al** O
A36 Check 0.24 1.06 0.007 0.019 0.024 0.032 0.057 0.013 ND ND ND 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.0141
ABS-C Check 0.20 0.60 0.009 0.016 0.23 0.02 0.07 0.01 ND ND ND 0.057 0.057 0.006 0.0020
A302-B Check 0.19 1.40 0.017 0.014 0.16 0.03 0.07 0.49 ND ND ND 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.0059
A537-A Check 0.16 1.26 0.012 0.019 0.32 0.23 0.12 0.046 ND 0.005 0.005 0.019 0.019 0.010 ND

HY-80 Check 0.16 0.29 0.010 0.017 0.22 2.25 1.42 0.29 ND 0.001 0.001 ND 0.026 ND ND
HY-80 Check 0.18 0.30 o.oia 0.013 0.20 2.99 1.68 0.41 ND 0.005 ND ND 0,022 0.007 ND
HY-130 Check • 0.11 0.85 0.009 0.007 0.23 4 .91 0.58 0.58 ND 0.050 ND 0.O17 0,021 0.009 0.0033
HY-130 Check 0.12 0.79 0.004 0.005 0.35 4.96 0.57 0.41 ND 0.057 ND 0.053 0.059 0,013 0.0021
l O N i - C r - Mo-C Check 0.120 0.094 0.003 0.007 0.03 9 .88 2.09 1.05 7.96 ND 0.007 ND 0.002 0.001 0.0007
l O N i - C r - •lo-C Check 0.11 0.08 0.005 0.006 0.064 9.84 2.16 0.96 7.97 ND ND 0.002 ND 0.002 0.0007
1 2 N i - 5 C r -3Ho Check 0.013 0.061 0.003 0.013 0.069 12.0 4.86 ' 2.99 ND ND 0.21 ND 0.29 0.008 0.0007

* A c id - s o l u b l e .
** T o ta l .
*** Kjel d a h l d e t e r m i n a i o n .
ND = KO t d e t e r m i n e d .

Plate Yield Strength Tensile Elongation Reducticn • Charpy V-Notch

Thickness, (0.2% O f f s e t ) , Strength, in 1 Inch, of Area Energy Absorpticn.
Steel inches ksi ksi percent percent a t 80 F , ft-lb

A36 1-1/2 36 75 32 68 73
ABS-C 1 39 63 36 66 87
A302-B 1 56 88 26 67 61
A537-7A 3/4 59 83 34 73 101

Table 2 Longitudinal mechanical properties of steels

87 106
investigated
HY-80 95 113
HY-130 ' 139 148
HY-130 140 148
lONi-Cr-Mo-Co 191 209
lONi-Cr-MO-Co 182 193
12Ni-5Cr-3Mo 185 188
12Ni-5Cr-3Mo 184 187

establish safe inspection intervals, an understanding of the rate of ing-loading (WOL) specimens, Fig. 1. The data for the
fatigue-crack propagation in steels is required. Accordingly, an martensitic steels (yield a strength > 8 0 ksi) were obtained at fre-
investigation was undertaken to study the fatigue-crack-growth quencies ranging from 30 to 5500 cycles per minute (cpm),
rates in steels ranging in yield strength from 36 to 191 ksi. The whereas the tests for the ferrite-pearlite steels (yield strength
results were analyzed by using linear elastic fracture-mechanics <80 ksi) were conducted at 60 cpm. The tests for both steels
concepts. were conducted in a room-temperature air environment by using
Materials Testing Sj'stem machines, Fig. 2. Alignment was ob-
tained by carefully machining specimens and other auxiliary parts,
Materials and Experimental Procedure and by using universal joints to load the specimens.
Materials. Fatigue-crack-propagation rates in eight construc- The specimens were tested under cyclic-stress fluctuations in
tional steels were investigated in this program. The chemical the form of a sine wave. In each test the fatigue crack was
composition and mechanical properties of the steels are given in initiated and propagated in tension to tension (0 < R < 0.7) at a
Tables 1 and 2, respectively. constant maximum load and a constant minimum load, both of
Experimental Procedure. The fatigue-crack-propagation data re- which were controlled within ± 1 . 0 percent. The crack was
ported in this investigation were obtained by using wedge-open- usually initiated and propagated from the notch root so that at
the time crack-length measurements were begun, the total crack
length, a, was greater than the specimen thickness, B.
Fatigue-crack-growth rates were measured optically with a type
M-101 Gaertner microscope mounted in a micrometer slide. To
improve the accuracy of measuring the rate of crack extension,
a series of hardness indentations was made on the surface (with a
Vickers pyramid hardness testing machine) along a line parallel
to the plane of the initial crack and in the direction of expected
crack extension, Fig. 3.

