0568

AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY
o Entomology – (Greek word) – ‘Entomo’ means insect (cut into) and ‘logos’ means –
discourse
o Pest - Latin meaning – Noxious/ troublesome
o French meaning – Plague/ contagious disease
o Arthropoda – (Greek word) ‘Arthros’ means segmented and ‘Podus’ means leg
o Status of different pests in India
Weeds = 40%; Insects = 15-30%; Diseases = 15 – 20%; Others = 10-30%
1. Factors determine insect abundance

✓ Biotic potential - It is the innate ability of the population to reproduce and survive. Insects
with high reproductive rate tend to have low survival rate (r strategy) and vice versa (k
strategy).
✓ Environmental resistance is the physical and biological restraints that prevent a species
from realizing its Biotic potential. It includes 1. Biotic factors - interspecific and
intraspecific competition and natural enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens) and 2.
Abiotic factors - temperature, light, moisture and water and medium
✓ Examples for Intraspecific competition are Cannibalism in American bollworm larvae
and later stage grubs of Chrysopids, Crowding in aphids result in alate (winged) form for
migration
✓ The elimination of one species by another as a result of interspecific competition -
competitive exclusion principle or Gause’s principle
2. Factors affecting insect population

Temperature
o The total heat required for completion of physiological processes in life-history is a
constant - thermal constant
o At low temperature (winter) insect takes more days to complete a stage (larval or pupal
stage) and vice-versa. To tide over these conditions, insects will undergo – Diapause [Two
types- Aestivation (during summer) and Hibernation (during winter)]
o Influence of temperature on fecundity (egg laying): Oviposition of bed bug inhibited at
8-10oC
o Other effects of temperature: Early shoot borer of sugarcane attacks more high
temperature; Larval period of sugarcane internode borer.
Moisture/ Humidity
o War layer of cuticle prevents water loss.
o White halo fungus Verticillium lecanii on coffee green scale Coccus viridis requires high
RH for multiplication and spread.
o High RH induces BPH in rice and aphids in other crops; Termites prefer high humidity of
90-95% RH.
o Low RH in rainfed groundnut crop induces leaf miner incidence.
Photoperiod
o Photo period influences induction of diapause (a resting stage) in many insects e.g. Long
day during embryonic development causes adult to lay diapausing eggs in Bombyx mori.
o Seasonal dimorphism occurs in aphids due to change in photo period - Short day induces
sexual forms and long day induces asexual or parthenogenetic forms.
o Fruit flies lays eggs only in light.
o Cotton bollworm, Red hairy caterpillar (RHC) oviposit in dark.
AO/Entomology/Page 1
Rainfall
o Rainfall is essential for adult emergence of cutworms and RHC.
o Heavy rain washes aphids, diamond back moth (DBM).
o Intermittent low rain increases BPH and thrips.
Wind
o Interferes with feeding, mating, oviposition and helps in insect dispersal.
o Eg. Aphids, mites (Eriophyid mites also) disperse through wind.
Topography- Mountains, lakes, sea, etc. act as physical barrier for spread of insects.
Soil Type
o Wire worm, multiplies in clay soil with poor drainage.
o White grubs and cut worm - multiply in loose soil with good drainage.
Water current
o Standing water aids in multiplication of mosquitoes.
o Running water is preferred by Odonata and Caddis flies.
Nutritional factors
o Insects heterotrophic - cant synthesize their own food - depend on plants for food.
o The quantity and quality of food/nutrition plays important role in survival, distribution,
reproduction and speed of development.
3. Some terminologies
➢ Parasites - An organism that is dependent for some essential metabolic factor on another
throughout its all life stages
➢ Parasitoid - An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in its immature stage,
killing the host in the process of development and adults are free living
➢ Predators - Predators are free living organisms, feed their prey, devouring them
completely and rapidly
➢ Insects are poikilothermic- do not have mechanism to regulate body temperature which
depends on environmental conditions
➢ Nocturnal – night active insects. eg. – Noctuids and other moths
➢ Diurnal – insects that active during the day time. eg. Butterflies, honey bees
➢ Crepuscular - Some insects are active during dawn and dusk. eg. Mosquitoes
➢ Integrated pest Management (FAO) - a pest management system- considering
population dynamics of the pest and its associated environment- utilizes all suitable
management methods – to maintain pest population < EIL
➢ General equilibrium position (GEP) - The average density of a population over a long
period of time, in the absence of permanent environmental changes
➢ Economic threshold level (ETL) - Population density at which control measure should
be implemented to prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the ETL- Provides
sufficient time for control measures. [Always ETL < EIL]
➢ Economic injury level (EIL) - The lowest population density that will cause economic
damage
➢ Damage boundary (DB) - The measurable lowest level of damage
Categories of insect pest
Category Criteria Examples
Based on occurrence
1. Regular pest occur more frequently, close Cardamom capsule borer, Brinjal shoot
association with the crop and fruit borer, Chilli and cardamom
thrips, Codling moth, Mango nut weevil
2. Occasional pest Occurs infrequently, no close Mango stem borer, Castor slug, Rice
association with crop caseworm, Rice BPH
3. Seasonal pest Occurs during a particular season Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut,
every year Mango hoppers
4. Persistent pest Occur throughout the year and is Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava
difficult to control
5. Sporadic pest occurs in isolated localities during Coconut slug caterpillar, Sugarcane
some period, GEP < EIL pyrilla, White grub, Hairy caterpillar
Based on level of infestation
6. Epidemic pest Sudden outbreak in a severe form in a BPH in Tanjore, RHC in Madurai,
region at a particular time Pollachi
7. Endemic pest Occur in a low level in few pockets, Rice gall midge in Madurai, Mango
regularly and confined to particular area hoppers in Periyakulam
Based on ETL and EIL
8. Major pest GEP lies very close to EIL, can be Cotton jassid, Rice stem borer
managed by repeated sprays (cause
>10% economic damage)
9. Minor pest Usually GEP < EIL (cause >10% Rice hispa, Ash weevils
economic damage)
10. Key pest Always GEP > EIL, persistent pests, Cotton bollworm, Diamond back
environment must be changed to bring moth
GEP below EIL
11. Potential pest Not a pest at present, GEP < EIL Spodoptera litura on cotton, wheat
If environment changed may cause armyworm
economic
4. Reasons for pest outbreak

