Efficient Well Design:
Applying Good Engineering Practices
By Pat Higgins, R.G., Cindy Maroney,
P.E., R.G., and David Stous, P.E., P.G.
Municipalities, industries, and indi-
viduals depend on water to supply
basic needs. In many cases, this pre-
cious commodity comes from wells
tapping an aquifer. To get the most
value, the owner must ensure that a
well will be efficient and have a long
life. Designing a well requires careful
planning, knowledge of aquifer geolo-
gy, and application of good engineer-
ing practices.
Choosing a Well Location
Critical to the location and design of a
well are review and analysis of hydro-
geologic data. A literature search
locates published information, includ-
ing geologic and hydrogeologic
reports, maps, and aerial photo-
graphs. State agencies may have logs
of area wells that can be used to eval-
uate producing formations, anticipat-
ed yields, and potential interference
problems.
Figure 1
Horizontal Collector Well
TechBriefs
A complete hydrogeologic investiga-
tion consists of test drilling, geophysi-
cal logging, design and construction
of a test well, construction of observa-
tion wells, and aquifer testing.
Particle-size distribution analyses of
formation sediments are needed for
design of the filter pack and well
screens.
Types of Wells
Vertical wells are the most common
type. Horizontal collector wells are
becoming more popular with large
water users. Vertical wells may be
constructed in bedrock or unconsoli-
dated sediment, whereas horizontal
collector wells are restricted to uncon-
solidated deposits near a surface
water body.
Vertical Wells in Bedrock Aquifers
A bedrock well may be completed as
an open-bore or a screened well. If
bedrock is stable, open-bore well con-
struction is common. Bedrock aquifers
typically consist of a soluble rock type
such as limestone or dolomite, where
permeability is due to openings
enlarged by solution activity, or a
porous rock such as sandstone. Less
common bedrock aquifers include
granite, basalt, and shale.
A surface seal around the well pre-
vents surface water from entering the
well. The surface seal consists of grout
located between the well casing and
the borehole wall, extending from the
surface to a specified depth (typically
20 feet). If poor-quality water occurs
between the ground surface and the
producing zone, surface casing and a
grout seal must be extended through
the poor-quality zone. State agencies
often assist in determining the proper
surface casing depth.
The borehole diameter of bedrock
wells is limited due to the relative dif-
7
ficulty of drilling in this material.
Bedrock boreholes greater than 16
inches in diameter are uncommon for
water supply wells. Yield is maxi-
mized by extending the vertical inter-
val of the borehole to intersect as
many water-bearing fractures as pos-
sible.
If a bedrock aquifer consists of weakly
cemented or otherwise unstable rock
or the borehole will not remain open,
well screen is required in the produc-
ing zones. Well screen consists of
steel or plastic casing with openings
through which groundwater is trans-
mitted. The size of screen openings
depends on the grain size of the filter
pack placed around the well screen.
Filter pack material provides borehole
stability and prevents aquifer particles
from entering the well.
Vertical Wells in
Unconsolidated Aquifers
Vertical wells are commonly complet-
ed in unconsolidated aquifers where
the aquifer materials are of sufficient
thickness and permeability to store
and transmit water. These aquifers
typically consist of sand or sand-and-
gravel but may also contain cobbles
and boulders. Unconsolidated aquifer
types include alluvial (stream), glacial,
lacustrine (lake), and beach deposits.
The nature of unconsolidated deposits
requires an investigation to determine
the depth to water-bearing zones and
location of clay layers. Lateral
changes in alluvial deposits are com-
mon, requiring that test holes be
drilled at the exact location of the
well.
A well completed in an unconsolidat-
ed aquifer requires well screen to
retain the artificial filter pack and/or
formation materials. The size of
screen openings depends on the grain
size of the filter pack and aquifer
materials. The size of the casing and
screen are typically dependent on the
flow rate required by the user. For
domestic wells, 5 to 6 inches is a typi-
cal diameter. Municipal and industri-
al users more commonly rely on wells
ranging from 6 to 36 inches.
The productivity of a well is related to
the amount of area in the well screen
that is open to the aquifer. Common
practice is to design the well assuming
50% of the open area is blocked and to
limit the velocity of the water entering
the well (entrance velocity) to less
than 6 feet per minute. Limiting the
entrance velocity reduces potential for
mineral buildup on the screen.
Horizontal Collector Wells
When a large water supply is needed
and a shallow aquifer near a source of
recharge (a lake or river) is available,
a horizontal collector well may be
used. A collector well consists of a
concrete caisson which extends to
bedrock and lateral well screens
extending radially from the caisson.
A lateral is typically 175 feet long.
There may be one to ten or more later-
als at multiple elevations.
The high pumping rate of a horizontal
collector well lowers groundwater lev-
els under the surface water, causing
surface water to flow into the aquifer
in a process known as induced infil-
tration. Induced infiltration is a sig-
nificant portion of the available yield
for a horizontal collector well.
The elevation of the lateral well
screens, slot size, and number of lin-
ear feet of well screen is dependent on
aquifer properties. The lateral screens
are placed in a highly permeable
layer. Horizontal collector wells are
constructed using a natural gravel
pack design with an entrance velocity
less than 2 feet per minute. Screen
sizes are based on aquifer samples
obtained during lateral projection and
matched to aquifer variations.
Engineering for Efficient Wells
Because of the greater expense of test
drilling in deep, bedrock aquifers and
the prolific nature of the aquifer, site-
specific hydrogeologic investigations
are generally not performed. For two
1,400-foot-deep wells at Branson,
Missouri, special investigative tech-
niques were used, including review of
nearby well design and locations, and
groundwater modeling. Pat Higgins is a hydrogeologist
and project manager with Burns
Site-specific hydrogeologic investiga- & McDonnell. He has a bachelor’s
tions were performed to design verti- degree in geology from the
cal wells in alluvium for the city of University of Missouri-Kansas
Kansas City, Missouri. Close attention
City.
to the location of clay layers in the
alluvium was required to maximize
the well yields of 2,500 to 4,000 gal-
lons per minute.
Since horizontal collector wells utilize
many linear feet of screen, large vol-
umes of water can be developed in
shallow aquifers. A horizontal collec-
tor well completed in the Kansas
River alluvium provides water for the
city of Olathe, Kansas, at a rate of 10
million gallons per day. Twenty-five
vertical wells would have been Cindy Maroney is a geological
required to produce the same yield as engineer with Burns &
the collector well that was constructed. McDonnell. She has a bachelor’s
degree in geology and a mas-
The development of groundwater
supplies requires careful planning and ter’s degree in civil engineering,
both from Iowa State University.
detailed design to result in a final
product that is efficient and meets the
user’s needs. Frequent monitoring of
well yield and water levels and regu-
lar maintenance are critical to pro-
longing the life of the well.
David Stous is chief water sup-
ply hydrogeologist for Burns &
McDonnell. He received his bach-
elor’s degree from Central
Missouri State College and his
master’s degree from the
University of Kansas.