Results and Discussion

RADIUS = R
IS T H D S / I N
The magnitude and distribution of the stress field surrounding
- 0 007 RADIUS 0.007 RADIUS the tip of a crack can be represented by using fracture-mechanics
concepts. Fracture-mechanics principles show t h a t the magni-
tude of the stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip can be repre-
SPEC B W C A E H G D R F sented by a single parameter, K, designated the stress-intensity
IT-A 1 OOO 2.550 3.200 f. 7 8 3 0.767 2/4 80 1.240 0.094 0.350 1.000 factor. For a given mode of displacement of the crack surfaces,
2T-A 2 OOO 5 1 fO 6.200 3.570 1.540 4,960 2 480 0.188 0.625 1.850 the applied nominal stress, crack size, and structural geometry
IT-B 1.000 2 550 3.200 1.783 0.767 2.480 J.240 0.094 0.250 0.650
cause the value of K at the crack tip to change, but the stress-field
distribution remains unchanged.
2T-B 2.000 5 f iO 6 200 3.570 1.510 4,960 2 480 O 188 0.500 I. 3 0 0
Fatigue-crack propagation is a localized phenomenon that de-
Fig. 1 T w o types of I T and 2T WOL specimens pends on the boundary conditions at the crack tip. Because the

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 i\. J.ocation of hardness indentations. Xl.

Fig. 2 Experimental setup for fatigue-crock-growth sludies

s[,ress-intensity factor describes the stress conditions at the tip of

t, crack, the rate of fatigue-crack growth must depend on K. n. X2S.
Thus, Paris [1] 1 suggested that fatiglle-crack-propagation rates
under cyclic stresses can be empirically represented by the equa- Fig. 3 Hardness indentations used to measure crack length in WOl
t,ion specimens

do
A (!1[()"
(uv
where a = crack length, in.
N = number of cycles.
!1[( = stress-intensity-factor range, ksi ~
A and n are constants for a given material.
This functional relationship suggests that fatigue-crack
propagation is dependent primarily on the stress-intensity-factor
range. Thus, laboratory data so expressed can be used in the
analysis and design of practical structures.
Fatigue-Crack Growth in Martensilic Steels. Fatigue-crack-growth-
rate data for various high-yield-strength (0' y, >80) martensitic
steels are summarized in Fig. 4 [2]. Under opening mode of de-
formation (Mode I), the stress-intensity-factor range, !1K lJ
varied from 6 to 150 ksi yin. This range of !1[(r values pro-
duced four orders of magnitude change in crack-growth rate per
eycle. The data show that the primary factor affecting craek-
growth rate in fatigue is the applied stress-intensity-factor range
and that the mechanical and metallurgical properties of these
steels have negligible effects on the fatigue-crack-propagation
rates in a room-temperature air environment. Because the data
for these steels fall within a single band, a conservative estimates
of fatigue-crack-propagation rates for martensitic steels in an air
environment can be obtained from the equation
(1)
The scatter band shown in Fig. 4 encompasses (1) data oh-
tained for steels that are made by various production practices and
that have various compositions and mechanical and metallurgi(~al
properties, and (2) data obtained from various specimen ge-
ometries. The scatter band was drawn to show that despite the
large variations in properties, the fatigue-crack-growth data for
these steels fall within a relatively narrow scatter band. The
scatter in fatigue-crack-growth-rate data obtained for the same
material, heat, and plate represents primarily the accuracy of the
experimental procedure. Fig. 5 [2] shows data obtained from
three wedge-opening-Ioading (11'- WOL) specimens of 10 Ni-Cr-
Mo-Co steel. Although !1[(/ varied from 6 to 150 ksi Vin.;
the data scatter is well within ± 10 percent from the least-squares
regression line through the data points. Consequently, the
accuracy of experimental data should be determined from the
maximum scatter observed between neighboring points obtained
under identical test conditions rather than be justified on
the basis that the data fit within the scatter band shown in Fig. 4.
l-g 3
~2
(2)

