Process Modelling, Simulation and Control for Chemical Engineers.

Solved
problems. Chapter 9: Laplace domain dynamics. Version 2
This document contains my own solutions to the problems proposed at the end of each chapter of
the book ”Process Modelling, Simulation and Control for Chemical Engineers” Second Edition, by
William L. Luyben. As such, I can’t guarantee that the proposed solutions are free from errors.
Think about them as a starting point for developing or as a means of checking your own solutions.
Any comments or corrections will be appreciated. Contact me at francisco.angel.rod@gmail.com
The computer programs developed for this chapter (Python) are available at:
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/hkpcq084wte6iv4/AAD-lCaSBrdUE65Ma0HXLgZfa?dl=0

Changes from Version 1

*Final expression for x(t) , problem 7, (b).
*Several corrections, problem 20.

Problem 1
Prove that the Laplace transformation of the following functions are:

(a)
d2 f
   
df
L = s2 F(s) − sf(t=0) −
dt2 dt (t=0)

(b)
s
L[cos(ωt)] =
s2 + ω 2
(c)
w
L[e−at sin(ωt)] =
(s + a)2 + ω 2

Solution
(a) Using the property: 

df
L = sF(s) − f(t=0)
dt

with u = df /dt, we have:

 
du
L = sU(s) − u(t=0)
dt
 2   
d f df
L 2
= s(sF (s) − f (t=0) ) −
dt dt (t=0)
 
df
= s2 F(s) − sf(t=0) −
dt (t=0)

(b) First, we use integration by parts, with u = cos(ωt) (du = −ω sin(ωt)dt) and dv = e−st dt
(v = −e−st /s):
Z ∞ ∞
e−st  ω ∞
Z
e−st cos(ωt)dt = − cos(ωt) − sin(ωt)e−st dt
0 s 
0 s 0
1 ω ∞
Z
−st
= − sin(ωt)e dt
s s 0

1
 We use integration by parts again, with u = sin(ωt) (du = ω cos(ωt)) and dv = e−st dt:
Z ∞ ∞
e−st  ω ∞ −st
 Z 
1 ω
e−st cos(ωt)dt = − − sin(ωt) + e cos(ωt)dt
0 s s s 0 s 0
2 Z ∞
1 ω
= − 2 e−st cos(ωt)dt
s s 0
ω2
 
1
= / 1+ 2
s s
s
= 2
s + ω2

(c) We know that: Z ∞

w
e−ut sin(ωt)dt =
0 u2 + ω 2
So:
Z ∞ Z ∞
−st −at
e e sin(ωt)dt = e−(s+a)t sin(ωt)dt (u = s + a)
0 0
w
=
(s + a)2 + ω 2

Problem 2
Find the Laplace transformation of a rectangular pulse of height Hp and duration Tp .

Solution
The rectangular pulse (p(t) ) can be represented by:

p(t) = Hp (u(t) − u(t − Tp ))

with u(t) the unit step function. The Laplace transformation of p(t) is:

1 e−sTp
 
Hp
P(s) = Hp − = (1 − e−sTp )
s s s

Problem 3
An isothermal perfectly mixed batch reactor has consecutive first order reactions:
k
1 2 k
A −→ B −→ C

The initial material charged to the vessel contains only A at a concentration CA0 . Use Laplace
transform techniques to solve for the changes in CA and CB with time during the batch cycle for:
(a) k1 > k2 .
(b) k1 = k2 .

Solution
The diferential equations for the concentration of A and B are:
dCA
= −k1 CA
dt
dCB
= k1 CA − k2 CB
dt

2
Laplace transforming the previous equations we get:

sCA − CA0 = −k1 CA

sCB = k1 CA − k2 CB

Rearranging:
CA0
CA = (1)
s + k1
k1 CA k1 CA0
CB = = (2)
s + k2 (s + k1 )(s + k2 )

From the first expression we get:

CA = CA0 e−k1 t (t > 0)

(a) CB can be obtained by first decomposing equation (2) using partial fractions, and then inverting
the Laplace transformation:
 
k1 CA0 1 1
CB = −
k1 − k2 s + k2 s + k1
k1 CA0 −k2 t
− e−k1 t (t > 0)


CB = e
k1 − k2

(b) With k1 = k2 = k:

kCA0
CB =
(s + k)2
CB = kCA0 te−kt (t > 0)

Problem 4
Two isothermal CSTRs are connected by a long pipe that acts as a pure deadtime of D minutes
at the steady state flow rates (Figure 1). Assume constant throughputs and holdups and a first
order irreversible reaction:
k
A−→B
in each tank. Derive the transfer function relating the feed concentration to the first tank CA0 and
the concentration of A in the stream leaving the second tank CA2 . Use inversion to find CA2 (t)
for a unit step disturbance in CA0 .