o Deforestation and bringing under cultivation
o Destruction of natural enemies
o Intensive and Extensive cultivation- monoculturing
o Introduction of new crop varieties - eg. Succulent, dwarf rice varieties favour leaf folder,
Combodia cotton favours stem weevil and spotted bollworm, Hybrid sorghum (CSH 1)
and cumbu (HB1) favour shoot flies and gall midges
o Improved agronomic practices - Increased N fertilizer led to high leaf folder incidence
on rice and Closer planting favours BPH and leaf folder in rice
o Accidental introduction of exotic pests - e.g. Diamondback moth on cauliflower
(Plutella xylostella), Wooly aphid - Eriosoma lanigerum on apple
o Large scale storage of food grains - for storage insect pests
o Resurgence - Deltamethrin, Quinalphos, Phorate - Resurgence of BPH in rice; Synthetic
pyrethroids- increases Whiteflies in cotton and Carbofuran- leaf folder resurgence in rice
5. Examples for Insect diapause

Egg diapauses
o Silkworms - Bombyx mori
Larval diapauses
o Rice gall midge - Orseolia oryzae
o Cotton pink boll worm - Pectinophora gossypiella
o Cotton leaf folder - Sylepta derogata
Pupal diapauses
o Coconut white grub - Holotrachia consanguinea
o Red hairy caterpillar - Amsacta albistriga
o Sesame sphingid - Acherontia styx
Adult diapause
o Coconut white grub - Holotrachia consanguinea
o Mango nut weevil - Sternochetes mangiferae
o Mango hopper - Idioscopes spp.
SURVEY AND SURVEILLANCE OF INSECT PESTS AND FORECASTING

1. Pest monitoring
o Monitoring phytophagous insects and their natural enemies is a fundamental tool in IPM
- for taking management decision
o Monitoring - estimation of changes in insect distribution and abundance
- information about insects, life history
- influence of biotic and abiotic factors on pest population
2. Pest surveillance - constant watch on the population dynamics of pests - its incidence - damage
on each crop - fixed intervals - to forewarn the farmers to take up timely crop protection measures.
3. Three basic components of pest surveillance

the level of incidence of the pest species
Determination of the loss caused by the incidence
the economic benefits, the control will provide
4. Pest Forecasting and outbreak based on information obtained from pest surveillance
It is useful to predict the suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection
5. Types of pest forecasting

a. Short term forecasting - Based on 1 or 2 seasons
b. Long term forecasting - Based on affect of weather parameters on pest
6. Objectives of Pest Surveillance

o to know existing and new pest species
o to assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
o to study the influence of weather parameters on pest
o to study changing pest status (Minor to major)
o to assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
o effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest
7. Survey
o To study the abundance of a pest species
o Two types of survey - Roving survey and fixed plot survey
o Roving survey: Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots
representing larger area in short period - provides information on pest level over large area
o Fixed plot survey: Assessment of pest population/ damage from a fixed plot selected in a
field recorded periodically from sowing till harvest.
o Qualitative survey: For detection of pest; Quantitative survey - for enumeration of
pest
8. Sampling Techniques
o Absolute sampling- To count all the pests occurring in a plot
o Relative sampling- To measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared
over time and space e.g. Light trap, Pheromone trap
9. Methods of sampling
o In situ counts - Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy
o Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and counting
o Netting- Use of sweep net for hoppers, odonates, grasshopper
o Norcotised collection - Quick moving insects anaesthesised and counter
o Trapping
- Light trap - Positively phototropic insects
- Pheromone trap - Species specific
- Sticky trap - Sucking insects
- Bait trap - Sorghum shootfly - Fishmeal trap
- Emergence trap - For soil insects
- Water trap – BPH, GLH
o Crop samples- Plant parts removed and pest counted e.g. Bollworms
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