where a is in in. and K/ is in ksi yin.

However, at high values of !1[(lJ the fatigue-crack-growth rates L~K)2.25

increase markedly [2, 3, 4] and therefore cannot be predicted by

equation (2). The value of !1K/ at which acceleration in fatigue-
crack-growth rates occurs in various stcels is discussed in a later 12NI STEEL

section. rONi STEEL

HY-130 STEEL
The validity of equation (2) was established further by using
-HY~80 STEEL
data published by various researchers, and its applicability to
s[,eels ranging in yield strength from 80 to 300 ksi also was
established [2]. 4 6 8 10- 5 ,2 3 4 6 8 10- 4 2 3 4 6' 8 ro· 3
CRACK GROWTH RATE, dc/dll, inch per cycle

I Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper. Fig. 4 Summary of fatigue-crack-propagatian data for martensitic sleels

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 1 1
r~r<-p T T T I irr i ' I~H 1 1 1 I h I , : . . : , • 1 1 ' 1 M i l I'M 1 I ' M I I 1 I 1 1 '-
ONSET
TRANS TION S T = !.GXIO ^inch ^ i - i-A36 -
o-ABS-C
'- 0-A3O2-8
- ' U 40 - Q-A537-A
-
--n=2.24

- ^ D
n = 2.25 - iftty^^aJVP- da/dn = 3.6x10 (AK]!
oo ~,—-* FOR da/dn in inch/cycle
, ^ AK X in ksi V i n c i !
'->
y°"
10 Ni-Cr-Mo-Co STEEL
- r -"""^ ~
° 2-INCH-THICK PLATE r
° 1-INCH-THICK PLATE
'-_ 1 1 ! 1 i 1 1 ll 1 1 1 1 1 i r
- 4 6 8 I0~G 2 4 6 8 I0"5 2 4 6 8 10"*
CRACK GROWTH RATE, d a / d n , inch per cycle
-
l ini • l i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' , i II Fig. 6 S u m m a r y of fatigue-craek-growth d a t a for ferrite-pearlite steels
I0"7 2 3 4 S 8 I0' 6 2 3 4 6 8 I0" 5 2 3 4 6 8 ICT4 2 3 4 6 1
CRACK GROWTH RATE, d a / d n , inch per cycle

Fig. 5 Fatigue-crack-propagation data for 10 Ni-Cr-Mo-Co steel

1 — n ii M i

HY-130 STEEL
2-INCH-THICK PLATE
Fatigue-Crack Growth in Ferrite-Pearlite Steels. Fatigue-crack- 1-INCH-THICK PLATE

growth-rate data for various ferrite-pearlite steels are summarized

in Fig. 6. T h e data in this figure show the behavior before onset
of acceleration in fatigue-crack growth. This fatigue-rate transi- ONSET OF B

tion, which is discussed in a later section, occurs a t a constant TRANSITION ST=I.6X lO^inch v^Sgr^'G—"'

value of the crack-opening-displacement range, A5, and therefore S^°'