Figure 1: CSTRs connected by deadtime.

Solution
The diferential equations that describe the concentration of A in each tank are:
dCA1,t CA0,t CA1,t
= − kCA1,t −
dt τ τ
dCA2,t CA1,t−D CA2,t
= − kCA2,t −
dt τ τ

3
Laplace transforming each equation we get (α = (kτ + 1)/τ ):

CA0
sCA1 = − αCA1
τ
CA1 e−sD
sCA2 = − αCA2
τ
Individual and overall transfer functions are:
CA1 1/τ
=
CA0 s+α
CA2 e−sD /τ
=
CA1 s+α
CA2 e−sD /τ 2
=
CA0 (s + α)2

For a step disturbance ∆CA0 we have:

∆CA0 e−sD
CA2 =
τ 2 s(s + α)2
∆CA0 e−sD 1
 
α 1
CA2 = − −
τ 2 α2 s (s + α)2 s+α

Inverting the Laplace transform, we obtain:

   
∆CA0 kτ + 1 −(kτ +1)(t−D)/τ
CA2 = 1 − (t − D) + 1 e (t > D)
(kτ + 1)2 τ

Problem 5
A general second order system is described by the ODE:

d2 x dx
τp2 2
+ 2τp ζ + x = Kp m(t)
dt dt
If ζ > 1, show that the system transfer function has two first order lags with time constants τp1
and τp2 . Express these time constants in terms of τp and ζ.

Solution
The system transfer function is:
x Kp
=  
m τp s + 2 τζp s +
2 2 1
τp2

The transfer function can be expressed as (A, B: constants):

 
x Kp A B
= 2 +
m τp s − r1 s − r2

Where the poles r1 and r2 are related to the lags time constants as:
p
1 ζ ζ2 − 1
r1 = =− +
τp1 τp τp
p
1 ζ ζ2 − 1
r2 = =− −
τp2 τp τp

4
Problem 6
The concentration at the outlet of a CSTR is described by:
 
dC C0 kτ + 1
= − C
dt τ τ
Solve for the outlet concentration, if the inlet concentration is C0 = Kt.

Solution
Applying the Laplace transform (assuming C(t = 0) = 0) we get:
 
K kτ + 1
sC = 2 − C
τs τ
We then separate in partial fractions and invert the Laplace transform to get C(t) :
K 1
C(s) =
τ s2 (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )
 
Kτ kτ + 1 1 1 1
C(s) = − +
(kτ + 1)2 τ s2 s s + (kτ + 1)/τ
 
Kτ kτ + 1 −(kτ +1)t/τ
C(t) = t − 1 + e (t > 0)
(kτ + 1)2 τ

Problem 7
Find the transfer function of an underdamped second order system:
d2 x dx
τp22
+ 2τp ζ + x = Kp m(t)
dt dt
What are the poles of the transfer function? Solve for the response of x(t) to:
(a) A unit step disturbance.
(b) An impulse disturbance.

Solution
The transfer function is:
x Kp
= 2 2
m τp s + 2τp ζs + 1
The poles are (ζ < 1):
p
ζ 1 − ζ2
p1 = − + i
τp τp
p
ζ 1 − ζ2
p2 = − − i
τp τp
(a) For a unit step disturbance m(s) = 1/s. We can obtain x(t) by separating in partial fractions
and then inverting:
 
Kp 1
x(s) = 2
τp s(s − p1 )(s − p2 )
 
Kp 1 1 1 1 1 1
x(s) = 2 + −
τp p1 p2 s p1 (p1 − p2 ) (s − p1 ) p2 (p1 − p2 ) (s − p2 )
e p1 t e p2 t
 
Kp 1
x(t) = 2 + − (t > 0)
τp p1 p2 p1 (p1 − p2 ) p2 (p1 − p2 )
p2 ep1 t − p1 ep2 t
 
Kp
x(t) = 2 1+ (t > 0)
τp p1 p2 p1 − p2

5
 After a number of simplifications, the final expression for x(t) is:
" p ! p !#!
−ζt/τp 1 − ζ2 ζ 1 − ζ2
x(t) = Kp 1 − e cos t +p sin t (t > 0)
τp 1 − ζ2 τp

(b) For an impulse disturbance m(s) = 1. We again use partial fractions to obtain x(t) :

Kp 1
x(s) = 2
τp (s − p1 )(s − p2 )
 
Kp 1 1
x(s) = 2 − (t > 0)
τp (p1 − p2 ) s − p1 s − p2
Kp
ep1 t − ep2 t (t > 0)


x(t) = 2
τp (p1 − p2 )