1. CULTURAL CONTROL
Manipulation of cultural practices to the disadvantage of pests.
S. No. Techniques Pest can be managed
1. Puddling Rice mealy bug
2. Trimming and plastering Rice grass hopper
3. Pest free seed material Potato tuber moth
4. High seed rate Sorghum shootfly
5. Rogue space planting Rice brown planthopper
6. Earthing up Sugarcane whitefly
7. Detrashing Sugarcane whitefly
8. Destruction of weed hosts Citrus fruit sucking moth
9. Destruction of alternate host Cotton whitefly
10. Flooding Rice armyworm
11. Trash mulching Sugarcane early shoot borer
12. Pruning / topping Rice stem borer
13. Intercropping Sorghum stem borer
14. Trap cropping Diamond back moth
15. Water management Brown planthopper
16. Judicious application of fertilizers Rice leaf folder
17. Synchronized sowing : Dilution of pest (eg) Rice, Cotton
infestation
18. Crop rotation Breaks insect life cycle
2. PHYSICAL CONTROL
Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimise (or) prevent pest
problems. Use of physical forces like temperature, moisture, etc. in managing the insect pests.
A. Manipulation of temperature
o Sun drying the seeds to kill the eggs of stored product pests.
o Hot water treatment (50-55oC for 15 min) against rice white tip nematode.
o Flame throwers against locusts.
o Burning torch against hairy caterpillars.
o Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruitflies (1-2oC for 12-20 days).
B. Manipulation of moisture
o Alternate drying and wetting rice fields against BPH.
o Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level) affects insect development.
C. Manipulation of light
o Treating the grains for storage using IR light to kill insects (eg.) IR seed treatment unit
o Providing light in storage go downs as the lighting reduces the fertility of Indian meal
moth
D. Manipulation of air
o Increasing the CO2 concentration in controlled atmosphere of stored grains to cause
asphyxiation in stored product pests.
E. Use of irradiation
o Gamma irradiation from Co60 is used to sterilize the insects in laboratory which compete
with the fertile males for mating when released in natural condition. (eg.) cattle screw
worm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax control in Curacao Island by E. F. Knipling.
F. Use of greasing material

o Pulses with vegetable oils to prevent the oviposition and the egg hatching by bruchids
G. Use of visible radiation

o Yellow colour preferred by aphids, cotton whitefly: yellow sticky traps.
H. Use of Abrasive dusts

o Red earth treatment to red gram: Injury to the insect wax layer of storage insect pests
o Activated clay : Injury to the wax layer resulting in loss of moisture leading to death. It is
used against stored product pests
o Drie-Die : This is a porous finely divided silica gel used against storage insects
3. MECHANICAL CONTROL
Use of mechanical devices or manual forces for destruction or exclusion of pests.
A. Mechanical destruction : Life stages are killed by manual (or) mechanical force.
o Hand picking the caterpillars
o Beating: Swatting housefly and mosquito
o Sieving and winnowing: Red flour beetle (sieving) rice weevil (winnowing)
o Shaking the plants: Passing rope across rice field to dislodge caseworm and shaking neem
tree to dislodge June beetles
o Hooking: Iron hook is used against adult rhinoceros beetle
o Crushing: Bed bugs and lice
o Combing: Delousing method for Head louse
o Brushing: Woolen fabrics for clothes moth, carper beetle.
B. Mechanical force
o Entoletter: Centrifugal force - breaks infested kernels - kill insect stages - whole grains
unaffected - storage pests.
o Hopper dozer: Kill nymphs of locusts by hording into trenches and filled with soil.
o Tillage implements: Soil borne insects, red hairy caterpillar.
o Mechnical traps: Rat traps of various shapes like box trap, back break trap, wonder trap,
Tanjore bow trap.
C. Mechanical exclusion- Mechanical barriers prevent access of pests to hosts

o Wrapping the fruits: Covering with polythene bag against pomegrante fruit borer.
o Banding: Banding with grease or polythene sheets - Mango mealybug.
o Netting: Mosquitoes, vector control in green house.
o Trenching: Trapping marching larvae of red hairy catepiller.
o Sand barrier: Protecting stored grains with a layer of sand on the top.
o Water barrier: Ant pans for ant control.
o Tin barrier: Coconut trees protected with tin band to prevent rat damage.
o Electric fencing: Low voltage electric fences against rats.
Appliances used in controlling the pests

o Light traps: Most positively phototrophic insects are attracted towards light in night
o Incandescent light trap: small amount of ultraviolet, considerable visible especially rich
in yellow and red
o Mercury vapour lamp light trap: They produce primarily ultraviolet, blue and green
radiation with little red. (eg.) Robinson trap
o Black light trap: Flying insects are attracted and when they come in contact with electric
grids, become electrocuted and killed. Eg Pest-O-Flash, Keet-O-Flash
o Pheromone trap: Synthetic sex pheromones are placed in traps to attract males.
o Yellow sticky trap: Cotton whitefly, aphids, thrips prefer yellow colour. Yellow colour is
painted on tin boxes and sticky material like castor oil / vaseline is smeared on the surface
o Bait trap: Attractants placed in traps are used to attract the insect and kill them. (eg.)
Fishmeal trap- to attract sorghum shootfly using Moistened fish meal and DDVP
o Probe trap: Probe trap is used by keeping them under grain surface to trap stored product
insect
o Emergence trap: The adults of many insects which pupate in the soil can be trapped by
using suitable covers over the ground.
4. HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (HPR)