occurs a t different AK/ values for different materials.
The data presented in Figs. 4 and 6 show that before fatigue-
rate transition, the rate of fatigue-crack growth at a given stress-
intensity-factor range is lower in ferrite-pearlite steels than in
martensitic steels. Although the exponent for the stress-in-
tensity-factor range, AK, in equation (1) is larger for the ferrite-
pearlite steels than for the martensitic steels, Figs. 6 and 4,
respectively, the value of the constant A is much smaller for the
ferrite-pearlite steels than for the martensitic steels. Conse-
quently, equation (2) may be used to calculate approximate crack-
growth rates prior to fatigue-rate transition in both martensitic
and ferrite-pearlite steels. At low values of AK,, however, the
fatigue-crack-growth rates calculated by using equation (2) are fatigue-rate transition occurs, AST, is approximately equal to 1.6
too conservative for ferrite-pearlite steels. The data presented
in Fig. 6 indicate that realistic estimates of the rate of fatigue-
crack growth in ferrite-pearlite steels can be calculated from the
equation
da
3.6 X 10-'° (AK,)3-*
~dN
where a is in in. and AK, is in ksi V i n .
The reasons for the difference in growth-rate behavior between
the martensitic steels and the ferrite-pearlite steels are discussed
in a later section.
Fatigue-Crack-Growth-Rate Acceleration. Equations (2) and (3) strain-rate sensitive [6]. Consequently, t h e fatigue- crack-
may be used to calculate rates of fatigue-crack growth in mar-
tensitic steels and ferrite-pearlite steels, respectively, in the region tained a t a constant cyclic frequency (that is, 60 cpm). T h e
of the low stress-intensity-factor range, AKB and also for applied
stresses that are small compared with the yield strength of the
material. At high AK, values, acceleration in fatigue-crack
propagation occurs. This "fatigue-rate transition" [5] appears
to be caused b y the superposition of a ductile tear mechanism
onto the mechanism of cyclic subcritical crack extension, which
leaves fatigue striatums on the fracture surface.
Barsom [5] indicated that the onset of fatigue-rate transition
in various metals occurs a t an essentially constant value of the
crack-opening-displacement range, AS, where A5 is given by the
equation
(Ag,)'
AS
E(T„
where E = Young's modulus
ays — 0.2 percent offset yield strength.
The value of the crack-opening-displacement range which
10"" 2 3 4 5 6 8 10"= 2 3 4 5 6 8 10"* 2 3 4 5 6
CRACK GROWTH RATE, d o / d N , inch per cycle
Fig. 7 Fatigue-crack-propagation d a t a for H Y - 1 3 0 steel
X 10"3in.
The fatigue-rate transition in martensitic steels has been dis-
cussed previously [5]. Examples of t h e behavior are pre-
sented in Figs. 5 and 7, which show the fatigue-crack-growth rates
in 10 Ni-Cr-Mo-Co and HY-130 steels, respectively, and the AK,
values a t which acceleration in growth rate is expected (that is,
(3)
AK, corresponding to AST - 1.6 X 10~ 3 in.). T h e agreement
between the calculated AK, value a t the onset of fatigue-rate
transition and the experimental results is very good.
The fatigue-rate transitions in A537-A, A302-B, ABS-C, and
A36 steels are shown in Figs. 8 through 11. Because these ferrite-
pearlite steels have yield strengths less than 100 ksi, they are
growth-rate data for these steels, Figs. 8 through 11, were ob-
data show t h a t the fatigue-rate transition occurs a t a AK, value
close to the value predicted by the equation
(A/f,) 2
A8T = 1.6 X 10~ 3 in. (5)
Figs. 12 and 13 present sketches of idealized fatigue-crack-
growth behaviors in martensitic steels and ferrite-pearlite steels,
respectively.
Differences Between Fatigue-Crack-Growth Behavior in Martensitic
and Ferrite-Pearlite Steels. As pointed out in a previous section,
the fatigue-crack-growth rates prior to fatigue-rate transition are
slower in ferrite-pearlite steels than in martensitic steels. More-
(4) over, unlike the fatigue-rate transitions in martensitic steels, the
fatigue-rate transitions in ferrite-pearlite steels, Figs. 8 through
11, occur a t slightly higher AK, values than predicted by equa-
tion (5). Both the decrease in fatigue-crack-growth rates and the
increase in the AK, value a t the onset of fatigue-rate transition