The final expression for x(t) is:

p !
Kp 1 − ζ2
x(t) = p e−ζt/τp sin t (t > 0)
τp 1 − ζ 2 τp

Problem 8
Solve the second order ODE describing the steady state flow of an incompressible, newtonian liquid
through a pipe:    
d dv ∆P gc
r = r
dr dr µL

Solution
We will use the following identities:
d
L(tf(t) ) = − F(s)
ds
n!
L(tn ) =
sn+1
With the following boundary conditions:

v(r = R) = 0
dv
(r = 0) = 0
dr
Applying the Laplace transform, we obtain a differential equation in the s variable, which can be
solved to obtain v(t) :

d2 v dv ∆P gc
+r = r
dr2 dr µL
d ∆P gc 1
− (s2 v − sv(r=0) ) + sv − v(r=0) =
ds µL s2
dv v ∆P gc 1
=− −
ds s µL s4
C ∆P gc 1
v(s) = +
s 2µL s3
∆P gc 2
v(t) = C + r
4µL

6
Where C is a constant. The second boundary condition is satisfied. From the first boundary
condition we obtain the value of C:
∆P gc 2
0=C+ R
4µL
∆P gc 2
C=− R
4µL
Finally, we have:
 
∆P gc 2  r 2
v= R −1
4µL R

Problem 9
The imperfect mixing in a chemical reactor can be modeled by splitting the total volume into two
perfectly mixed sections with circulation between them (Figure 2). Feed enters and leaves one
section. The other section acts like a ”side capacity” element.
Assume holdups and flow rates are constant. The reaction is an irreversible, first order consumption
of reactant A. The system is isothermal. Solve for the transfer function relating C0 and C. What
are the zeros and poles of the transfer function? What is the steady state gain?

Figure 2: Model for imperfect mixing.

Solution
The equations that describe the system are:
dC C0 C (Cs − C)
= − kC − + (1)
dt τ τ τα
dCs C Cs
= − kCs − (2)
dt τs τs
where τ = V /F , τs = Vs /Fs and α = F/Fs . Applying the Laplace transform to equation (2) we
get:
C Cs
Cs s = − kCs −
τs τs
C
Cs =
sτs + kτs + 1
Replacing Cs in equation (1) we get:
 
C0 C C 1
Cs = − kC − + −1
τ τ τ α sτs + kτs + 1
 
C0 C Cτs s+k
Cs = − kC − −
τ τ ατ sτs + kτs + 1
C 1
=  
C0 τ s + kτ + 1 + τs s+k
α sτs +kτs +1

7
The steady state gain is:
1
G=  
τs k
kτ + 1 + α kτs +1

α(kτs + 1)
G=
α(kτs + 1)(kτ + 1) + τs k

The zero of the transfer funtion is:

(kτs + 1)
z=−
τs
Multipliying and dividing the transfer function by s/τ + (kτs + 1)/(τs τ ), we can reorganize the
denominator as the following polynomial:
 
kτs + 1 kτ + 1 1 (kτs + 1) (kτ + 1) k
p(s) = s2 + s + + + +
τs τ ατ τs τ ατ

The poles of the transfer function are the roots of the p(s).

Problem 10
One way to determine the rate of change of a process variable is to measure the differential pressure
∆P = Pout − Pin over a device called a derivative unit (Figure 3) that has a transfer function:

Pout(s) τs + 1
=
Pin(s) (τ /δ)s + 1

(a) Derive the transfer function between ∆P and Pin .

(b) Show that the ∆P signal will be proportional to the rate of rise in Pin , after an initial transient
period, when Pin is a ramp function.

Figure 3: Derivative unit for process rate of change measurement.

Solution
(a)

∆P(s) Pout(s)
= −1
Pin(s) Pin(s)
τs + 1
= −1
(τ /δ)s + 1
s(δ − 1)
=
s + δ/τ

8
(b) Assuming Pin = Kt:

K(δ − 1)
∆P(s) =
s(s + δ/τ )
 
(δ − 1) 1 1
∆P(s) = Kτ −
δ s s + δ/τ
(δ − 1)  
∆P(t) = Kτ 1 − e−δt/τ (t > 0)
δ

The proportionality constant is τ (δ − 1)/δ.

Problem 11
A convenient way to measure the density of a liquid is to pump it slowly throught a vertical pipe
and measure the differential pressure between the top and the bottom of the pipe (Figure 4). This
differential head is directly related to the density of the liquid in the pipe if frictional losses are
negligible.
Suppose the density can change with time. What is the transfer function relating a perturbation in
density to the differential pressure measurement? Assume the fluid moves up the vertical column
in plug flow at constant velocity.

Figure 4: Density measurement device.

