The Water Cycle and Water Insecurity 

EQ1: What are the processes operating within the 
hydrological cycle from global to local scale? 
The Global Hydrological Cycle 
 
● A closed system driven by solar energy (e.g. evaporation of 
water) and gravitational potential energy (stem flow) 
● Consequently, the total volume of water is fine but can exist in 
different states within the closed system 
● As a system there are: 
○ Inputs  
■ Precipitation 
■ Ablation 
○ Outputs 
○ Fluxes or flows - changes to where the water is stored, 
driven by physical mechanism   
■ e.g. evaporation, transpiration, precipitation, percolation, groundwater flow 
○ Stores - reservoirs where water is held 
■ Hydrosphere - 96.9% of water is stored in the ​ocean 
● Important processes here are -precipitation, runoff and evaporation 
● 3600 year residence time 
■ The next largest is the ​cryosphere​ - accounts for 1.9% of all water 
● Major stores include Greenland and Antarctica 
● During an ice age, the store increases in size and during warmer interglacial 
periods, the ice melts and the store decreases 
● Major ice sheets also store water for a very long period - ice core dating 
suggests the residence time of some water in Antarctic ice is over 800,000 
years 
■ Terrestrial surface ​groundwater​ stores 1.1%  
● Tends to have a high residence time (time water molecule spends in a store) 
● Groundwater that is deep underground can spend 10,000 years beneath the 
Earth’s surface  
● Fossil water​ refers to ancient deep groundwater from former wetter periods. 
This is not renewable or reachable to human use 
● Water stored in the soil remains very briefly as its spread very thinly across 
the Earth. Its is easily lost to other stores by evaporation, transpiration or 
groundwater flow 
■ Water can be stored in plants and other living things i.e - ​biosphere -​ which stores 
0.0001% of water 
● Greenwater​ refers to the water stored in vegetation or soils 
■ Surface Water​ refers to water in ponds, puddles and lakes  
● Stores 0.01% of all water 
● On land, the groundwater is in liquid form - called ​blue water​ - the visible 
part of the water cycle 
■ Atmosphere​ stores about 0.001% of water 
● Shortest residence time of just 10 days 
● Water is transferred into the atmosphere through evaporation as water 
vapour, condenses and precipitated as rain water 
● Transpiration from plants also releases water vapour into the atmosphere 
 

 
 
● Although most of the water is stored in the ocean, only 
2.5% occurs as freshwater.  
● Around 69% of this is locked up in glaciers and ice caps 
in high altitudes and high latitude locations - making it 
inaccessible for humans 
● 30% of the remaining freshwater is stored deep 
underground which is also inaccessible 
● This leaves around 1% which is actually accessible to 
humans 
● Rivers are the main source of surface water for 
humans - which only constitutes 0.007% of total water 
 
The hydrological cycle is a system of linked processes 
 
Drainage Basin 
 
● A ​drainage basin​ is the area of land drained by a river and its 
tributaries 
● The ​watershed​ marks the edge of a drainage basin 
● Open system as it has external inputs and outputs that cause 
the amount of water to vary over time 
● These variations can occur at different temporal scales - e.g 
short term hourly through to daily seasonal and annual 
● The are of land drained by a river and its tributaries is called a 
catchment 
 
 
 
Inputs: 
 
Convectional  Frontal  Orographic (Relief)  

     

● Common in tropical areas  ● Warm air which is lighter  ● Air is forced to riser over 
(and in the UK during  and less dense is forced  a barrier , such as a 
summer)  to rise over the denser  mountain, it cools and 
● Warm air rises as its  cooler air  condensation takes places 
heated, expands and  ● As it rises, the air cools  forming rain 
becomes less dense. As it  and its ability to hold  ● The downslope receives 
rises, the air cools and its  water vapour decreases.  little to no rain - called 
ability to hold water  ● Condensation occurs and  the rain shadow effect 
vapour decreases.  clouds and rain form 
Condensation occurs and 
colors develop, If the air 
continues to rise, rain will 
far 
 

Processes​:  
 
 
 
● Interception​ - Water retained by plant surfaces 
and is late evaporated or absorbed by the 
vegetation and is transpired 
● Infiltration​ - Movement of water from the 
ground into the soil 
● Direct​ (​Surface​) ​Runoff​ - Rain flows overground 
when the soil is oversaturated or very 
hard/baked 
● Saturated​ ​overland​ ​flow​ - Upward movement of 
water table into the evaporation zone 
● Throughflow​ - Transfer of water down slope through the soil, parallel to the ground, under the 
influence of gravity towards a stream or river 
● Percolation​ - Transfer of water into permeable rocks - e.g. rocks with joints or pores 
● Groundwater​ (Baseflow - The slow transfer of percolated water through porous rocks 
 
Outputs 
 
● Evaporation 
○ Transfer of liquid water into the water vapour (a gas) due to the heat of the sun.  
○ Influenced by temperature, hours of sunshine, humidity and wind speed 
○ Less influential factors include: depth of water, size of water, colour of surface (Determines 
albedo of the surface) 
● Transpiration 
○ Biological process in which water is transferred from plants through stomata and transferred 
into the atmosphere 
○ Dependent on type of vegetation (coniferous or deciduous), degree of moisture in the 
atmosphere and time of year 
● Channel Flow 
○ Refers to the flow of water in streams or rivers 
○ A mixture of surface runoff, throughflow and groundwater flow feed the river 
 