‘Those characters that enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recove'r from attacks of insects
under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same species’
A. Based on number of genes

o Monogenic resistance: Controlled by single gene. Easy to incorporate into plants by
breeding. Easy to break
o Oligogenic resistance: Controlled by few genes
o Polygenic resistance: Controlled by many genes
o Major gene resistance: Controlled by one or few major genes (vertical resistance)
o Minor gene resistance: Controlled by many minor genes. Also called horizontal
resistance
B. Based on biotype reaction
o Vertical resistance: Effective against specific biotypes (specific resistance)
o Horizontal resistance: Effective against all the known biotypes (Non specific resistance)
C. Based on population/Line concept

o Pureline resistance: Exhibited by liens which are phenotypically and genetically similar
o Multiline resistance: Exhibited by lines which are phenotypically similar but
genotypically dissimilar
D. Miscellaneous categories
o Cross resistance: Variety with resistance incorporated against a primary pest, confers
resistance to another insect
o Multiple resistance: Resistance incorporated in a variety against different environmental
stresses like insects, diseases, nematodes, heat, drought, cold, etc.
Mechanisms of host plant resistance

1.Antixenosis (non-preferred morphological characters for feeding, oviposition or shelter)
o Trichomes in cotton - resistant to whitefly
o Wax bloom on crucifer leaves - deter feeding by DBM
o Plant shape and colour also play a role in non preference
o Open panicle of sorghum - Supports less Helicoverpa
2.Antibiosis - (Adverse effect of the host plant on survival, development and

reproduction of insects)
Physical factors in antibiosis - thick cuticle, glandular hairs, silica deposits, tight leaf sheath
Chemical factors in antibiosis

S. No Chemicals factors of antibiosis Imparts resistance against
1. DIMBOA Against European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis
2. Gossypol (Polyphenol) Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm)
3. Sinigrin Aphids, Myzus persicae
4. Cucurbitacin Cucurbit fruit flies
5. Salicylic acid Rice stem borer
3. Tolerance- Ability of host plant to withstand insect population

o Tolerant varieties have high ETL - require less insecticide
o Apply less selection pressure on pests. Biotype development is less
Examples for HPR in IPM

o Predatory activity of mirid bug Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on BPH was more on a resistant
rice variety IR 36 than susceptible variety IR 8
o Insects feeding on resistant varieties are more susceptible to virus disease (NPV)
Examples of resistant varieties in major crops

Crop Insect Pest Resistant varieties
Rice Yellow stem borer TKN 6, Paiyur 1
Brown planthopper (BPH) CO 42, IR 36, IR 64
Green leaf hopper (GLH) IR 50, Ptb 2, CO 46
Sugarcane Early shoot borer (ESB) CO 312, CO 421, CO 661,
Internode borer CO 975, CO 7304
Top shoot borer CO 745, CO 6515
Cotton American bollworm Abhadita
Spotted bollworm Deltapine
Stem weevil MCU 3, Supriya
Leaf hopper MCU 5, K 7, K 8
Sorghum Earhead bug K tall
Jasmine Eriophyid mite Pari Mullai
Apple Apple wooly aphid Golden delicious, Northern spy
Bhendi Whiteflies Parbhani kranti
5. LEGAL CONTROL METHODS

Preventing the entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal pest in a country or
area and eradication or suppression of the pests established in a limited area through compulsory
legislation or enactment
1. Pests Accidentally Introduced Into India
o Pink bollworm - Pectinophora gossypiella
o Cotton cushion scale - Icerya purchasi
o Wooly aphid of apple - Aphelinus mali
o SanJose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
o Potato tuber moth - Gnorimoschima operculella
o Subabul psyllid - Heteropsylla cubana
o Spinalling whitefly - Aleyrodicus disperses
o Cyst (Golden) nematode of potato - Globodera sp.
o Bunchytop disease of banana
o Giant african snail - Acatina fullica
2. Foreign Pests From Which India is Free
Mediterranean fruitfly - Ceratitis capitata, Grapeavine phylloxera, Cotton boll weevil -
Anthonomos grandis and Codling moth of apple - Lasperysia pomonella
Quarantine - Isolation to prevent spreading of infection
3. Plant Quarantine -Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and
between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and
diseases in areas where they do not exist
4. Pest Legislations
o 1905 - ‘Federal Insect Pest Act’ - first Quarantine act against SanJose scale
o 1912 - ‘US Plant Quarantine Act’
o 1914 - ‘Destructive Insects and Pests Act’ of India (DIPA)
o 1919 - ‘Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act’
o 1968 - ‘The Insecticides Act’
5. Different Classes of Quarantine