Solution
The pressure difference is proportional to the average density (A: cross sectional area, H: fluid
column height, V : fluid velocity, g: gravity acceleration):

∆P = gHρAvg
Z t+H/V
V
ρAvg = ρ(t)dt
H t

After replacing ρAvg and laplace transforming we get:

ρ(s) sH/V
∆P(s) = gV (e − 1)
s
∆P(s) gV sH/V
= (e − 1)
ρ(s) s

Problem 12
A thick walled kettle of mass Mm , temperature Tm , and specific heat Cm is filled with a perfectly
mixed process liquid of mass M , temperature T , and specific heat C. A heating fluid at temperature
Tj is circulated in a jacket around the kettle wall. The heat transfer coefficient between the process
fluid and the metal wall is U and between the metal outside wall and the heating fluid is Um . Inside
and outside heat transfer areas A are approximately the same. Neglecting any radial temperature

9
gradients through the metal wall, show that the transfer function between T and Tj is two first
order lags.
Kp
G=
(τp1 s + 1)(τp2 s + 1)
The value of the steadystate gain is Kp is unity. Is this reasonable?

Solution
The equations that describe the system are:
dTm
C m Mm = Um A(Tj − Tm ) + U A(T − Tm )
dt
dT
CM = U A(Tm − T )
dt
Applying the Laplace transform we get:
Um ATj + U AT
Tm = (1)
Cm Mm s + Um A + U A
U ATm
T = (2)
CM s + U A
Replacing equation (1) in equation (2) we get:
U Um A2 Tj
T =
(CM s + U A)(Cm Mm s + Um A + U A) − U 2 A2
T
=  j  
CM C M
s2 U UmmA2 m + s A U1 + U1m + CAU
CM m Mm
m
+1
Tj
=
(τp1 s + 1)(τp2 s + 1)
Where:
CM Cm Mm
τp1 ∗ τp2 =
U U m A2
 
CM 1 1 C m Mm
τp1 + τp2 = + +
A U Um AUm
Its reasonable for the steady gain to be unity because the steady state temperature of the process
fluid is equal to the heating fluid temperature, so an increase of 1 degree in Tj will increase 1
degree the steady state value of T .

Problem 13
An ideal three mode PID (proportional, integral and derivative) feedback controller is described
by the equation:  Z 
1 dE
CO = bias + Kc E + Edt + τD
τI dt
Derive the transfer function between CO and E. Is this transfer function physically realizable?

Solution
For a perturbation variable CO = CO − bias and CO(t = 0) = 0, we have, after applying the
Laplace transform:
 
1
CO = Kc E 1 + + τD s (1)
τI s


CO τI s + 1 + τI τD s2
= Kc (2)
E τI s

10
This transfer function is not physically realizable, because the order of the numerator is greater
than the order of the denominator.

Problem 14
For the following system of differential equations that describe a nonisothermal CSTR:
dC
= a11 C + a12 T + a13 C0 + a15 F (1)
dt
dT
= a21 C + a22 T + a24 T0 + a25 F + a26 Tj (2)
dt
with:

F̄ λkE C̄ F̄ UA
a11 = − − k̄ a22 = − − −
V ρCp RT̄ 2 V V ρCp
C̄E k̄
a12 =− F̄
RT̄ 2 a24 =
F̄ V
a13 = T̄0 − T̄
V a25 =
C̄0 − C̄ V
a15 = UA
V a26 =
V ρCp
λk̄
a21 =−
ρCp

Show that the system can be stable only if:

UA λk̄ C̄E F̄
>− 2
− 2 − k̄
V ρCp ρCp RT̄ V

Solution
From equation (2), after applying the Laplace transform, we get:
a21 C + a24 T0 + a25 F + a26 Tj
T =
s − a22
Replacing in equation (1) we get:
a13 (s − a22 )C0 + a12 a24 T0 + a12 a25 F + a12 a26 Tj
C=
s2 − (a11 + a22 )s + a11 a22 − a12 a21
For the system to be stable, the poles of the transfer function need to be located in the left side of
the real plane, the poles are:
p
a11 + a22 ± (a11 + a22 )2 − 4(a11 a22 − a12 a21 )
p=
2
A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for both the poles to have a negative real part is:
a11 + a22 < 0
Replacing the values of a11 and a22 we get:
a11 + a22 < 0
F̄ λk̄E C̄ F̄ UA
− − k̄ − 2
− − <0
V ρCp RT̄ V V ρCp
F̄ λk̄E C̄ UA
−2 − k̄ − <
V ρCp RT̄ 2 V ρCp

11
Problem 15
Write a digital computer program that numerically integrates the following ODE:

d2 x dx d2 m dm
a2 + a1 + a0 x = b 2 + b1 + b0 m
dt2 dt dt2 dt

Solution
The derivatives are discretized as:
dx xn − xn−1
=
dt ∆t
d2 x xn+1 − 2xn + xn−1
=
dt2 ∆t2
Replacing in the ODE we get an expression for xn+1 :