Physical factors that affect the drainage basin 
 
● Climate 
○ Highest inputs to a drainage basin found in the tropics due to ITCZ as it brings heavy rain 
○ Monsoons bring strong season patterns of rainfall which will have a major impact on the 
inputs to a drainage basin system 
○ In areas of stable high pressure, there is drier weather and lower levels on input 
○ Wind speeds can decrease interception loss as interception rain is dislodged 
○ Evaporation increases with temperature, sunshine hours, wind (reduces the relative humidity 
and saturation of air) 
● Soil  
○ If the water is already saturated, infiltration wont occur instead surface flow will take place. 
Also if the surfaces are unvegetated and baked (in semi arid regions) overland flow occurs as 
this ground as limited infiltration capacity 
○ Soil texture affects the porosity with sandy soils having a higher infiltration capacity than less 
permeable clays 
● Vegetation 
○ Interception capacity of the tree varies by the type of tree.  
■ Dense needles of coniferous forests allow greater accumulation of water 
 

■ Coniferous trees intercept 25- 35% of annual rainfall whereas deciduous forest 
intercept onl5 15-25% 
■ This is especially true in winter, when temperature deciduous trees shed their leaves 
and forests incept more than grasses or crops 
○ If the tree canopies become saturated when there is excessive rainfall, excess water will reach 
the ground 
○ Transpiration will increase with vegetation cover (coniferous or deciduous), degree of 
moisture as well as albedo - dark forest absorb more solar radiation increase evaporation 
● Geology 
○ Rate of percolation and groundwater flow depends on permeability of the rock,  
○ Rocks with large pore spaces (E.g. sandstone) and large joints (e.g. limestone) allows for 
planes along which water can flow 
○ Impermeable rock (Such as granity) will prevent percolation of water movement through the 
ground 
● Relief 
○ A steeper gradient will allow gravity to operate more effectively 
 
 
Human factors that affect the drainage basin 
 
● Deforestation 
○ ​Leads to reduced evaporation and transpiration  
○ Increased surface runoff, increasing the chance of flooding 
● Land use 
○ Changes to infiltration occur if impermeable surfaces such as tarmac dominate the area 
leading to greater surface runoff 
■ Streams and river discharges often increase rapidly as a result 
○ Infiltration is 5x higher under forests than grasslands 
● New water storage resources 
○ Dams increase surface water stores and evaporation 
■ The Lake behind the Aswan Dam in Eheim has estimated evaporation losses of 10-16 
billion cubic meters per year 
○ Reduces downstream river discharge 
● Water abstraction 
○ Human use of irrigation has led to a declining water table  
○ GRoundwater is being abstracted faster than aquifers can replace them 
○ Reduced industrial activity has led to an increased groundwater storage tho this rings risk of 
groundwater flooding 
 
 
Case Study on Amazonia 
 
● 20% of the forest has been destroyed 
● Cattle ranching, large scale commercial agriculture of biofuels and soya beans as well as general 
developments of towns and roads through legal and illegal logging has caused the deforestation 
● The trees act as the lungs of the Earth - sequestering CO​2​ as they photosynthesis. Deforestation is 
leading to greenhouse gas emissions increasing - especially during a drought 
● Water cycling has been reduced due to deforestation 
● ENSO Cycle has led to increased frequency of drought which can exacerbate forest fires and cause 
further destruction 
 
   
 

Water budgets 
 
● Water budgets show the annual 
balance between inputs 
(precipitation) and outputs 
(evapotranspiration)  
● Calculated by considering: 
● Precipitation = Discharge + 
Evapotranspiration ± Change in 
storage 
● Helps to identify periods when 
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration (causing a positive water balance) and when there is a 
negative water balance and an increased drought risk 
● The soil moisture budget graphs (the graph shows the UK’s soil moisture graph - a temperature 
climate) are a result of annual changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration which allows for an 
impact on soil moisture availability in different climate locations  
○ A - Soil moisture surface  
○ B - Soil moisture utilisation 
○ D - Soil moisture deficiency 
○ E - Soil Moisture recharge 
○ F - Field Capacity 
 
River Regimes 
 
● Defined as the annual variation in discharge or flow of a river at a particular point or gauging station - 
measure in cumecs 
● Groundwater flow supplies water between periods of rain, steadily feeding the river (masking the 
fluctuations in stream flow caused by immediate precipitation) 
● Character of a regime depends on: 
○ Climate 
■ Regimes reflect rainfall seasonal maxima or when snow fields or glaciers melt (for 
snow the peak period is in spring, for glaciers it is in summer) 
■ Evaporation will be higher in summer as the temperatures are warmer 
○ Geology 
■ Permeability and porosity - water is stored in groundwater in aquifers and is gradually 
released into the river as base flow, which tends to regulate the flow during dry 
periods 
○ Soils 
■ Permeable rocks and soils absorb water more easily so surface runoff is rare 
■ Impermeable rocks and soils (e.g. clay soils) means rainwater can’t infiltrate so water 
reaches the river more quickly 
○ Human Activity 
■ The construction of dams will regulate the flow differently that what naturally would 
have occurred 
■ The flow of the River Nile was reduced by 65% after the Aswan Dam was constructed 
 

 
Yukon  Amazon   Indus 

● 3540 km long and  ● 6308 km long and drains a  ● 1120000 km​2 

drainage area of 850,000  basin of nearly 6 million  ● High mountain range 
km​2  km​2  ● Precipitation falls in 
● Tundra climatic area  ● It is a humid tropical  winter and spring 
● Flows through a mountain  climate  ● PEak discharge in July and 
range   ● Peak discharge is in  August 
● Peak discharge is in  April/May and lowest 
May-June with a increase  discharge in September - 
due to melting of snow  linked to wet and dry 
and ice  seasons and snowmelt 
● It is low from December  from the Andes 
to May (low precipitation 
and frozen conditions) 
 