Journal of Engineering for Industry NOVEMBER 1 9 7 1 / 1193

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 Y-FACT OR RANGE
IUO 1 i M M »---==
80

60 ~ 8 T --|.6« I 0 " 3

40

Fig. 8 Fatigue-crack-growth data for A 5 3 7 - A steel z

z A537-A STEEL
<_ X 60 cpm
Z < 20 - 2.8

-°
a
10 1 1 1 , 1 : ! : ! ! , 1 , 1 • 1 ,
4 6 8 10-5 2 1 6 8 I0"4

CRACK GROWTH RATE, d a / d n , inch per cycle

1
1 | 1 1MM ! ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ^^Za--° —
HO
RAN

3
S T = l . 6 x I0" inch —
60
-F*"^
-
^
£• ;;
40
-r-"' A302-B STEEL
D

D Fig. 9 Fatigue-crack-growth data for A 3 0 2 - B steel

Z M
D
-s- Mj'-°
D ' ' 3.0
? <• 20 -,a"
%-*'
-s

t/1
UJ

(/) 10 1 1.1 1 1 1 , ! , 1 1 1 1 ;
4 6 8 10 2 4 6
CRACK GROWTH RATE, d a / d n , inch per cycle

O 100 --TT-I 1 1 ' M l

1 ' I' I
8
1 ° o—>»
or 60
S T =l.6x 10° inch- £><
? S "° " ^
Fig. 10 Fatigue-crack-growth data for ABS-C steel t ^ ^cPJ-°||0 ABS-C STEEL
6 0 cpm
z „" 20 0-0° 3^—
-off
,cr^"

I 1 I 1 I I , 1 , 1 , 1
4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10°
CRACK GROWTH RATE, d o / d n , inch per cycle

S T =l6x I0"3 inch-

«P--f* Fig. 11 Fatigue-crack-growth data for A 3 6 steel

A36 STEEL
6 0 cpm

2 4 6 8 10 2 4
CRACK GROWTH RATE, da/dn, inch per cycle

appear to be related to crack branching or to the composite placement at the onset of fatigue-rate transition, equation (5), for
character of the microstructure of ferrite-pearlite steel or to both. a branched crack would be expected to be slightly higher than 1.6
Crack Branching. Fig. 14 is a scanning electron micrograph X 10^ 3 in., which was shown to be applicable to martensitic
of the fracture surface in A36 steel, which shows severe secondary steels where severe crack branching was not observed. Examina-
cracking. Severe crack branching was not observed on the frac- tion of the data presented in Figs. 8 through 11 shows t h a t onset
ture surfaces of the martensitic steels investigated. These
of fatigue-rate transition in ferrite-pearlite steels does occur at
secondary cracks tend to share the crack-opening displacement at
AKI values approximately 10 ksi v in. higher than the values
the crack tip with the main crack, and thereby cause a reduction
corresponding to A8T = 1.6 X 1 0 _ 8 i n .
in the stress-intensity factor, equation (4). Consequently, the
actual fatigue-crack-growth rate is less for a branched crack than Composite Behavior. A composite material is a material sys-
the rate estimated for a single crack front. This observation tem made up of a mixture of two or more distinct constituents.
appears to explain the differences in fatigue-crack-growth rates Most composite constituents can be classified as matrix formers or
between martensitic and ferrite-pearlite steels, equations (2) and matrix modifiers. T h e matrix formers are those constitutents
(3). Similarly, at the same crack-opening displacement, the which give the composite its bulk form and which hold the
strain at the tip of a branched crack is less than that at the tip matrix modifiers in place. The matrix modifiers determine the
of a single crack. Therefore, the value of t h e crack-opening dis- character of the internal structure of the composite. I n this

1194 / N O V E M B E R 1971 Transactions of the ASME

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 l.i 100 r-r..-...,-,,-----,--.----,-r-r-r-r..-r------,,--::;,.,----,
::i'" 60 w
'"'" CTyS' YIELD STRENGTH '"z
<l
100
60
'" 60