∆t2 d2 m
 
dm
xn+1 = b2 2 + b1 + b0 m
a2 dt dt
a0 a1
− ∆t2 xn − ∆t (xn − xn−1 ) − (xn−1 − 2xn )
a2 a2
The code requires to specify the forcing function m and his derivatives, together with the time step
used and the time interval for the calculation of the solution. The result for: m = 1.5 sin(0.5t) +
2.8 cos(0.3t), ∆t = 0.1, a0 = 0.45, a1 = 0.51, a2 = 0.6, b0 = 0.28, b1 = 0.65 and b2 = 0.8 is shown
in Figure 5.
Code(s) used: P15Code.py

Figure 5: Result for m = 1.5 sin(0.5t) + 2.8 cos(0.3t).

Problem 16
A deadtime element is basically a distributed system. One approximate way to get the dynamics
of distributed systems is to lump them into a number of perfectly mixed sections. Prove that a
series of N mixed tanks is equivalent to a pure deadtime as N goes to infinity.
Hint: Keep the total volume of the system constant as more and more lumps are used.

12
Solution
We will use the following identity:
 x N
exp(x) = lim 1+
N →∞ N
The objective is to prove that when the number of perfectly mixed sections in series goes to infinity,
the system is equivalent to a deadtime. For a deadtime τ , the outlet concentration is related to
the inlet concentration by:

COut = CIn (t − τ )
COut,(s) = CIn,(s) e−τ s

Consider N perfectly mixed sections in series, each with a residence time equal to τ /N :

dC1 N (CIn − C1 )
=
dt τ
dC2 N (C1 − C2 )
=
dt τ
.. ..
.=.
dCOut N (CN −1 − COut )
=
dt τ
Applying Laplace transform we get:
N CIn
C1 =
sτ + N
N C1 N 2 CIn
C2 = =
sτ + N (sτ + N )2
.. ..
.=.
N CN −1 N N CIn
COut = =
sτ + N (sτ + N )N

When N → ∞:
N N CIn CIn
COut = lim = sτ = CIn e−sτ
N →∞ (sτ + N )N ( N + 1)N

Problem 17
A feedback controller is added to the three CSTR system of Figure 6. Now C0 is changed by the
feedback controller to keep C3 at its setpoint, which is the steadystate value of C3 . The error
signal is therefore just −C3 (the perturbation in C3 ). Find the transfer function of this closedloop
system between the disturbance CD and C3 . List the values of poles, zeros, and steadystate gain
when the feedback controller is:
(a) Proportional:
C0 = CD + Kc (−C3 )

(b) Proportional-integral:  Z 
1
C0 = CD + Kc −C3 + (−C3 )dt
τI

Note the above equations are in terms of perturbation variables.

13
 Figure 6: CSTR system, a first order reaction occurs inside each tank.

Solution
The concentration inside each tank are described by:
dC1 C0 − C1
= − kC1 (1)
dt τ
dC2 C1 − C2
= − kC2 (2)
dt τ
dC3 C2 − C3
= − kC3 (3)
dt τ
From equations (2) and (3) we get:

C1
C2 = (4)
τ (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )
C2 C1
C3 = = 2 (5)
τ (s + (kτ + 1)/τ ) τ (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )2

Proportional
For proportional control we have:
CD − Kc C3
C1 = (6)
τ (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )

Replacing equation (6) in equation (5) we get:

CD
C3 =
τ 3 (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )3 + Kc

The steady state value of C3 is:

CD
C3 = lim
s→0 τ 3 (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )3 + Kc
CD
=
(kτ + 1)3 + Kc

The transfer function has no zeros. There is one pole:

!
1/3
kτ + 1 + Kc
s=−
τ

Proportional integral
For proportional integral control we have:

CD − Kc C3 (1 + 1/(τI s))
C1 = (7)
τ (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )

14
Replacing equation (7) in equation (5) we get:
CD
C3 =
τ 3 (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )3 + Kc (1 + 1/(τI s))
The steady state value of C3 is:
CD
C3 = lim
s→0 τ 3 (s + (kτ + 1)/τ )3 + Kc (1 + 1/(τI s))
=0
The transfer function has one zero s = 0. There poles are the solution of the following equation:
τI s(sτ + kτ + 1)3 + Kc (τI s + 1) = 0

Problem 18
The partial condenser shown in Figure 7 is described by two ODEs:
 
V ol dP Qc
=F −V −
RT dt ∆H
dMR Qc
= −L
dt ∆H
where: P : pressure, V ol: volume of condenser, MR : liquid holdup, F : vapor feed rate, V : vapor
product, L: liquid product.
(a) Draw a block diagram showing the transfer functions describing the openloop system.
(b) Draw a block diagram of the closedloop system if a proportional controller is used to manipulate
Qc to hold MR and PI controller is used to manipulate V to hold P.