5.1 Foreign Quarantine (Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pests, diseases and
weeds from foreign countries)
- Plant quarantine inspection and treatments at sea ports of Mumbai, Kolkata, Cochin,
Chennai and Visakapattinam and airports of Amritsar, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and
New Delhi
- Import by post parcel prohibited except by scientists
- Import of plant materials prohibited or restricted
- Import permits required for importation of plant material
- Phytosanitary certificate from the country of origin is required
Phytosanitary certificate is issued by State Entomologist and Pathologists to the effect that the
plant or seed material is free from any pest or disease
Restriction imposed on the importation of

i. Sugarcane setts - to prevent West Indies sugar weevil
ii. Coffee seeds - to prevent coffee berry borer
iii.Cotton seeds - to prevent cotton boll weevil
a. Export of pepper, cardamom and tamarind restricted
b. In 1946, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Government of India
established - for inspection of export and import of agricultural commodities.
5.2. Domestic quarantine (within different parts of country)

- Flutted scale Icerya puchasi noticed in Nilgiris and Kodaikanal in 1943 in Wattle trees.
Quarantine stations at Mettupalayam and Gudalur for Nilgiris and Shenbaganur for
Kodaikanal to prevent spread of flutted scale in TN.
- Preventing movement of Banana from Palani hills to prevent Bunchy top spread
5.3. Legislation to take up effective measures to prevent spread of established pests

- Example: Cotton stem weevil, Groundnut RHC, Coffee stem borer, Coconut black
headed caterpillar (BHC), Sugarcane top borer.
i. Stem weevil of cotton (Combodia cotton, 1913)
- Previous crop to be removed before Aug.1
- Next crop to be sown not before Sep. 1 to keep land free of cotton for sometime
ii. RHC of groundnut (1930)
- Collection of pupae in summer ploughing
- Putting light traps and bonfires
- Hand picking of egg and larvae
- Spread leaves in field, trench, collect and destroy
iii. Stem borer of coffee (1946)

- This act is still in force in Salem, Coimbatore, Madurai and Nilgiris
- All infested plants to be removed and destroyed by 15th December every year
- Swabbing with wettable powder (Carbaryl) on stem and branch
6. THE INSECTICIDES ACT, 1968 (Insecticides Rule, 1971)

Statutory bodies
(i) Central Insecticides Board (CIB) (28 members)
Chairman (CIB) - Director General of Health Services
(ii) Registration Committee (RC) (5 members)
Chairman (RC) - Deputy Director General, Crop Sciences, ICAR
Salient features of the insecticides act (1968)
- Compulsory registration with CIB (Central level)
- Licence for manufacture, formulation and sale at state level
- RC to lookafter registration aspects of insecticides
Role of Plant Quarantine in the Export of Agricultural Commodities
- International Plant Protection Convention (1951) of FAO, UN.
- Article V of the convention makes it mandatory for member countries to issue
Phytosanitory certificate (PSC)
6. SEMIOCHEMICALS IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

o Semiochemicals- substances that mediate communication between organisms
o Semiochemicals are classified into Pheromones (intraspecific semiochemicals) and
Allelochemics (interspecific semiochemicals)
I. Pheromones
 Chemicals secreted into the external environment by an animal -elicit a specific reaction in
a receiving individual of the same species.
 Pheromones are exocrine in origin (i.e. secreted outside the body). Also called as
ectohormones
 In 1959, German chemists Karlson and Butenandt isolated and identified the first
pheromone, a sex attractant from silkworm moths. They coined the term pheromone.
 Based on the responses elicited pheromones can be classified into 2 groups
- Primer pheromones: They trigger off a chain of physiological changes in the
recipient without any immediate change in the behaviour.
- Releaser pheromones: These pheromones produce an immediate change in the
behaviour of the recipient. They can be successfully used in pest management
programmes. Releaser pheromones subdivided as follows.
1. Sex pheromones
• Released by one sex only and trigger behaviour patterns in the other sex that facilitate in
mating. They are most commonly released by females but may be released by males also.
• Sex pheromone producing male insects are Cotton boll weevil- Anthonomas grandis,
Cabbage looper- Trichoplusia ni and Mediterranean fruitfly- Ceratitis capitata
• In Lepidoptera, sex pheromonal system is highly evolved.
• In Lepidoptera they are produced by eversible glands at the tip of the abdomen of the
females
• Female sex pheromones are usually received by olfactory sensillae on male antennae
• Butenandt et al. (1959) isolated 12mg of pheromone from the abdomen of half a million
virgin females of silkworm. They named the pheromene as Bombykol. The chemical
name is 10, 12 – hexadeca dienol.
Examples of female sex pheromones identified in insects

Sl. No. Name of the Insect Pheromone
1. Silkworm, Bombyx mori Bombykol
2. Gypsy moth, Porthesia dispar Gyplure, disparlure
3. Pink bollworm ,Pectinophora gossypiella Gossyplure
4. Cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni Looplure
5. Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura Spodolure, litlure
6. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera Helilure
7. Honey bee queen, Apis sp. Queen’s substance
• Multi-component pheromone system

