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METHODS USED FOR EXTRACTION OF MAIZE (ZEA MAYS, L.) GERM OIL-A REVIEW

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Ind. J. Sci. Res. and Tech. 2014 2(4):48-54/Shende & Sidhu ISSN:-2321-9262 (Online)
Online Available at: http://www.indjsrt.com
Review Article

METHODS USED FOR EXTRACTION OF MAIZE (ZEA MAYS, L.) GERM OIL-A
REVIEW
*
Deepika Shende and Gagandeep Kaur Sidhu
Department of Processing and Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India
*Author for Correspondence

ABSTRACT
Maize oil is high in polyunsaturated fat, which is a heart-healthy fat, and low in saturated fat. Extraction of oils from
oilseeds is a key step for their commercialization. The extraction process has a direct effect on the quality and
quantity of protein and oils obtained. Various methods like cold pressing, solvent, super-critical fluid and aqueous
extractions are in practice for oilseed extraction. The use of solvents for oil recovery has shown several drawbacks
such as high safety hazard, high energy input, low quality oil, environmental risk, toxicological effects and low
quality meal. Conventionally, hexane has been used for decades to extract oil from oilseeds with massive
construction and operational costs. Because of the safety, environmental issues and potential health risks, the edible
oil industry is in urgent need of replacing hexane-extraction with some suitable and environment friendly
techniques. Like others, bio-renewable solvents (alcohols, supercritical fluids), the use of water as the most
economical extracting agent is gaining interest, especially with the aim of replacing toxic solvents. Aqueous oil
extraction has emerged as a promising technique for extraction of oil from certain oil-bearing materials e.g. peanut,
coconut, maize etc. Recently, enzymatic pre-treatment has emerged as a novel and an effective means to improve
the oil yield in cold pressing and aqueous extraction techniques. There are two general approaches for enzymatic oil
extraction: enzyme assisted aqueous extraction (EAAE) which may offer a number of advantages as compared to
conventional extraction. In enzyme-assisted aqueous process, the enzymatic action is reported to improve the oil
recovery by degrading the seed cell wall, and rupturing the polysaccharide-protein colloid which may cause
emulsion formation, resulting in low yield. Aqueous enzymatic oil extraction is one such alternative eco-friendly
process based on simultaneous isolation of oil and protein from oilseed by dispersing finely ground seed in water
and separating the dispersion by centrifugation into oil, solid, and aqueous phases. The presence of certain enzymes
during extraction enhances oil recovery by breaking cell walls and oil bodies.

Key Words: Maize, Germ Oil, Extraction Methods, Aqueous Extraction and Conventional Extraction Methods

INTRODUCTION
Maize (Zea mays, L.) is one of most important cereal grain that is a commercial source of vegetable oil. It is coarse
grain and is now being accepted as staple diet and its demand increases year by year. Recently, in India maize is
accepted as some of major diversification crop (Anon, 2013). For the preparation of different products viz- flour,
meal, grits, from the maize it has to be degerminated to enhance its self life and improve the quality. Maize germ,
which is a by-product of maize processing industry, constitutes 5-14% of the weight of kernel and is a good source
of key nutrients especially 18-41% of oil (Johnston et al., 2005; MPOC, 2008). Edible oils are vital, serving as
important ingredient of many foods by imparting characteristics flavour and texture to finished food products
(Rudan-Tasic & Klofutar, 1999). The maize oil is easy to digest, beneficial to human heart, reduce risk of chronic
diseases, prevention macular degeneration and can be used for hair treatment. It can also be used for making of
biodiesel, for wood conditioning and giving stainless steel a shine.
Maize oil is high in polyunsaturated fat, which is a heart-healthy fat, and low in saturated fat. The American Heart
Association suggests replacing saturated fat in one's diet with unsaturated fat in order to reduce cholesterol as well
as reduce your risk of developing heart disease. Maize oil is comprised of about 86 percent unsaturated fats and
about 13 percent saturated fat, according to the Corn Refiners Association (2004), maize oil is a good source of
vitamin E, providing 15 percent of the daily value per tablespoon. Vitamin E is an essential nutrient that acts as an
antioxidant in the body, protecting it from free radical damage. Maize oil is a good choice for high-heat cooking.
Maize oil is relatively inexpensive compared to other oils. Olive oil, for instance, is often five times the cost of
maize oil per ounce. Using low-cost oils like maize may reduce the temptation to reuse cooking oils, which
increases the likelihood of free radicals forming within the oil (Anon, 2010).
Extraction of oils from oilseeds is a key step for their commercialization. The extraction process has a direct effect
on the quality and quantity of oils obtained (Rosenthal et al., 1996). Various methods like cold pressing, solvent,
super-critical fluid and aqueous extractions are in practice for oilseed extraction. The objective of this review is to
discuss different methods of oil extraction from maize germ.