Storm Hydrographs 
 
● Depict variations in the river discharge a t apsecif point over a short period of time (often before and 
after a storm) 
● The​ rising limb​ is the increase in discharge in 
response to surface runoff and through flow 
● The ​lag time​ is the time it takes between peak 
rainfall and peak discharge. A shorter lag time 
suggests more prone to flooding 
● Falling limb ​refers to the decline that occurs after 
peak flow - because throughflow is releasing more 
slowly into the channel 
● Eventually the discharge returns to its normal ​base 
flow 
● The rough shape is often described as flashy or 
subdued 
● A flashy hydrograph imply a rapid increase in discharge, short lag time, high peak and a steep rising 
limb 

 
   
 

Factors that affect the shape of a hydrograph 

 
(the following describes conditions to produce a flashy hydrograph) 
 
Physical  Human 

● Size  ● Land use 

○ Small basin will make the water  ○ Deforestation reduces interception.  
reach the channel quicker (shorter  ○ GRasslands intercept 5x less than 
distance)  forested areas 
● Shape  ● Urbanisation  
○ Circular basin (as opposed to an  ○ Urban surfaces (tarmac, concrete) 
elongated basin) will take less time  means water is rapidly and directly 
for water to reach the channel  transported to the river - eg through 
● Drainage density  drainage systems 
○ Larger number of streams means  ○  
more stormwater will reach the 
main channel rapidly 
● Rock type  
○ Impermeable rocks allows for 
surface runoff into rivers 
● Soil  
○ Clay soils and thin soils have low 
porosity and water infiltrates more 
slowly. Thin soils become saturated 
● Relief  
○ Steep slopes allow water to flow 
more rapidly downhill and reach the 
channel quickly 
● Vegetation 
○ Grass intercepts less rain than 
forested area, so more water reachel 
the channel rapidly 
 
Environmental managers and planners must examine the catchment area as a whole, for example developing 
appropriate land use, (e.g forestry in the upper areas) and manage development of the lower part of 
caychements by land use zoning and limiting buildingontoop of flood plains. They must also defend high 
value properties and installations against flood recurrence levels   
 

EQ2: What factors influence the hydrological system 

over short- and long-term timescales? 
 
Drought definition: Below average periods of precipitation 
 
Causes of draught 
 
● Meteorological drought is defined by shortfalls in precipitation 
○ Rainfall deficit 
○ PRecipitation deficiency is usually combined with high temperatures, high wind, strong 
sunshine and low humidity all of which increase evaporation, decreasing soil moisture 
● Hydrological droughts 
○ Streamflow deficit 
○ Associated with reduced streamflow and groundwater levels due to reduce inputs of 
precipitation, reduced percolation and groundwater recharge and high levels of evaporation 
○ It results in reduced storage in lake so serverius 
● Agricultural Drought 
○ Soil moisture deficit 
○ OVertime agricultural drought ensures as rainfall deficiency leads to a deficiency of soil 
moisture and water availability which affects plant growth and reduces biomass 
● Socio-economic drought 
○ Food deficit 
○ Water demand for social and economic purposes exceed water availability. 
● Longer trends 
○ The subtropical high pressure zone is created where the air that rose at the Equator has 
cooled and so sinks to form a belt of high air pressure and 
hot dry conditions 
■ The air returns to the equator causing trade winds. 
These tradewinds meet to form the intertropical 
convergence zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ shifts alongside 
the thermal equator causing alternating wet and dry 
seasons in the tropics 
■ The descending parts ot the Hadley cell block the 
rain bearing air masses that ITCZ brings. OVer 
continental areas, there may be lower humidity levels 
as less water evaporates and if high pressure blocks the arrival of a wet season, a 
severe drought may occur (eg in the Sahel) 
○ Mid latitude blocking anticyclones 
■ In the mid latitudes (eg the UK) precipitation mainly occurs due to frontal rainfall 
where polar front meets warm tropical air which is forced to rise, condense and fall as 
rain 
■ The loops of the jet stem stabilize which allow for high pressure areas (anticyclones) 
from the subtropics to move northwards 
■ The anticyclones bring stable weather conditions with little precipitation, whilst the 
rain bearing depressions (Areas of low pressure) are forced around them, causing 
drought in the mid latitude countries such as the UK 
■ The stability of anticyclones means they can persist and block water systems for up to 
two weeks 
   
 

● ENSO cycles  
○ El Nino Southern Oscillation 
○ Normally​, the winds blow the warm air water 
westward. Cold water normally found along 
the coast of Peru is replaced by warm water. 
The warm water in Australia is replaced by 
cold water 
○ This causes nutrient rich cold water to be 
upwelled in Peru 
○ The warm moist air rises, cools and 
condenses forming rain in Australia 
○ Sinking air in Peru causes dry conditions 
○ El Nino Conditions 
■ Trade winds weaken and die.  
■ Air circulation loop is revered so 
there is reversal of warm water.  
■ Warm waters caused rainfall on the 
coast of South America 
■ Sinking air causes dry conditions and 
drought on the East Coast of 
Australia 
■ Lack of phytoplankton results in a 
reduction in fish numbers 
○ La Nina Conditions 
■ Intensified version of a normal year 
■ Very strong trade winds move warm 
water westward 
■ Increased heat causes air to rise 
rapidly, leading to heavy rains and 
flood on the East Coast of Australia 
■ Unusually high air pressure due to 
sinking air causes dry weather and 
drought in the West Coast of South 
America 
 
