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Appendix 1 Mathematical Equations Used in Astronomy (Freedman 1.1 Astronomical Constants Astronomical unit, AU = 149,60 10 km 1.4960 10m Light year yy =9.460S> 102km 9.4605 x 10m, 3240 AU, Year y 365.2564 3.156% 101 Solar mass IRV 10K, Solar radius 5.9509 x Lom 5.9599 x LO Kin 390 10 W Solar luminosity x LOm/t 1979 100" ema 979% HP KY Speed of Hight A1.2 Physical Constants Gravitational G 26 > WE Nav ky constant Planck's hh 6.0261 Ws constant 1357 10-SeVs Bolvmann k= EAST HTK constant ITA WW SeV/K, Stefan ° 705 10-SWiv kt Boluanann constant Mass of an m, =9.1094X 107 ke electron Mass of dm, = 167265 10-7 ke proton and Kaufmann, 2002; Hartmann, 2005) Mass of a m, = L679 107 neutron Mass of a my = LO73S x10 hydrogen atom | Rydberg R= 10968 107m constant Hiectran volt Le = 10022101 ‘A1.3 Geometrical Relations Area of a recta Azaxb Volume of rectangular solid Vaxbxe Hypotenuse of a right triangle ¢=(@—b°)!? Circumference of a circle Area of a circle Surface of a sphere ‘Volume of a sphere R14 15926536 aadius of a cirele A1.4 Units of Distance, Time, and Mass In Science the unit ef length or distance is the meter (in) the unit oF tine Hs the second (Sh. and the unit of mass is the kilogrant (ke), 469 470 A1.4.1 Distance (m) Lor2m = 1 centimeter (em) 10° m= 1 millimeter (mm) 10 m=1 micrometer (um) 10m =nanometer (nm) 1h = 1 kilometer (kin) 149.6% 10m = | astronomical unit (AU) 946% 10! Kmn-= | lightyear (ly) = 63,240 (AU) A1.4.2 Time (5) 605 = 1 minute (nin) 4600S = 1 hour (h)=60)anin 86400S= I day @) 3.156% 111 yeakyy 1.4.3 Mass (kg) 1.99510" ke = solar mass (MO) 1.5 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration Spee is a measure of how fasta body iy moving expressed in terms of the ratio distance time i Tm 1.609% 1 Tis Velocity ditters from speed because it includes the diteetion in whieh a body is moving, For example, & car moving north at 140 kmvh and car moving south at 100 knvh have the same speed bul different velocities, Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity ‘of a body in motion is chat a change in its speed or because of a ch direction, Acceleration accurs when the speed of a body in motion increases or decreases, or when the direetion of motion is changing. When an apple falls out oF a tree, iy speed increase from 7eto 109.8 v/s during the first second, to 19.6mv's during the next second, and to 29.4 mis during the third second. In other words, the speed athe allon the Earth increases by 9.8 ns onl that of the apple is OSmvs's or 1 either because of 2e in its sapses, Therelore. the ace smn, eration aprennix 1 A planet on a circular orbit around the Sun has, 4 constant speed bul il is continually accelerated because af the change in direction ‘A1.6 Newton's Laws of Motion LA body at rest remains al rest. & body: in motion continues ty move in a straight Hine at aa constant speed unless itis acted upon by a net outside loree. 2. The avceleration oF an abject is proportional to the net outside force that is acting on it Ii a net force (F) ats on body of mass of mass {in}, the body will experience an acceleration (a) such that Pema F = net outside foree acting on the body (newions) m= mass af the object (ke). acceleration(m/r). 4, Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body. the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body. A1.7 Mass and Weight The masy af a body depends on the amount of material it contains and ts expressed in grams or Kilograms, The mass of a body does not depend dn is location in the Universe The weight of a body is the magnitude of the cwitational force that acts on it, Since weight is force, it is expressed in-newtons or pounds where I newt 1225 pounds A1.8 Sidereal and Synodic Periods The siderea! period of a planet is the time required for the planet t0 complete one orbit. The he period of a planet is the Lime between two successive identical cont uurations, At.8a Inferior Planet (ALD) MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS USED IN. ASTRONOMY idereal period of an interior planet tie the radius of its orbit is smaller than that of the Earth), idereal period of the Barth (1 year). ynodie period of an inferior planet A1.8b Superior Planet (AL) sigereal period of & superior planet idereal period of the Earth (1 year} nadie period of a superior planet Note that all periods are expressed in multiples ‘of sidereal Earth y A1.9 Kepler's Third Law pea P= period expressed in sidereal Farth years, a=semi-najor axis of the orbit of & planet in the solar system expressed in asteonomical units (AU) ‘This form af Kepler's third kaw applies only to ‘objects that orbit the Sun. T-does not apply to satellites that orbit planets in the solar system or planets that orbit a star other than the Sun ‘A110 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation mms F=6( civitational force between two objects in newtons. the mays oF the fist object in kilograms, the mass ofthe second oljeet in kilograms, distance between the centers af the objects in meters Universal Constant of gravitation = 6.67 x 10-1 newton a fk? ‘1.11 Newton's Form of Kepler's Third Law 47 sidereal period in seconds, seiii-major avis of the orbit in meters, mass of the first object in kilograms, inass of the second object in kilograms, universal constant of