Figure 7: Partial condenser.

Solution
Considering perturbation variables, the Laplace transform of the ODEs are:
 
V ol Qc
sP = F − V −
RT ∆H
Qc
sMR = −L
∆H

15
 Figure 8: Open loop system diagram.

The open loop diagram is shown in Figure 8.

The closed loop diagram is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Closed loop system diagram.

Problem 19
Show that a proportional only level controller on a tank will give zero steady state error for a step
change in level setpoint.

Solution
The volume inside the tank is described by:
dV
= F − (bias − KP (S.P. − V ))
dt
By design, the bias is equal to the inlet flow. We also write the set point as the sum of the old set
point value and the set point perturbation:

S.P. = ∆S.P. + S.P.Old

dV
= KP ∆S.P. + KP (S.P.Old − V )
dt
The volume of the tank as a funtion of time is (initially the volume is equal to the old set point
value V (0) = S.P.Old ):
KP ∆S.P. KP S.P.Old
sV − S.P.Old = + − KP V
s s
KP (∆S.P. + S.P.Old ) + sS.P.Old
V(s) =
s(s + KP )
∆S.P. + S.P.Old ∆S.P.
V(s) = −
s s + KP
V(t) = S.P.Old + ∆S.P.(1 − e−KP t )

16
From the last expression, we conclude that the steady state value of volume is equal to the new
set point.

Problem 20
Use Laplace transforms to prove mathematically that a P controller produces steady state offset
and that a PI controller does not. The disturbance is a step change in the load variable. The
process open loop transfer functions, GM and GL , are both first order lags with different gains but
identical time constants.

Solution
Assume x is the dependent variable, the relation between x, the manipulated (M ) variable and
the load (L) variable is:
x(s) = GL L(s) + GM M(s) (1)
Both GM and GL are first order lags:
GM = gM /(τ s + 1)
GL = gL /(τ s + 1)

Proportional controller
In terms of perturbation variables, under proportional control, the manipulated variable is (with
xset = 0):
M(s) = −Kx(s) (2)
Replacing equation (2) into equation (1), we have:
x = GL L − GM Kx
x GL
=
L 1 + GM K
The steady state value of x for a load disturbance in L is:
GL
x = ∆L lim
s→01 + GM K
gL /(τ s + 1)
= ∆L lim
s→0 1 + gM K/(τ s + 1)
gL
= ∆L
1 + gM KP

Proportional integral controller

In terms of perturbation variables, under proportional integral control, the manipulated variable
is:
1 t
 Z 
M(t) = −K x(t) + x(u) du
τI 0
 
x(s)
M(s) = −K x(s) + (3)
sτI
Replacing equation (3) into equation (1), we have:
 
x(s)
x = GL L − GM K x(s) +
sτI
x GL
=  
L 1+G K 1+ 1
M sτI

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The steady state value of x for a load disturbance in L is:
GL
x = ∆L lim  
s→0 1
1 + GM K 1 + sτI

gL τI s/(τ s + 1)
x = ∆L lim
s→0 τI s + gM K(τI s + 1)/(τ s + 1)
x=0

Problem 21
Two 100 barrel tanks are available to use as surge volume to filter liquid flow rate disturbances in
a petroleum refinery. Average throughput is 14400 barrels per day. Should these tanks be piped
up for parallel operation or for series operation? Assume proportional only level controllers.

Solution
In terms of a perturbation variable for volume, the outflow of each tank (due to the control system)
is:
FOut = Kp V

Parallel operation
For parallel operation, half of the inlet flow disturbance is handled by each tank, so the volume is
described by:
dV ∆F
= − Kp V
dt 2
The volume of each tank as a function of time is:
∆F
V(s) =
2s(s + Kp )
 
∆F 1 1
V(s) = −
2Kp s s + Kp
∆F
1 − e−Kp t


V(t) =
2Kp

The outlet flow is then (the sum of the outlet flow of both tanks):

FOut = 2Kp V
FOut = ∆F 1 − e−Kp t

Series operation
For series operation, the volume inside the tanks is described by:
dV1
= ∆F − Kp V1
dt
dV2
= Kp V1 − Kp V2
dt

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The volume of the second tank as a function of time is:
Kp V1
V2,(s) =
s + Kp
∆F Kp
V2,(s) =
s(s + Kp )2
 
∆F 1 Kp 1
V2,(s) = − −
Kp s (s + Kp )2 s + Kp
∆F
1 − Kp te−Kp t − e−Kp t


V2,(t) =
Kp
The outlet flow is then:
FOut = ∆F 1 − Kp te−Kp t − e−Kp t

The difference between the parallel and series flow is:

FOut,P − FOut,S = ∆F Kp te−Kp t
This is a positive quantity, meaning that the outlet flow is greater for the parallel case, as compared
to the series case at all times. So we conclude that the configuration that minimizes the flow
perturbations is to pipe the tanks in series.