Human causes of drought 
 
● Although humans are unlikely to cause drought, they can act like a positive feedback loop in 
enhancing its impacts, especially through the ​over abstraction of surface water resources and 
groundwater aquifers 
● REsources and dams can reduce the downstream supply of water  
○ The Flow of the Nile was reduced by 65% after the Aswan Dam was constructed 
● Deforestation and overgrazing reduces vegetation, reducing evapotranspiration rates, reducing 
atmospheric moisture and precipitation. 
● The removal of vegetation allows for reduced infiltration and increase surface runoff, reducing soil 
moisture content and water storage 
 
Australia Case Study 
 
● Physical Factors 
○ Subtropical high pressure belt of the southern hemisphere leads to low highly variable 
rainfall 
○ El NIno events were partly responsible with prevailing conditions explained about ⅔ of 
rainfall deficits in Earthen Australia. The high pressure belt was strengthened due to the 
subtropical ridge 
○ The Subtropical ride of high pressure blocked depressions, forcing them towards higher 
 

latitudes reducing frontal rainfall 

○ The Subtropical ridge appears to have intensified as global surface temperatures have 
increased linked with anthropogenic climate change as there is a reduced temperature 
difference between the equator and pole 
● Human Factors 
○ Farmers rely on water for their irrigated farming of rice, cotton and fruits 
○ The Murray Darling Basin provides 50% of the nation’s agricultural outputs so when it 
started to dry up there were serious strains to food supplies and wall, wheat and meat 
exports 
○ REserours fell to around 40% of their capacity 
○ The river has been over extracted that no water has flowed at its mouth 
■ In Adelaide 40% of drinking water is drawn from the river Murray 
○ GRowing population is using a more water consuming lifestyle. Many surface groundwater 
resources have been over extracted for agricultural industrial and urban usage 
 
 
Impact of drought on on ecosystem functioning 
 
● Ecosystems are vital for human wellbeing - providing amenities such as clean air,water food as well 
as intangible amenities such as aesthetic or psychological benefits 
● Droughts can affect: 
○ Functioning of an ecosystem 
○ Resilience of an ecosystem 
 
● Wetlands 
○ Areas of marsh, peatland or water where water is static or flowing, fresh, blacklist or salt eg 
marshes, swamps, bogs 
○ Perform a number of key functions 
■ Temporary water store, mitigating river floods, recharging aquifers and since they 
dissipate stream energy - they’re protecting land from destructive erosions  
■ Act as a giant water filter by trapping and recycling nutrients, as well as pollutants, 
helping to maintain water quality 
■ Supports a very diverse food web, providing nursery areas for risk  
■ Provide resources (fish, fuel woods) 
○ Impacts a drought has on wetland ecosystem 
■ Less precipitation, less interceptions as vegetation deteriorates and less infiltration to 
the groundwater stores causes the water table levels to fall 
■ Areas of open water shrink, leading to a loss of habitat., Populations of aquatic birds 
will decline 
■ Droughts increase tree mortality, reducing habitats for wild animals as well as for 
cattle ranching 
■ Soil erosion occurs due to the wind and reduced ability to store water in terms of 
flood 
■ Contamination of pollutants will increase as regulating functions can not occur (water 
purification) 
● Forest Stress 
○ Amazon Rainforest the Earth’s lungs - absorb CO​2​ and returns O​2​ into the atmosphere. 
○ Functions of forests 
■ Water storage and regulation of hydrological processes - recycles 20 billion tonnes of 
water vapour tadily and precipitates it as rain 
■ Timber Production 
■ Maintains biodiversity, nutrient cycling, reducing flooding due to interceptions, 
preventing soil erosion 
■ Carbon sequestration - regulating climate 
○ Impacts of the drought on an ecosystem 
 

■ Younger drees die, reducing canopy cover, reducing humidity and water vapour and 
thus rainfall decreases 
■ Lasting damage to vascular tissues, impairing water transport 
■ Increased accumulation of pests and diseases. Due to droughts, trees are more 
vulnerable to insect vectors and psychological damage 
■ Chance of wildfires increase as dying vegetation creates a tinderbox that can easily 
catch fire 
■ Interception will decrease as there is less foliage cover 
 
 
The Resilience of ecosystems 
 
● River fed wetlands experience wide range water levels naturally and thus communities may be more 
adapted to such fluctuations 
● Groundwater fed wetlands experience a smaller range of water levels, are thus more vulnerable to 
prolonged drought over several seasons 
● Resilience to drought is lower for certain species (such as pine) which tend to use water at a high 
rate, even during a drought 
 
Flooding 
 
● Causes of flooding 
○ Intense storms leading to flash flooding 
■ Flash floods are floods with a short lag time which are extremely dangerous 
■ They are usually associated with intense convectional storms, so infiltration is limited 
allowing for surface run off to dominate 
○ Unusually heavy or prolonged rainfall 
■ May be caused by mid latitude depressions - Jet streams can stabilize meaning high 
pressure systems were blocked. Each depression brings two bands of rain - rain with 
the warm front and then heavier rain with the cold front 
■ Once rain falls on saturated ground, the only other transfer is surface runoff, leading 
to an increase in a rivers discharge. Once the capacity is exceeded, water will spill 
over the banks and spread over the floodplain 
■ Can also lead to groundwater flooding - i.e floods that occur after the ground has 
become saturated from prolonged heavy rainfall 
○ Extreme monsoonal rainfall 
■ The differences in temperature of the land and the sea (the sea has a higher specific 
heat capacity) leads to warm air blowing towards india, brining humid climate and 
torrential rain. This occurs as ITCZ moves northwards and and the warm moist air 
follows it 
○ Snowmelt 
■ Usually occurs in higher latitudes or mountainous areas 
■ Melting of snow in late spring causes flooding, 
■ Sometimes rain falls on melting snow when a rapid thaw occurs and this combination 
results in flooding 
■ Glaciers in the HImalayas lead to floods as the ice dams melt. In ICeland, glacial 
outburst floods are due to volcanic activity which melt the water underneath the ice 
sheets and cause the sudden release of melt water - e.g. jokulhlaup 
○ Physical Factors involved 
■ Certain river basins are more flood prone than others.  
■ Geology, soil, and vegetation all play an important role as they combine with 
precipitation characteristic to determine key features of flood (e.g. the speed of onset, 
flood duration etc,( 
 