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Online Available at: http://www.indjsrt.com
Review Article

METHODS OF OIL EXTRACTION

Maize having oil content of more than 6% is called high oil maize. The parts of maize seed/kernel are endosperm
(82%), germ (embryo and scutellum) (12%); about 80 to 84% of total kernel oil is present in the germ region
followed by 12% in aleurone and 5% in endosperm as shown in Fig. 1 (Rajendran et al., 2012).

Figure 1: Parts of maize kernel

Traditional Methods
The oil content of maize kernel is very less and is not feasible for this process because for the cold pressing method
it requires higher feed value of the press cake (12–17 % oil content) (Ward, 1982). For larger mills of up to 12-15
tonnes/hour, mechanical expelling using screw pressing can be employed. However, there are two serious
drawbacks; the process leaves 4-6% of fat in the residue cake and the screw press fibers need very frequent stripping
and cleaning because of the carbonization of the relatively high starch content (Balke, 2006). These methods have
largely been replaced with solvent extraction or pre-press/solvent extraction methods which give better oil yield.
Although pressing has not been a major area of research in recent years, interest in pressing and especially cold
pressing has recently been rekindled in the field of nutraceutical oils such as flaxseed and crambe (Moreau et al.,
2006).
Solvent Extraction Methods
Solvent extraction of oil from oilseeds is the most efficient and attractive method for oilseeds having low oil content
(Anjou, 1972; Caviedes, 1996). This is the most economical, efficient and widely used process for high oil content
seeds (e.g. sunflower, peanut, canola) and also for medium oil content seeds (cottonseed and maize germ) (Norris,
1964; Ward, 1976). The maize germ consists of 80% of oil of maize kernel as presented in Table 1. Therefore,
vegetable oils are mostly extracted by using solvent extraction (Kemper, 2005). Solvent extraction of maize oil
obtained with soxhlet apparatus using solvent as n-hexane (Abdulkadir & Abubakar, 2011). A basic flow chart of
solvent extraction process is presented in Fig. 2.

Table 1: Chemical composition of maize kernel and germ (Moreau et al., 2011)
Chemical constituents Maize whole kernel Maize germ Maize germ
(wet milling) (dry milling)
Protein (%) 10 14 16
Fat (%) 4 40 20
Starch (%) 70 9 20
Other (%) 16 37 44

Because of the safety, environmental issues and potential health risks, the edible oil industry is in urgent need of
replacing hexane-extraction (Bhattacharjee et al., 2006) with some suitable and environment friendly techniques. In
2001, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency issued strict guidelines for hexane emissions by vegetable oil
extraction facilities (EPA, 2001), providing new incentives to develop alternative methods of edible oil extraction,
like other bio-renewable solvents as alcohols (Kwiatkowski & Cheryan , 2002) and supercritical fluids (Reverchan,
1994).
Maize oil was extracted from whole ground maize using ethanol as the solvent (Kwiatkowski & Cheryan, 2002).
The yield of oil was measured as a function of temperature, time of extraction, solvent-to-solids ratio, and ethanol
concentration. The use of ethanol as a solvent for the extraction of oil from seeds and grains has for years been
considered ideal for the reason that a, high degree of solvent efficiency is obtained, and because there are produced

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Online Available at: http://www.indjsrt.com
Review Article

oil and meal as finished products which are superior in quality to those resulting from a hydrocarbon or chlorinated
hydrocarbon solvent process (Deobald & Singer, 1945). But extracting temperatures should be above the boiling
point of the solvent, i.e. extraction under pressure, since at atmospheric pressure ethanol is not an efficient solvent.