~~
>- .-
40
'"
u
~~
~
u
.5
60

~.: '-
CTys • 80 ksi
l/> • ~ 40
t::':
~~ l/>
~ <J 20 Z
w'"
H

f-<J
J, Z
l/>
W J,
l/>
'"
f-
a Ll-'-.L.L--;:-_ _..l.-_--'-_-'--'L.....l-L-LJLL--;-_ _L-_.l.-~
W.
l/> J
6 . 6 2 4 6 6 2 4
'"
f-
l/>

10,Ll-'-.L.L-::.-_ _--'-_-'-_L-..L...L.LL...LJ"---A_ _...L_---L_.L...J

CRACK GROWTH RATE, do/dn, inch per cycle 6 8 10.5 2 4 6 2 4
Fig. 12 Idealized fatigue-crack-growth rates in martensitic steels CRACK GROWTH RATE, do/dn, inch per cycle

Fig. 13 Idealized fatigue-crack-growth rates in ferrite-pearlite steels

context, ferrite-pearlite steels can be visualized as particulate
composites in which the ferrite is the matrix former and the
pearlite is the matrix modifier tha t is dispersed in the matrix as
particles (that is, colonies or patches of irregular shapes).
Fatigue-crn,ck-growth rates in particulate-composite materials
might depend on the strength of the particles relative to the
strength of the matrix, on the strength of the interface bond be-
tween the particles and the matrix, on the size and orientation of
the particles, and on the distribution density of these particles.
The latter determines the mean-free path of the fatigue-crack
front during its propagation. The larger the distribution density
of the particles, the smaller is the mean-free path, and therefore,
the larger is the effect of the particles on crack growth. The
strengths of the particles and of the interface bond relative to
the strength of t.he matrix determine whether the fatigue-crack-
growth rates in the composite will be higher or lower than the
rates in the absence of these matrix modifiers.
In ferrite-pearlite-steel composites the interface bond between
the constituents is quite strong. Furthermore, becalLse of the
iron carbides in the pearlite, the strength of these matrix modi-
fiers is higher than the strength of the matrix, and the ductility
of the matrix is greater than the ductility of the matrix modifier.
These properties of the constituents and of the interface tend to
improve the strength and toughness of the matrix because the
duct.ile ferrite can distribute the stresses to the stronger pearlite
colonies.
The effect of pearlite colonies on the rate of fatigue-crack
growth in ferrite-pearlite steels was investigated by using scanning
electron micrographs of the fract,me profile. Fig. 15 is a light mi-
crograph of a portion of the fracture profile in A:36 steel. The
micrograph shows that the plastic deformation under cyclic loading
is much more extensive in the ferrite matrix than in the pearlite
colonies. Fig. lEi also shows a secondary fatigue crack prefer-
entially seeking to propagate around a pearlite colony rather than
through it. These observations suggest that the path of least
resistance to fatigue-crack growth is through the ferrite matrix and
that the pearlite colonies tend to retard crack growth.
Because the properties of the constituents in a composite may
affect the rate of fatigue-crack growth, acceleration in the fatigue-
crack-growth rates, caused by undesirable properties of the matrix
modifiers or of the interface or of both, would be expected in some
composite materials. This behavior has been observed [7J in
two 7178 aluminum alloys that differed markedly only in im-
purity contents.
Effect of Pearlite Colonies on the Fatigue-Crack-Growth Rates in
Ferrite-Pearlite Steels-An Analytical Model.The main crack front--
assuming that the least-resistance path for fatigue-cmck growth
in ferrite-pearlite steels is through the ferrite matrix-can be
visualized as propagating around pearlite colonies. Conse-
quently, the main crack front would propagate in the ferrite
matrix, leaving behind unbroken ligaments of pearlite. Even-
tually, the ligaments would fracture when they are loaded to their
tensile instability. Because these ligaments carry a portion of the
applied load, they tend to reduce the stress-intensity factor at the
crack tip. An estimate of the reduction in the stress-intensity
factor at the tip of the main crack [8J has been calculated for an
infinite center-cracked plate loaded along the crack plane by a
finite number of point forces. The crack-tip stress-intensity
factor is given by the equation