   
 

Human actions that can increase flood risk 

 
● Changing land use within the river catchment 
○ Population growth has led to vegetation removal 
for living space. The land uses changes increase 
runoff 
○ Deforestation reduces interception and 
evapotranspiration, leading to increased surface 
runoff, ensuring participation reaches the river 
channels fastre 
○ Deforestation leads to greater soil erosion, 
increasing sediment load (reduce capacity of the 
river to carry water and increases the frequency and magnitude of floods) 
○ Urbanisation leads to impermeable surfaces (roofs, roads etc which increase rate of surface 
runoff flow) 
○ River lag times shorten due to drainage systems as the water is directly fed into the river 
● Mismanagement of rivers using hard engineering systems 
○ Drainage of natural wetlands mean the land may shrink as it dries out, getting lower and thus 
is more susceptible to flooding 
○ Buildings of embankments (artificial leaves) to increase channel capacity may not be 
consistent, especially if there are choke points downstream 
○ Straightening of the Mississippi and cutting through meanders has increased the rivers 
capacity and velocity leading to increased flood risk 
 
The effects of flooding 
 
● Environmental Impacts 
○ Soils 
■ Intensive flooding caused by excessive surface runoff can lead to oversupplies of 
sediment and nutrients, with possible eutrophication effects and destruction of 
aquatic plants 
■ Worms, moles, hedgehogs can also be poisoned by polluted waters 
■ In developing countries, subsistence farmers have developed practises that rely on 
annual flooding as it brings sediment and nutrients to fields 
● The construction of the Aswan dam did decrease flooding but inadvertently 
decreases the supply of sediment downstream 
○ Ecosystems 
■ Floods can recharge groundwater systems, fill wetlands and increased connectivity 
between aquatic habitats and move sediment and nutrients around the landscape 
■ Floods trigger breeding, migration and dispersal 
● Socio-economic Impacts 
○ Economic activity 
■ When farming is subsistence there is a loss of food and famine can occur 
■ Increased food prices as there are shortages of key products 
○ Infrastructure 
■ Water Of 0.5m deep can wash cars away and foundations of buildings start to collapse 
at 2 cumecs 
■ Destruction of a bridge in Cockermouth, made communication and transport very 
difficult 
■ Many people enduring power shortages 
○ SEttlement 
■ In developing countries, many aren't taught to swim and may be killed by poisonous 
snakes in flood waters 
■ Children and elderly are particularly vulnerable 
■ Water borne diseases may spread quickly 
 

Case Study: 2015-16 Floods in the UK - Storm Desmond 

 
Profile 
● Storm Desmond brough several gales and heavy rain to the UK in early December 2015 - between 
the 3rd and 8th of December 
● Brought gales of up to 81 mph 
● Localised flooding in Scotland and North Wales 
● Cumbria was the worst hit area as it received more than a month’s rainfall in one day! (341mm in 
24 hours) 
Physical Causes 
● Due to low air pressure and its print brough heavy rainfall as the air was forced to rise across the 
high ground 
● Moist air from the CAribbean lead to record amounts of relief rainfall 
Human Causes 
● Deforestation and intensive agriculture lead to sedimentation of channels and landslide risk 
● Budget cuts to amount of money spend on flood defences 
● Poor land management  
Social, Economic and Environmental Impacts 
● Heavy rain and flooding oh homes and infrastructure 
● 52000 homes were affected by flooding in Cumbria 
● Disruption to travel - West Coast mainline rail route was closed  
● In Cockermouth, the destruction of a key bridge connecting a different part of town made 
communication and transport difficult 
● Cumbrai expeirnced a drop in tourism for up to a year after the floods 
● BBC reported 2 deaths related to the flooding 
● 40 school closures 
● Parts of Cumbria was left without electricity and Lancaster University had to close early for 
Christmas - 43000 homes were left without power on the 4th of December 
● £500 million worth of damage 
 
The effects of climate change on the hydrological cycle 
 
● Changes to input and outputs 
○ Precipitation 
■ Widespread increases in intense rainfall events 
■ Areas of precipitation increase include the tropics 
■ More precipitation will far as rain rather than snow in northern regions 
○ Evaporation 
■ Lengths frequency and intensity of heatwaves will increase, especially across Europe 
and Southern Africa - leading to increasing drought occurrence 
■ Transpiration linked to any vegetation chances  
● Changes to stores and flows 
○ Size of snow and glacier mass 
■ Length of snow cover reason has decreased 
■ Spring melt occurs much earlier 
■ Glaciers are retreating globally due to tend of the last Ice Age. 
■ Glaciers are thinning at an accelerating rate due to rapid temperature increase 
associated with anthropogenic climate change 
○ Reservoirs and lakes 
■ Wetlands are affected where this is decreasing water volumes due to higher 
temperatures 
■ Ocean warming leads to increased evaporation 
○ Size of permafrost 
■ Increasing air and ocean temperatures leads to permafrost degradation in northern 
areas 
■ Thawing releases methane leading to a positive feedback loop, accelerating changes 
○ Soil moisture levels 
 