Figure 2: Flow diagram for maize germ oil extraction

The operation under pressure presents a rather serious problem in connection with the introduction of the material to
be extracted into the extraction equipment when continuous operation is desired. Pressure equipment is of course
more expensive and hazardous than equipment built to operate at atmospheric pressure (Deobald & Singer, 1945).
For extraction of oil seeds a variety of solvents, including alcohols, acetone and hexane can be used. However, these
organic solvents leave adsorbed residues behind and elevated temperatures at the desolventization process can cause
chemical transformation of the oleoresins. The solvent residues must be reduced to very small concentrations,
generally in the range of 25-30 ppm or less (Reverchan & Macro, 2006).
Supercritical fluid Extraction
Supercritical fluid extraction (SCE) is a new method of oil extraction from oilseeds was developed by using carbon
dioxide without using organic solvents (Eggers & Sievers, 1989; Reverchan, 1994). Carbon dioxide is a non-
flammable and harmless medium instead of organic solvents such as hexane. Carbon dioxide is non-toxic, non-
explosive, readily available and easily removed from the extracted products. Arrangement of equipment used
(Friedrich et al., 1982) where the compressed CO2 gas was passed through flaked germ within the temperature
control vessel (50ºC). Oil was extracted from the germ at 5000 - 8000 psi, the depressurized and collected at
reservoir (50ºC) (Eggers & Sievers, 1989; Reverchan, 1994). This technology also has some disadvantages for
example the capital investment of a SCE extraction plant is higher than that of conventional plant.
Aqueous Method of Oil Extraction
The aqueous extraction process was developed as an alternative to the solvent oil extraction process in the 1950s
(Rosenthal et al., 1996). It was thought to be safe and cheap with simultaneous recovery of oil and protein from oil-
bearing materials (Cater et al., 1974). The use of water as the most economical extracting agent is gaining interest,
especially with the aim of replacing toxic solvents (Sineiro et al., 1998). The main principle of this method, either
wet or dry is by disrupting the tissue of the material by applying heat to allow oil separation. Dry rendering is done
by heating a material so that the fat melts out and can be separated (Mc Williams, 2001). Wet rendering in term of
aqueous extraction, containing three important processes; material crushing, cooking process -which at first
development is using heated water- and oil separation either using a pressing or centrifuging (Kiple, 2000).
Low quality of oil produced and inefficiency in the application of materials are the reasons why this method was
initially ineffective, the market needs for the less-processed products and processed with little or no chemicals, made
this method rise again (Matthaus, 2008). Many studies have been carried out to improve the efficiency of this
process. In wet rendering method, the development is done mainly on malaxation treatment (Mc-Williams, 2001).
This method produced higher yields, but also caused minor compound damage to the components. Particularly,

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Online Available at: http://www.indjsrt.com
Review Article