Fig. 14 Scanning eleclron micrograph of the fracture surface in A36 sleel Fig. 1S Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture profile in A36 steel

Journal of Engineering for Industry NOV EM B E R 197 1 / 1195

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K = K, - —T= G{m,d) («)
where Kj = applied stress-intensity factor
F = average force exerted by each ligament
in = number of unbroken ligaments
d — fraction of the crack length (2a) over which I lie
ligaments remain unbroken
Although it is difficult to calculate the exact value of
2F
— j = G{m,d) for a given material, equation (6) indicates that
V TO
deceleration in fatigue-crack-growth rates in ferrite-pearlite steels
might occur. Moreover, fatigue-rate transition in ferrite-pearlite
steels should be calculated by using the stress-intensity factor at
the tip of the main crack, K in equation (6), rather than the
applied stress-intensity factor, Kj. Consequently, equation (6)
also shows that fatigue rate transition in ferrite-pearlite steels
should occur at a slightly higher value of K; than the value calcu-
lated by using equation (5).
Summary
An investigation of the fatigue-crack-growth behavior of sleels
ranging in yield strength from 36 to 191 ksi showed that
1 The primary factor affecting fatigue-crack-growth rales in
structural steels is the applied stress-intensity-factor range, AK,.
2 The rate of fatigue-crack growth in martensitic steels is
higher than the growth rate in ferrite-pearlite steels.
3 Acceleration in fatigue-crack-growth rates occurs when the
crack-opening displacement reaches a constant value of about 1.6
X 1 0 - 3 in. However, this fatigue-rate transition occurs in ferrite-
pearlite steels at a slightly higher applied crack-opening displace-
ment than in martensitic steels.
1196 / N O V E M B E R 1971
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•1 The decrease in fatigue-crack-growth rates in ferrite-
pearlite steels and the increase in the stress-in tensity-factor range
at which fatigue-rate transition is expected, appear to be related
to severe secondary cracking or to the composite microstructure of
the ferrite-pearlite steels or to both.
References
1 Paris, P. C , "The Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue,"
Proceedings, Tenth Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference,
Syracuse University Press, 1964.
2 Barsom, J. M., Imhof, E. J., Jr., and Rolfe, S. T., "Fatigue-
Crack Propagation in High-Yield-Strength Steels," presented at the
Third National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics, Lehigh Uni-
versity, Bethlehem, Pa., Aug. 1969; to be published in the Journal
of Engineering Fracture Mechanics.
3 Carman, C. M., and Katlin, J. M., "Low Cycle Fatigue Crack
Propagation of High-Strength Steels," ASME Paper No. 66-MET-3,
Apr. 1966.
4 Clark, W. G., Jr., and Wessel, E. T., "Interpretation of the
Fracture Behavior of 5456-H321 Aluminum With WOL Toughness
Specimens," Westinghouse Research Laboratory, Scientific Paper 67-
1D6-BTLFR-P4, Sept. 1967.
5 Barsom, J. M., "The Dependence of Fatigue-Crack Propagation
on Strain-Energy Release Rate and on Crack-Opening Displacement,"
Damage Tolerance in Aircraft Structures, ASTM STP 486, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1971 (in press).
6 Barsom, J. M., and Rolfe, S. T., "Correlations Between Kjc and
Charpy V-Notch Test Results in the Transition-Temperature
Range," Impact Testing of Metals, ASTM STP 466, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 1970, p. 281.
7 Pelloux, R. M. N., "Fractographic Analysis of the Influence of
Constituent Particles on Fatigue-Crack Propagation in Aluminum
Alloys," ASM Transactions Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 2, June 1964, p.
511.
8 Halm, G. T., Hoagland, R. G., Mincer, P. N., Rosenfield, A. R.,
and Sarrate, M., "Crack Propagation and Arrest in Ship Steels,"
Final Report on Project SR-180, "Fracture-Strain Program," pre-
pared by Battelle Memorial Institute for the Ship Structure Com-
mittee, 1970.
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