■ When precipitation increases, it is likely that soil moisture will also increase (and vice 
versa) 
○ Runoff 
■ Increase in hydrologic extremes, with more low flows (droughts and high flows 
(floods) 
■ An accelerated cycle with more intensive rainfall will increase surface runoff rates and 
reduce infiltration 
○ Groundwater flow 
■ Human abstraction is the dominant influence on supplies, especially in agriculture 
 
Uncertainty over the effects of climate change and water security 
 
● Global climate system is very complex, involving natural short oscillations such as El Ninos as well as 
biogeochemical positive and negative feedback mechanisms 
● Climate dynamics are only partially understood = especially the way the atmosphere, ocean, 
terrestrial, cryosphere and biosphere interact with each other 
● There is insufficient depth or detail of evidence in some regions to establish reliable trends for the 
impact of climate change or to make firm predictions about the future 
● These uncertain forecasts represent serious concerns over the security of water supplies in the 
future 
   
 

EQ3: How does water insecurity occur and why is it 

become such a global issues for the 21st century 
● There is a mismatch between water supply and demand which has led to water insecurity 
● Water security is defined as having a sustainable access to good quality water for sustaining 
livelihoods, human wellbeing and socio economic development 
● Water use has been growing at twice the rate of population increase in the last century 
● Renewable water resource refer to the total of internal and external water resources 
○ Internal resources include the discharge of rivers, aquifers generated from depreciation 
○ External refers to resource generated outside a country include inflows from upstream 
countries, where a river or lake may be divided by a border 
● Water stress - below 1700m​3 ​per person 
● Water Scarcity - below 1000m​3​ per person 
● Absolute water scarcity - Renewable water resources are very low, less than 500m​3 ​per person 

 
 
The physical causes of water insecurity 
 
● CLimate variability 
○ Warmer climate in some locations will increase evaporation leading to less effective 
precipitation 
○ Short term climate change are exacerbating the water insecurity situation 
○ HIgh relief prompts precipitation and rapid run off, but may also allow for natural lakes (i.e. 
greater surface water storage) 
○ Snowfall and glaciers can be important where climate warming has led to melting and 
diminishing of the cryosphere storage 
○ Higher water temperatures encourage the growth of bacteria and organisms that are harmful 
to health  
○ The quality of water may be affected by sedimentation dissolved organic carbon, pathogens, 
pesticides and salt resulting in negative impacts on ecosystems human health and water 
system reliability 
● Salt water encroachment at coasts 
○ Seaward movement of freshwater reduce saltwater encroachment in coastal zones and so soil 
moisture and groundwater remain fresh 
 

○ However, sea level rise and abstraction ogr foundwater are increasing the risk of saltwater 
intrusion into coastal areas 
■ Excessive abstraction allows salt water to move into soils and aquifers 
■ Thermal expansion of the sea as the ice melts is enabling saltwater to intrude further 
linald, threatening farming and natural ecosystems 
 
The human causes of water insecurity 
 
● Over abstraction from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers 
○ Inefficient use of water for crop production depletes awfuifieres and reduces river flow e 
○ 2.5 billion rely on groundwater resources to satisfy basic daily water needs and farmers in 
developing countries result on groundwater for food security 
○ 43% of groundwater is used for irrigation water 
○ Over abstraction occurs when water is removed from groundwater so that supplies diminish 
● Water contamination from agriculture 
○ Agriculture is the human activity with the largest use of water - 70% globally 
○ Intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides (e.g during the Green Revolution in India) cause 
eutrophication of water supplies. The nutrients leak, enter the water table, lead to the growth 
of algae which use up the oxygen in the water, depleting oxygen levels for other aquatic life. 
○ Many pesticides such as DDT are now banned in developed countries due to their health 
hazards 
● Industrial Water Pollution 
○ Industrial production includes wastes and chemicals which can contain carcinogenic 
elements 
○ The water from minimum perations can contain 300x normal levels of arsenic 
○ In China ⅓ of all rivers are thought to be classified as highly polluted 
○ Untreated sewage can contain harmful bacteria 
■ Only 20% of sewage is treated before being discharged in rivers in India 
○  
 
Future Water Scarcity Problems 
 
● Water demand is expected to increase by 55% by 205 
● GRowing populations, strong income growth and rising living standards have led to a sharp and 
unsustainable increase in water use.  
● Humans tend to abstract water for domestic purposes (drinking and cleaning) , agriculture (irrigation) 
and industrial usage 
● This has led to changing consumption patterns which involve the rising demand for meat, for larger 
homes (to make concrete) and for motor vehicles, appliances and energy consuming devices 
● The mining of connection fuels such as shale gas requires fracking putting huge demand on water 
 
Consequences and risks of water insecurity 
 
Water insecurity is related to: 
 
● Availability - scarcity of clean freshwater resources to meet demand 
● Access - Scarcity due to the failure of institutions to ensure a reliable water supply through water 
management 
● Utilisation - Scarcity arising from inadequate infrastructure to use water resources due to financial 
constraints 
 
● 1 Billion people are still without access to clean water 
● Water scarcity refers to both physical water scarcity (lack of availability) and economic water scarcity 
(due to the lack of access and poor resource management) 
● Physical Scarcity is largely determined by climate  
 

● Economic scarcity is associated with the lack of capital, governance and technology to exploit their 
adequate supplies of blue water 
 
The Price of water 
 
The price of water is determined by a variety of factors 
● Physical cost of obtaining the supply - e.g. if it has to be piped along several km from mountainous 
reservoirs (e.g. LA gets its water from Colorado through a long pipeline 
● Demand of water may reflect prices - eg in times of drought, prices may increase  
● In developing countries megacities (such as Accra in Ghana) there is insufficient infrastructure., 
People in slums may rely on water tankers, stand pipes and bottled water, which can have 
extortionate prices 
● In some countries, although the water is free, it may not be treated and thus may not be clean. 
● In urban areas, water may be pumped by private companies that charge the market prices for it. On 
the other hand, e.g. in Cuba, water may be subsidised by the government to ensure supplies are 
available for all 
● Water is increasingly being seen as a commodity rather than a basic human right. The IMF and World 
Bank gave loans to privatise water supplies believing this would would lead to increase efficiency and 
better service quality and coverage 
○ The proved itself to be adisatster as european TNCS such as Suez, charged high prices The 
cost of providing water meant huge price increases which mean the poor could not pay. 
● Often it is poor people who miss out 
 
The importance of water 
  
The environmental and economic problems resulting from inadequate water.   
 