gravitation (See above) A1.12 Tidal Force Exerted by the Earth ‘on the Moon iM nd = idlal force in newtons (N) 567 x 107" Nur fk ass of the Earth = ral mass oF 1k: diameter of the Moon in meters 3.476% 10 m P= distance between the center of the Barth and the center of the Moon in meters S74 = 8H hm 1 26,67 WHS TA WEN (RATS 1) . GRA Py 4.88010 SNCPreedman and Kaufmann, 2002. p213), A1.13 Tidal Bulge The mass oF the tidal bul (a) is A mas where A depends on the mechanical properties oof the body that is being deformed By substituting m= A/F" into the formula tor the tidal force, we obtain the net tidal Foree that aacls on the Moon: The ratio oF the net tidal forces acting on the Moon at perigee and apogee is 405.500)" SEAM) = 9 3recdman a un) 193(reedman and Kautinann, 2002, p, 216) 472 1.14 Roche Limits Hwo touching particles (A134) (Ald) Roche Fimit density af a body of mass M i, = density of body of mass mn R= radius of the body of mays M_ (kin) (Hartmann, 2005, p.60) 1.15 Frequency and Wavelength of Electromagnetic Radiation fALS) v= frequency of an electromagnetic wave in het (117) = speed of light in meters per secon A= wavelength of the wave in meters The frequency of a wave of any kind is the number of wave crests thal pass @ given point in fone second I pot > fAL.6) where p= the time between successive wave crests thal puss at given point, “The speed of Tight, or the speed of any wave. is equal to the wavelength divided by the period A (AL) p 1.16 Temperature Scales Cc 27215 (ALS) +273,15 (ALY) aprennix 1 (ALI) (ALL) (AL.13) C= temperature on the Celsius scale, jemperature on the Kelvin scale, jermperature on the Fahrenheit scale. 1.17 Wien's Law for Blackbody Radiation The relation between the temperature of a rexliating body and the wavelength of the most intense radiation it emits is: _ 0.0029 daa = wavelength of the most intense radiation in meters. = temperature of the object in helvins A ‘A1.18 Stefan-Boltzmann Law for Blackbody Radiation = fhux of energy in units of I¥m?/s at the surface of the radiating body 6710-8 Wyo /T! (or Wm temperature of the object in Kel A1.19 Surface Temperature of the Sun The wavelength of the most intense radiation mitted by the Sun is Honan (ereedian and Kautmann, 20802. p. 103). ‘Therefore. Wien's Law yields a temperature of 0.0029 0.0029 MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS USED IN. ASTRONOMY n luminosity (L) of the Sun is L= 390 W. Given that 1 Watt= 1s. ie Sun radiates 390% 10°F every second. The enerey flux (P) is obtained by dividing the total luminosity by surface area (A) of the Sun where Ask? and Ris the radius of the Sun (Freedman and Kautimann, 2002, p. 103) aga xtol! © BR CIO APY GAL 10" W/m We can also calculate the surface temperature of the Sun trom the Stelan-Boltzmann Law OAL x1 r DAMP i310) a 36710" log L110 _ ISOS ogy which rounds te S800 K 1.20 Energy of Photons he c= AL) “ ( energy in electron volt (eV) where LeV = 162M, h= Planck's constant= 6.625 x 10-™ Is, C= speed of light, A= wavelength of light One photon of red Tight having a wavelength A= 633m carries an energy of 6.625 1X 3.00% 10" 1 ea SPY Ihe energy of a photon can also be expressed in teins of the frequeney (1) where ok (A115) a I (ALI) 473 1.21 Doppler Effect MA ae SAH measured wavele nanometers AS wavelengtiy in nanometers when the source is not moving P= velocity of the source measured slong the line of sight fie, the radial velocity) in kus. = speed of Fight (2.0 > 10° km/1}. IFA} is negative, the source is approving the Fath (ise. blue shift), IWAN is positive. the source is receding from the Parth (i.e, red shill}. change in) 1.22 Kinetic Energy and Speed of Atoms and Molecules in a Gas ‘The kinetic energy of an abject is (ALI) ass of the object in Kil peed in meters per second, netic energy in Joules (I) The average kinetic OF an sion or molecule in a gas is, 3 SKI {AL 18) k= Boltzmann constant= LAS x 10 SYK. T= temperature in kelvins, KF = average kinetic energy of a single atom or molecule in Houles, ‘The average speed of an atom or molecule in a gas depends on its mass. awry? va(t ans) m / v= average speed of an atom or molecule in us in ms k= 138 OK, T= temperature of the gas in kelvins M= mass of the atom or molecule in kilograms, 1.23 Escape Speed from Planetary Surfaces The escape speed is the minimum speed an object al the suriace of @ planet must have in order te permanently leave the planet The escape speed of planets in Kay is: Mercury 43 Venus 104 Fasth 2 Moon Mars Lupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Plvo aprennix 1 1.24 Retention of Molecular Oxygen in the Atmosphere of the Earth he mass of a molecule of oxygen (Os) is 5.32 x 10g, Therefore the average speed of oxywen molecules at 20°C (293K) is (rreedman and Kaufimann, 2002, p. 160 (“ a8 10) po (ee de OATS km/1 Sinee the escape speed trom the Earth is H.2km/s. oxygen cannot escape trom. the atmosphere of the Farth. In general, atoms and molecules cannot escape in cases where the escape specd from the surface of the planet is more than six times higher than the average speed fof the atom or molecule under consideration. A1.25 References Prosi RA. Kaufmann FEW (2002) Universe: The solar stem. Frseman, New York, Harman WK [2008) Moons and phils, Sth ed BrooksiCole, elmont, CN

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