Problem 22
A perfectly mixed batch reactor, containing 7500 lbm of liquid with a heat capacity of 1 BT U/lbm ◦ F
is surrounded by a cooling jacket that is filled with 2480 lbm of perfectly mixed cooling water.
At the beginning of the batch cycle, both the reactor liquid and the jacket water are at 203◦ F. At
this point in time, catalyst is added to the reactor and a reaction occurs which generates heat at
a constant rate of 15300 BTU/min. At this same moment in time, makeup cooling water at 68◦ F
is fed into the jacket at a constant 832 lbm /min flow rate.
The heat transfer area between the reactor and jacket is 140 f t2 . The overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient is 70 BT U/h ◦ F f t2 . Mass of the metal walls can be neglected. Heat losses are negligible.
(a) Develop a mathematical model of the process.
(b) Use Laplace transforms to solve for the dynamic change in reactor temperature T(t) .
(c) What is the peak reactor temperature and when does it occur?
(d) What is the final steadystate reactor temperature?

Solution
(a) The reactor (T ) and jacket (Tj ) temperatures can be described by:
dT Ah Q
= −(T − Tj ) +
dt M Cp M Cp
dTj Ah FM U
= (T − Tj ) + (TM U − Tj )
dt Mj Cpj Mj

(b) Applying the Laplace transform, and replacing the numerical values of the parameters, we get
(for time in hours):
sT − 203 = −(T − Tj )1.3067 + 122.4/s (1)
sTj − 203 = (T − Tj )3.9516 − 20.129Tj + 1368.8/s (2)

From equation (2) we obtain an expression for Tj :

3.95T s + 203s + 1368.77
Tj =
s(s + 24.08)

19
 Figure 10: Reactor temperature as a function of time.

Replacing the previous expression in equation (1), we get an expression for T :

203s2 + 5276s + 4736

T(s) =
s3 + 25.39s2 + 26.30s
180.1 29.21 6.311
T(s) = + −
s s + 1.082 s + 24.31
T(t) = 180.1 + 29.21e−1.082t − 6.311e−24.31t

(c) The peak temperature corresponds to a time derivative equal to zero:

0 = −1.082 ∗ 29.21e−1.082t + 24.31 ∗ 6.311e−24.31t

t = 0.06802

The peak temperature is equal to T (0.06802) = 206◦ F .

(d) The steady state reactor temperature is 180.1◦ F.

A plot of reactor temperature against time is shown in Figure 10.

Code(s) used: P22AlgebraicOperations.py P22MakeFigure.py P22NumSol.py

Problem 23
A milk tank on a dairy farm is equipped with a refrigeration compressor which removes q (BTU/min)
of heat from the warm milk. The insulated, perfectly mixed tank is initially filled with V0 (f t3 ) of
warm milk (99.5 ◦ F ). The compressor is then turned on and begins to chill down the milk. At the
same time fresh warm (99.5 ◦ F ) milk is continously added at a constant rate F (f t3 /min) through
a milk pipeline from the milking parlor. The total volume after all cows have been milked is VT
(f t3 ).
Derive the equation describing how the temperature T of the milk in the tank varies with time.
Solve for T(t) . What is the temperature of the milk at the end of the milking? How long does it
take to chill the milk down to 35 ◦ F ? Parameter values are F = 1 f t3 /min, ρ = 62.3 lbm /f t3 ,
Cp = 1 BT U/lbm ◦ F , V0 = 5 f t3 , VT = 100 f t3 , q = 300 BTU/min.

20
Solution
From t = 0 to t = 95 min, the temperature variation in the tank and volume are described by:
d(V T ) q
= F T0 − (1)
dt Cp ρ
V = V0 + F t (2)
After t = 95 min, temperature variation is decribed by:
dT q
=− (3)
dt Cp ρVT
The product VT as a function of time is:
 
q 1
sT V − T0 V0 = F T0 −
ρCp s
 
T0 V0 q 1
TV = + F T0 −
s ρCp s2
 
q
T V(t) = T0 V0 + F T0 − t
ρCp
The value of temperature is obtained dividing the previous expression by V0 + F t:
 
T0 V0 + F T0 − ρCq p t
T(t) =
V0 + F t
At the end of the milking process, the temperature is T95 = 94.9 ◦ F . After the milking process, we
have:
qt
T = T95 −
Cp ρVT
The time required to cool the milk to 35◦ F is 1244 min.