Economic Development  Human Wellbeing 

● Industry  ● Sanitation 
○ Water is required in the production  ○ Unsafe drinking water can spread 
of goods, especially for chemicals,  disease 
petroleum, paper and electronics  ○ Water used for personal and 
industries  domestic hygiene (e.e. Washing 
● Energy supply  hands) can prevent disease 
○ Meeting growing demands for  transmission 
energy will generate increasing  ● Health 
stress on freshwater resources   ○ Open defecation allows for 
○ Nuclear Power requires water for  diarrhoeal diseases such as choeleas 
cooling, generating hydroelectric  to spread if contaminated with 
power, whilst fracking requires  water supplies. The effects are 
water to help extract shale gas  exacerbated when people wash in 
○ 10000l of water is required to  surface water polluted with human 
produce 1l or bioethanol  faces - e.g the Ganges 
● Agriculture  ○ Water is also the breeding ground 
○ 70% of global water is used fo  for many vector insects such as 
raglicultrua  Mosquitos that carry malaria, 
○ Blue water is mainly used for  dengue, yellow fever etc. 
irrigation  ● Food Preparation 
○ Green water is mainly used through  ○ Huge growth in the consumption of 
field conservation practises (e.g. the  meat and dairy products 
growth of rice)  ○ It takes about 15,000l of water to 
○ Aquaculture is growing in recent  produce a kg of beef 
years as wild fish stocks have 
declined 
 
   
 

The environmental impacts of growing water use 

 
● The green revolution shows that the majority of irrigation is pumped up electrically from aquifers, 
leading to massive groundwater depletion in India 
● The disruption of ecosystems through urban sprawl and urbanization, over abstraction for 
agriculture, deforestation and pollution may undermine and environment's capacity to sustain itself 
 
Conflict between water users 
 
● When demand for water is higher than the supply and a number of stakeholders/players are involved 
who wish to use the resources, there is potential for conflict 
● There can be conflict within a country, and internationally over transboundary water sources - i.e. 
where a river crosses over one or more political borders (this could within a nation, such as a state, or 
an international border) 
● 40% of people live within a river or lake drainage basin that extends over 2 or more countries 
● At a local scale, key players are domestic water users, farmers and centralists who need water for 
planners , environmentalists and water providers who have different ideas as to how it can be 
supplied 
● Internationally, the key players are governments and water users in countries, sharing the water of 
large river basins with tensions between upstream and downstream users 
● OFten the natural environment and marginalised and vulnerable people are the biggest loses in the 
competitions for water 
 
 
The Nile Case Study 
 
Profile: 
 
● 6,700km long - Longest river in the world 
● Water resources are shared between 11 countries - Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo, 
Kenya, Ethiopia, Entire, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt 
● Much of the river flows through semi-arid and arid areas, increasing their importance as other 
water resources are scarce 
● The Niles provides water for domestic industry and agricultural purposes and is under pressure 
from rapid population growth, economic development and climate change 
● Egypt depends on the River Nile for 95% of its water needs 
 
The role of different players 
 
● A historic agreement between the UK (colonia power in Sudan) and Egypt gave Egypt then and 
Sudan significant water allocations - making no allowance for the water needs of other Nile States 
through an agreement called the ​Nile Waters Agreement 
○ IT also gave Egypt veto powers over construction projects on the NIle and its tributaries to 
minimise interference with the flow of water in the Nile 
○ Egypt insists that its water rights from the 1929 agreement must be honoured and that no 
construction project may be undertaken on the River Rile or any of its tributaries without 
approval from its government 
● In 1999, the River Nile countries signed the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) to enhance cooperation over 
the use of Nile water resources. IT developed a legal framework over the Nile River Basin with 
equitable water allocation 
● Sudan and Egypt opposed a Cooperative Framework AGreement which was supported by countries 
such as Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and UGanda, arguing it would reduce their water rights and 
allocations 
● In April 2011, the Ethiopian Prime Minister announced the construction of a dam on the Blue Nile (1 
of 2 main sources for the river) which meet angry response from the Egyption president who 
stated that it would threaten the livelihoods of Egyptians 
●  
 
 

 
 