using higher temperature resulted in degradation of flavour and aroma in oil, giving it the heated or burnt odour
(Boselli et al., 2009). To tackle this issue, methods were developed using low temperature processes where these
methods are mostly used to produce virgin oil appreciated for its quality (Angerosa et al., 2000; Wong et al., 2010).
Enzyme-assisted Aqueous Extraction (EAAE)
Recently, enzymatic pre-treatment has emerged as a novel and an effective means to improve the oil yield in cold
pressing and aqueous extraction techniques. Aqueous enzymatic oil extraction is an emerging technology in the fats
and oil industry, and it may offer many advantages as compared to conventional extraction (Rosenthal et al., 1996).
It eliminates solvent consumption, which may lower investment costs (Barrios et al., 1990; Lusas et al., 1982) and
energy requirements (Barrios et al., 1990). Degumming operation can be eliminated and it may allow the removal of
some toxins or antinutritional compounds from oilseeds (Caragay, 1983). The main purpose of using the enzymes in
oil extraction process is to hydrolyze the structural polysaccharides which form the cell wall of oilseeds or the
proteins which form the cell and lipid body membrane. The oil globules are associated with proteins and a wide
range of carbohydrates inside plant cells surrounded by a thick cell wall which has to be ruptured to release the
protein and oil. Enzymatic hydrolysis of cell wall is an option for pre-treatment of oilseeds as it hydrolyses the
complex lipoprotein and lipo-polysaccharides molecules into simple molecules, thus releasing extra oil for
extraction.
An aqueous enzymatic method was developed to extract maize oil from maize germ (Moreau et al., 2004). No
hexane or other organic solvents are used in this process. The basic flow chart of EAAE oil extraction method is
presented in Fig. 2. By using oven-dried maize germ samples (6 g) from a commercial maize wet mill, maize oil
yields of about 80% were achieved using commercial cellulase (Karlovic et al., 1994). A fourfold scale-up of the
method (to 24 g of germ) resulted in oil yields of about 90% (Moreau et al., 2004). Attribute of higher oil recovery
yields to the fact that it was easier to recover more of the top oil layer in these larger centrifuge tubes and there was
less oil adhering to the walls and associated with the white emulsion layer (Moreau et al., 2004). In the absence of
enzymes, oil yields of 27 to 37% were achieved (Moreau et al., 2004). The chemical compositions of hexane-
extracted vs. aqueous enzymatic- extracted maize oils were similar.
Enzyme pre-treatment is considered to be very important, the enzyme selected and its activity must be appropriate to
the oilseed cell wall composition. The enzymes most frequently reported in the literature, used for the oil extraction,
are cellulase, α-amylase, and pectinase Rosenthal et al., 1996). Aqueous enzymatic oil extraction is one such
alternative eco-friendly process based on simultaneous isolation of oil and protein from oilseed by dispersing finely
ground seed in water and separating the dispersion by centrifugation into oil, solid, and aqueous phases.
Benefits of enzyme assisted aqueous extraction (EAAE)
 As compared to the commercial product maize germ oil with a lighter yellow color using an enzymatic
aqueous process (Bocevska et al., 1993).
 The chemical compositions of hexane-extracted vs. aqueous enzymatic-extracted maize oils were
compared; the two compositions were very similar (Moreau et al., 2004).
 The very low levels of FFA indicated that lipolytic activity was minimal, even without boiling the germ
(indicating that there is very little lipolytic enzyme activity in oven-dried wet-milled maize germ (Moreau et al.,
2004).
 The levels of phytosterols (free and esterified) were slightly lower in the aqueous enzyme-extracted oil
(Moreau et al., 2004).
 Besides increasing yield, the use of enzymes also have positive influence in the increasing of its phenolic
content (Faveri et al., 2008) of pinoresinol, orthodiphenol and non-orthodiphenol (Garcia et al., 2001). Ranalli et al.,
(2003) also reported that there is an increasing content of pleasant-volatile compounds (such as nonan-1-ol) and the
amount of tocopherols.
 Oil have health-promoting properties because of its very high levels of lutein and zeaxanthin (valuable for
preventing macular degeneration) and its moderate levels of tocopherols, tocotrienols, and phytosterols (Moreau et
al., 2007).
 It also has been found that the use of enzymes increase the content of pleasant smells such as 1-penten-3-
one, 1-penten-3-ol, trans-2-hexenal, 2-penten-1-ol, 1-hexanol, cis -3-hexen-1-ol, and trans-2-hexenol (Ranalli et al.,
1999).
 It increases the content of tocopherols, resulting in a higher total tocopherol content and similar different
fatty acid composition with oil produced by solvent extraction and normal aqueous extraction (Latif & Anwar,
2010).
 The oil obtained after reaction and centrifugation was reported to be an excellent quality and with a simple
deodorization process it could be readily used in existing food applications (McGlone et al., 1986).