- If the pheromone of an insect is composed of only one chemical compound-
monocomponent pheromone system
- Pheromones of some insects contain more than one chemical compound. In this case we
call it as multi-component pheromone system
- The sex pheromone of two different species may contain same chemical compounds but
the ratio of the compounds may vary. This brings about species specificity
• Pest Management with Sex Pheromones
- Synthetic analogues of insect sex pheromones used in pest management in 3 different ways
a) In sampling and detection (Monitoring)
b) To attract and kill (Mass trapping)
c) To disrupt mating (Confusion or Decoy method)
2. Aggregation pheromone
- Substance produced by one sex will attract both sexes together for feeding and mating
- Eg. Synthetic analogue- Ferrulure- attract Red palm weevil and Rhinolure – attract coconut
Rhinoceros beetle
3. Alarm pheromone and trial marking pheromone
II. Allelochemicals
Non nutrient substances originating from one organism affect the behaviour and
physiology of other species
➢ Allomone- Benefit to releaser
➢ Kairomone - Benefit to the receiver
➢ Synomone - benefit to both releaser and receiver
➢ Apneuomone - Substance emitted by non living material attract an organism but detrimental
to the another organism living on that material
7. INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS (IGRs)
o Compounds interfere with the growth, development and metamorphosis of insects- IGR
o IGRs include synthetic analogues of insect hormones such as ecdysoids and juvenoids and
non-hormonal compounds such as precocenes (Anti JH) and chitin synthesis inhibitors.
o Natural hormones of insects
1. Brain hormone (activation hormone (AH))

o BH is secreted by neuro secretory cells (NSC) of central nervous system (CNS)
o It activate the corpora allata to produce juvenile hormone (JH).
2. Juvenile hormone (JH):
o It is secreted by corpora allata
o Their role is to keep the larva in juvenile condition.
o JH I, JH II, JH III and JH IV have been identified in different groups of insects
o The concentration of JH decreases as the larva grows and reaches pupal stage.
o JH I, II and IV are found in larva while JH III is found in adult insects - important for
development of ovary in adult females
3. Ecdysone (Moulting hormone (MH))
o It is a steroid and is secreted by Prothoracic Glands (PTG)
o Moulting in insects is brought about only in the presence of ecdysone
o Ecdysone level decreases and is altogether absent in adult insects.
IGRs used in Pest management

a) Ecdysoids
o Synthetic analogues of natural ecdysone. When applied in insects, kill them by formation
of defective cuticle resulting in integument lacking scales or wax layer
b) Juvenoids (JH mimics)
o Synthetic analogues of Juvenile Hormone (JH). They are most promising as hormonal
insecticides. JH mimics were first identified by Williams and Slama (1966) as paper
factor’ or ‘juvabione’ from the wood pulp of balsam fir tree (Abies balsamea) against
Pyrrhocoris bug
o Juvenoids have anti-metamorphic effect on immature stages of insect.
o Juvenoids are larvicidal and ovicidal in action and they disrupt diapause and inhibit
embryogenesis in insects
c) Anti JH or Precocenes
o They act by destroying corpora allata and preventing JH synthesis. Eg. EMD, FMev, and
PB (Piperonyl Butoxide)
d) Chitin Synthesis inhibitors

o Benzoyl phenyl ureas - have the ability of inhibiting chitin synthesis in vivo by blocking
the activity of the enzyme chitin synthetase
o Two important compounds in this category are Diflubenzuron (Dimilin) and Buprofezin
The effects they produce on insects include- disruption of moulting, displacement of
mandibles and labrum and ovicidal effect
❖ IGRS from Neem: azadirachtin from leaf and seed extracts of neem
8. ANTIFEEDANTS
They inhibit feeding in insects when applied on the foliage (food) without impairing their
appetite and gustatory receptors or driving (repelling) them away from the food. The insect slowly
dies due to starvation.
1. Groups of antifeedants
i. Triazenes: Eg. AC 24055 inhibit feeding of caterpillars, cockroaches and beetles
ii. Organotins- Triphenyl tin acetate against Colarado potato beetle and caterpillars
iii. Carbamates- Baygon is a systemic antifeedants against cotton boll weevil
iv. Botanicals
a) Pyrethrum: Extracted from flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium acts as
antifeedants at low doses against biting fly, Glossina sp.
b) Neem: Extracted from leaves and fruits of neem (Azadirachta indica) is an
antifeedant against many chewing pests and desert locust
c) Apple factor: Phlorizin is extracted from apple which is effective against non-apple
feeding aphids
d) Solanum alkaloids: Leptine, tomatine and solanine are alkaloids extracted from
Solanum plants and are antifeedants to leaf hoppers
9. INSECT ATTRACTANTS
Chemicals that cause insects to make oriented movements towards their source are called
insect attractants. They influence both gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) receptors.
1. Types of Attractants
▪ Pheromones
▪ Food lures : Chemical present in plants that attract insect for feeding
Examples of natural and synthetic food lures
Insects Lure
Natural
Pests of cruciferae Isothiocyanates from seeds of cruciferae
Onion fly (Hylemya antiqua) Propylmercaptan from onions
Bark beetle Terpenes from barks
Housefly Sugar and molasses
Synthetic (Parapheromones)
Oriental fruitfly (Bactrocera dorsalis) Methyl eugenol- used in Male annihiliation
technique
Melon fruitfly (Bactrocera cucurbitae) Cuelure
Mediterranean fruitfly (Ceratitis capitata) Trimedlure
2. Use of Attractants in IPM

a) Sampling and monitoring pest population
b) Luring pests to insecticide coated traps or poison baits
3. Examples of poison baits