Problem 24
The flow of air into the regenerator on a catalytic cracking unit is controlled by two control valves.
One is a large, slow moving valve that is located on the suction of the air blower. The other is a
small, fast acting valve that vents to the atmosphere (Figure 11).
The fail safe condition is to not feed air into the regenerator. Therefore, the suction valve is air
to open and the vent valve is air to close. What action should the flow controller have, direct or
reverse?
The device with the following transfer function G(s) is installed in the control line to the vent
valve:
τs Pv(s)
G(s) = =
τs + 1 CO(s)
The purpose of this device is to cause the vent valve to respond quickly to changes in CO but to
minimize the amount of air vented (since this wastes power) under steady state conditions. What
will be the dynamic response of the perturbation in Pv for a step change of 10 percent of full scale
in CO? What is the new steady state value of Pv ?

Solution
When air flow to the regenerator increases, the signal to the air suction valve must decrease, and
the signal to the vent valve must increase, so the control action is reverse.
The dynamic response to a step change in CO is:
∆COτ
Pv,(s) =
τs + 1
Pv,(t) = ∆COe−t/τ
The new steady state value of Pv is 0.

21
 Figure 11: Air flow control system.

Problem 25
An openloop process has the transfer function:
s
GM =
τs + 1
Calculate the open loop response of this process to a unit step change in its input. What is the
steady state gain of this process?

Solution
The open loop response for a dependent variable x is:
1
x(s) =
τs + 1
e−t/τ
x(t) =
τ
The steady state gain is:
s
xss = lim =0
s→0 τ s + 1

Problem 26
A chemical reactor is cooled by both jacket cooling and autorefrigeration (boiling liquid in the
reactor, Figure 12). Sketch a block diagram, using appropiate process and control system transfer
functions, describing the system. Assume these transfer functions are known, either from funda-
mental mathematic models or from experimental dynamic testing.

Solution
The diagram is shown in Figure 13. It is assumed that the total flow (F ) in an out of the jacket
is constant (equation 1), and also the following relations for reactor temperature (T ) and jacket
temperature (TJ ):

FC = F − FCW (1)
T = GCond FB + GQ Q + GJT TJ (2)
TJ = GT J T + FF C FC + GF T CW (F T )CW (3)

Where: FC flow recirculated from jacket, FCW : makeup cooling water, FB : flow of brine, Q: heat
from the reaction inside the tank.

22
 Figure 12: Reactor cooling system.

Figure 13: Chemical reactor block diagram.

Problem 27
Solve the problem given below, which is part of a problem given in Levenspiel’s Chemical Reaction
Engineering (1962, John Wiley), using Laplace transform techniques. Find analytical expressions
for the number of Nelson’s ships N(t) and the number of Villeneuve’s ships as functions of time.
The great naval battle, to be known to history as the battle of Trafalgar (1805), was soon to be
joined. Admiral Villeneuve proudly surveyed his powerful fleet of 33 ships stately sailing in single
file in the light breeze. The Brithish fleet under Lord Nelson was now in sight, 27 ships strong.
Estimating that it would still be two hours before the battle, Villeneuve popped open another
bottle of burgundy and point by point reviewed his carefully thought out battle strategy. As was
the custom of naval battles at that time, the two fleets would sail in single file parallel to each
other and in the same direction, firing their cannons madly. Now, by long experience in battles of
this kind, it was a well known fact that the rate of destruction of a fleet was proportional to the
fire power of the opposing fleet. Considering his ships to be on par, one for one, with the British,
Villeneuve was confident of victory. Looking at his sundial, Villeneuve sighed and cursed the light
wind; he’d never get it over with in time for his favorite television western. ”Oh well”, he sighed

23
”c’est la vie”. He could see the headlines next morning. ”British Fleet annihilated, Villeneuve’s
losses are ...” Villeneuve stopped short. How many ships would he lose? Villeneuve called over his
chief bottle cork popper, Monsieur Dubois, and asked this question. What answer did he get?

Solution
Nelson’s (N) and Villeneuve’s (V) remaining ships are described by:

dN
= −KV
dt
dV
= −KN
dt
Where K is a proportionality constant. Taking the Laplace transform of each equation we get:

sN − 27 = −KV (1)
sV − 33 = −KN (2)

Replacing equation (2) in equation (1), we can solve for N(t) :

27s − 33K
N(s) =
s2 − K 2
30 3
N(s) = −
s+K s−K
N(t) = 30e−Kt − 3eKt
V(t) = 30e−Kt + 3eKt

The number of ships as a function of time are shown in Figure 14. At the end of the battle there
are 19 of Villeneuve’s ships.
Code(s) used: P27MakeFigure.py

Figure 14: Number of ships as a function of time, for K=1.

24