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Ind. J. Sci. Res. and Tech. 2014 2(4):48-54/Shende & Sidhu ISSN:-2321-9262 (Online)
Online Available at: http://www.indjsrt.com
Review Article

Comparison of different Methods of Oil Extraction

Different methods for extraction of germ oil was compared and presented in Table 2 and 3. It was observed from the
table that, the extraction of edible oils based on aqueous extraction media with or without enzymes offer several
potential advantages over solvent-based processes currently used.

Table: 2 Methods for the Obtaining Maize Oil from Maize Germ (Moreau et al., 2011)
Method Advantage Disadvantage
Hexane Extraction High oil yields Health and safety issues and associated costs
Pressing Safe, simple Lower oil yields, high energy use
Supercritical CO2 Extraction Good oil yields, safe Higher cost than hexane, high pressures
Ethanol Extraction Semi-”green” Higher cost to remove solvent from meal
Aqueous Extraction “green” Very low oil yields
Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction “green” High oil yields High cost of enzymes

Table: 3 Oil Yield of different Oil Extraction Methods

Process Process parameter Efficiency (%) Reference
Hexane With homogenization, 100 Moreau et al., (2004),
Extraction Without homogenization 7.3 ± 0.4 Moreau et al., (2004)
Pressing Hydraulic press at 1.97 MPa (400 psi) and 97.7 Yahl (1981)
with a pre-gap setting of 0.041 mm
(0.0016 inch). One roll ran at 1010 rpm,
the other at 446 rpm.
Supercritical CO2 P = 53 MPa; T = 40ºC 80±1.5 Rebolleda et al., (2012)
Ethanol Ethanol in the extractant (95% vol/vol), 70 Kwiatkowski and
Extraction solvent-to-solids ratio (4mL/g maize), 30 Cheryan (2002)
min and 50ºC
Aqueous With homogenization 36.6 ± 1.1 Moreau et al., (2004)
Extraction
Enzyme Assisted 4 pH buffer, 4 h, 50ºC enzymatic 80 Karlovic et al., (1994)
Aqueous incubation, 16 h of churning at 65ºC.
Extraction

These advantages relate to health, environmental, safety, and possibly economic aspects; however, further studies
leading to the development of more effective enzymes specific for maize germ have to be carried out (Rosenthal et
al., 1996). Shi et al., (1998), reported an aqueous method that resulted in an 80% yield of peanut oil from peanuts,
and Karlovic et al., (1994), reported an 80% yield of maize oil from maize germ by using an aqueous enzymatic
method with a cellulase.

CONCLUSION
The development of environmentally friendly process has its definite difficulties and challenges. The increase in
yield that can be achieved by the methods described previously is certainly a very suitable solution applied to small
industries. However, the use of these methods on large industries will be a dilemma, where the quantity produced is
a far comparison to the common method of solvent extraction. The higher cost, especially in enzyme procurement
and ultrasound infrastructure pose a significant problem. Even so, as the growing trend of healthy products in which
less-processed product such as virgin oil are well appreciated and rewarded with premium prices, this scenario is
without doubt an opportunity that cannot be ignored. The increasing public awareness of the environment has also
helped to change the paradigm. Buyers these days do not mind paying more for organic and chemical free products.
Furthermore, the possibility of clean production can also be developed due to the possibility to reuse the by-products
generated. It was anticipated that some of the new generation of cellulolytic enzymes that are being developed for
biomass hydrolysis and fermentation may result in even higher oil yields and may be more economical to use than
the current generation of cellulolytic enzymes.

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Review Article

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