• For biting insects: Moistened Bran + molasses + insecticides
• For sucking insects : Sugar solution + insecticide
• For fruitflies: Trimedlure/ Cuelure/ Methyl eugenol + insecticides
• For sweet-loving ants : Thallous sulphate + sugar + honey + glycerine + water
• For meat loving ants : Thallous sulphate + peanut butter
10. INSECT REPELLENTS

Chemicals that induce avoiding (oriented) movements in insects away from their source
are called repellents
I. Types of repellents
1. Physical repellents
a) Contact stimuli repellents: Substances like wax or oil when applied on leaf surface
changes physical texture of leaf which are disagreeable to insects
b) Auditory repellents: Amplified sound is helpful in repelling mosquitoes
c) Barrier repellents: Tar bands on trees and mosquito nets
2. Chemical repellents
a) Repellents of Plant origin: Essentials oils of Citronella, Camphor and cedarwood act as
repellents. Commercial mosquito repellent ‘Odomos’ uses citronella oil extracted from
lemongrass, Andrpogon pardus as repellent.
b) Synthetic repellents
List of important synthetic repellents
Insects Repellents
Mosquito, blood suckers Dimethyl pthalate
Wood feeders Pentachlorophenol
Fabric eaters Naphthalene or mothballs
Bees Smoke
Biorational control
o Controlling insects using chemicals that affect insect behaviour, growth or reproduction,
is called biorational control.
o Includes IGR, Chitin synthesis inhibitor, JH analogues, Anti JH, Pheromones, Attractant,
Repellent, Antifeedant, Sterile male release
11. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
o An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in its immature stage, killing the host in
the process of development and adults are free living
o Most of the parasitoids belong to Hymenoptera (90%) and Diptera (10%)
Important families of insect parasitoids and examples

Family Example Target Category
1. Order : HYMENOPTERA
Trichogrammatidae Trichogramma Many lepidopterous Egg parasitoid
chilonis pests
Scelionidae Telenomus remus Spodoptera litura Egg parasitoid
Braconidae Bracon brevicornis, O. arenosella Larval parasitoid
Chelonus blackburni Cotton spotted Egg larval parasitoid
bollworms, Earias spp.
Encyrtidae Capidosoma koehleri Potato tuber moth Egg larval parasitoid
Platygasteridae Platygaster oryzae Rice gall midge Larval parasitoid
Chalcididae Brachymeria O. arenosella Larval parasitoid
nephantidis
Bethylidae Goniozus nephantidis O. arenosella Larval parasitoid
Ichneumonidae Isotima javensis Sugarcane top borer Larval pupal parasitoid
Encyrtidae Acerophagous papaya Papaya mealy bug Nymphal adult
parasitoid
Aphelinidae Encarsia formosa Cotton whitefly Nymphal adult
parasitoid
Eulophidae Trichospilus pupivora O. arenosella Pupal parasitoids
Tetrastichus israeli O. arenosella Pupal parasitoids
2) Order : DIPTERA
Tachinidae Sturmiopsis inferens Sugarcane shoot borer Larval parasitoid
Chilo infuscatellus
Spoggosia bezziana O. arenosella Larval parasitoid
Eucelatoria bryani H. armigera Larval pupal parasitoid
3) Order : LEPIDOPTERA
Epiricanidae Epiricania Sugarcane leafhopper, Nymphal adult
melanoleuca Pyrilla perpusilla parasitoid
1. Kinds of parasitism
➢ Simple parasitism- Single attack of the parasitoid on the host irrespective of the number
of eggs laid. Eg. Parasierola nephantidis on O. arenosella
➢ Super parasitism- Many individuals of the same species of parasitoid attack a single host
Eg. Trichospilus pupivora on the pupae of O. arenosella
➢ Multiparasitism- Parasitism by different species of parasitoids on the same host at a time
Eg. Bethylids and braconids attacking on O. arenosella at the same time
➢ Hyperparasitism- Parasitoid attacking another parasitoid