Management of water supplies 
 
Hard Engineering Schemes 
 
● Use of artificial structures to increase water supply 
 
 
Water Transfer Schemes  Mega Dams  Desalination Plants 
     
● Diversion of water from  ● A damn is a barrier that  ● Development of reverse 
one drainage basin to  restricts the flow of  osmosis process has 
another - either by  water, used to suppress  made desalination far 
diverting the river itself  floods but also provide  more cost effective, less 
or by constructing a canal  water for hydroelectric  energy intensive and 
to carry the water from  power, irrigation and  easier to implement on a 
an area of supply to an  human consumption  larger scale - especially as 
area of deficit  ● E.g. Three Gorges Dam  costs of freshwater 
● E.g. the South-North  ● 1 ½ miles wide providing  supplies increase 
Transfer Project  18.2 million kW up to 1/9  ● Desalination plants 
● The south is rich in water  of China’s out  provide reliable and 
resources whilst the  ● Helps to aid energy  predictable supply of 
north is not.  security in China, tame  water 
● A ginantic scheme to  river flooding and  ● Each plant will add to 
divert these supplies was  economic development  carbon dioxide emissions  
started in 2003 and will  around the area as  ● Provides lots of salt which 
take 50 years to  container ships can travel  can harm ecosystems, 
complete, costing $100  further inland  especially if dumbenad 
billion  ● 1.3 people had to be  near the shoreline where 
● Involves the building of 3  resettled due to the  it could affect coral reefs 
canals, that run 1300 km  damn, silt will accumulate   
across eastern middle and  decreasing supply of 
western China and like 4  alluvial soils downstead 
rivers - e.g Yangtze,  for farmers, 1,3000 
Yellow, Hai and HAi  importants sites will 
● It will transfer 44.8 billion  disappear under the 
m​3​ of water each year  reservoir waters 
● Water conservation, 
improved irrigation, 
pollution treatment are 
environmental protection 
are included in the plans 
● Three is uncertainty over 
the success of the project 
with the impacts to 
ecology, resettlement 
issues (300,000 people 
were displaced alreddy) 
and worsening of water 
quality 
 
Sustainable schemes of water supplies 
 
● Smart Irrigation 
○ PRovides crops with optimal water supplies. This technical conserves water without a 
reduction in yield, 
○ China saved 25% of its water through Smart irrigation, combined with high yields and net 
profits 
 

○ Controlled irrigation such as drip feed ensures water goes directly into the soil next ot the 
roots, helping to prevent evaporation losses 
● Recycling of water 
○ Grey water (waste bath, sink or washing water) can be recycled for agricultural use or 
flushing toilets 
■ This will reduce the amount of pollutants entering rivers and water systems 
■ However, it it is no actually treated, then groundwater supplies could be 
contaminated impacting animal and plant life 
○ Water Aid (NGO) raise funds to improve access to water, sanitation and hygiene for the 
world’s poorest - including in Uganda 
■ Local builders have been trained to construct harvesting jars which have a capacity of 
15000l 
■ They collect rainwater from roofs and store water for drier periods 
■ It creates onsite water supplies, close to home which have long lives -once 
constructed they can provide a stable water source for many years 
■ The cheap materials can be locally sources and there are low maintenance costs 
■ Supplies can be contaminated by birds, animal droppings on catchment surfaces if 
they are not cleaned or crushed. They may be invaded by insects, lizards or rodents 
as well as acting as breeding grounds for disease vectors if not properly appointed 
 
 
Case Study: Singapore 
 
● Population of 5.4 million  
● Receives abundant rainfall, however there is high evaporation rate due to the tropical climate and 
lack of groundwater resources 
● Limited collection and storage of rainwater 
● Singapore struggles with water scarcity 
● Recycling water known as NEWater and desalinated water is being used 
● Drains, cnalds, river and storm collection ponds and resources are used to collect water before 
being treated to supply drinking water 
● Imports water from Malaysia 
● NEWater is recycled water produced from water that is treated and uses advanced membrane 
technologies and disinfection making it very clean and safe to drink 
 
 
Hard engineering schemes tends to be: 
 
● Top down approaches 
● Run by governments, IGOsm TNCs 
● Involve huge investment 
● Technology involves high tech 
● Profits tends to be main driver 
● Winners tend to be industry and TNCs 
 
The water Sustainability Quadrant 
 
Futurity - ​manage demand whilst ensuring supplies  Environment - ​achieving high standard of 
for the future  environmental protection 

Public Participation ​- involvement of communities  Equity -​ equitable allocation between users to 
to ensure bottom up appropriate solutions  ensure secure supplies at affordable prices, 
delivered by good governance and management 
 
  
 
 

Integrated Drainage Basin Management -  

 
● Establish a framework of coordination - where all administrations and stakeholders plan and manage 
water through an agreed set of policies and strategies 
● Aims to achieve a balanced and acceptable approach to land, water and resource management 
 
 
Case Study: Colorado Integrated River Management 
 
● Colorado River is 2330 km long 
● 97% of the basin is in the USA and 3% in Mexico - the mouth is at the GUlf of California in Mexico 
● Area prone to drought due to climate change. Challenges also include organisation, population 
growth and agricultural needs for irrigation water 
● For management purposes, the basin was divided into upper (source areas) and lower (Demand 
areas) 
● Mexico was also involved in 1944 to allocate water to the country 
● In 1956, a comprehensive development plan was developed to viber regulation of rivers, water 
rights, irrigation and HEP production 
● California has introduced irrigation restrictions and is investigating desalination and Arizona is 
establishing a water banking authority which aims to use its water more effectively and storing 
surplus in aquifers within the state (Creating a water bank)  
 
 
Water Sharing Frameworks  
 
The Berlin Rules on Water Resources 
 
● Approved in 2004 
● Outlines international law relating freshwater resources, replacing earlier 1966 Helsinki RUles 
● 9 Basic water management principles apply to all countries include national and internationally 
shared waters 
○ Participatory Water management - public have right to be involved in decision making 
○ Coordinated use - resources must be managed to maxamine availability and reliability 
○ All stakeholders must be considered 
○ Sustainability - economic social and environments needs to be met, now and in the future 
○ Minimisation of environmental harm - such as pollution 
○ Cooperation between regions and countries 
○ All grounds receive a fair share of water 
○ Avoidance of transboundary harm 
○ Equitable participation - all countries have equal status