Eg. Host Parasitoid Hyperparasitoid
Aphid Aphidius sp. Asaphes sp.
Mulberry silkworm Exorista bombysis Nesolynx thymus
➢ Endoparasitism- development of parasitoid within the host body internally.
Solitary (single parasitoid) or gregarious endoparasitism (many parasitoids
inside the host)- Eg. Aphelinus mali on apple wooly aphid
➢ Ectoparasitism- development of parasitoid externally on the host body.
Eg. Epiricarnia melanoleuca on sugarcane pyrilla
2. Important points in Biological control

o Eggs of rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica is used to mass multiply Trichogramma egg
cards
o The ratio used for parasitoid to the host is 1:6 (Each parasitoid 6 eggs are provided)
o Aphids and mealy bugs are used for mass culturing of lady bird beetles
o 1 cc = 16,000 to 18,000 eggs
o Parasitoids and predators may be used in Agriculture and IPM in three ways such as
Conservation, Introduction and Augmentation - (a) Inoculative release, (b) Inundative
release
o Biological control method can be integrated well with other methods namely cultural,
chemical methods and host plant resistance (except use of broad spectrum insecticides)
o Biological control is self perpetuating
o Pest resistance to Natural Enemies is not known
Important parasitoids on insect pests of crops
Types Parasitoid Dose Target insect species
Trichogramma 1 lakh/ ha @ 7 to Rice yellow stem borer
japonicum 9 release
Egg T. chilonis 1 lakh/ ha @ 7 to Rice leaf folder
parasitoid 9 release
15 cc/ ha.6 times Sugarcane inter node borer
@ 2.5 cc once in
15 days
T. brasiliensis 1.5 lakh/ ha Cotton American boll worm,
(weekly intervals) Cotton spotted boll worm
T. pretiosum - Helicoverpa armigera in
tomato
T. plutellae - Diamond back moth (DBM)
Trichgrammatoidea - Cotton pink boll worm
bactrae
Telenomus remus - Eggs of Spodoptera litura
Bracon brevicornis, 10 adults/ tree Larvae of Coconut black head
B. hebetor caterpillar (BHC)
Eriborus trochnteratus 800 adults/ acre Larvae of Coconut BHC
Larval Goniozus nephantidis 10 adults/ tree Larvae of Coconut BHC
parasitoids Campoletis chloridae - Larvae of Helicoverpa
armigera
Platygaster oryzae - Larvae of Rice gall midge
Spoggosia bezziana - Larvae of Coconut BHC
Sturmiopsis inferens 125 gravid Larvae of sugarcane inter node
females/ha borer
Cotesia plutellae - Larvae of Diamond back moth
Trichospilus pupivora 20 adults/ tree Pupae of Coconut Black
Tetrastichus Israeli - Headed Caterpillar
Pupal Tetrastichus howardii -
parasitoids Brachymeria nephantidis -
Xanthopimpla punctate
Aphelinus mali - Apple wooly aphid
Encarsia Formosa - Cotton whitefly
Nymphal Epiricarnea melanoleuca 5000 cocoons/ ha Sugarcane pyrilla
adult Acerophagous -
Encyrtidae
parasitoid papaya Papaya mealy bug, Paracoccus
Pesudleptomastix - marginatus
Mexicana
Anagyrus loeki -
3. Agricultually important predators

 A living organism throughout its life, kills its prey, and is usually larger than prey
 Requires more than one prey to complete its development
 1898 - A coccinellid beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was imported into India from
Australia and released against coffee green scale, Cocus viridis. Now it is effective
against mealybugs in South India.
 1920- Aphelinus mali introduced from England into India to control Woolly aphid on
Apple, Eriosoma lanigerum
 1929-31- Rodolia cardinalis imported into India (from USA) to control cottony cushion
scale, Icerya purchasi on Wattle trees
Important insect predators against Agricultural pests with examples

Order Predator Prey insect
Coleoptera- Lady Coccinella septumpunctata Aphids
bird beetles Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Papaya mealy bug, Cushiony Scales
C. transversalis Aphids
Cheilomenes sexmaculatus Aphids
Scymnus coccivora
Chilochorus nigritus Scales
Rodalia cardinalis Icerya purchasi
Chrysoperla spp. All soft body insects, eggs of many
Neuroptera lepidopterans
Micromus igrotus Sugarcane wooly aphid

Lepidoptera Dipha aphidivora Sugarcane wooly aphid
Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Rice hoppers
Hemiptera Platymeris laevicollis Coconut rhinoceros beetle
Eucantheconidia furcellata Red hairy caterpillar
Predatory Spider Lycosa pseudoannulata Rice BPH
Predatory Mite Phytoseiulus persimilis Red spider mite
4. Microbial Control
Management of insect by use of microorganisms like viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi,
rickettsia and nematodes
I. Viruses
o Viruses coming under family Baculoviridae cause disease in lepidoptera larvae. Two types
of viruses are common.
o NPV (Nucleopolyhedro virus) e.g. HaNPV (against Helicoverpa), SlNPV (against
Spodoptera litura) and marketed as Elcar
o GV (Granulovirus)- e.g. CiGV
o Mode of entry: The virus should be ingested to produce the disease. Due to alkaline gut
juice, the virions are liberated from the polyhedral coat which attack nuclei of cells of tissues
viz., fat body tracheal matrix, haemocytes, sarcolemma of muscles, neurilemma and nerve
cells of ganglion and brain.
o The dose of virus is expressed as larval equivalent (LE) - One LE is 6 x 109 POB
o One LE can be had from three fully grown up and virus infected larvae
o Symptoms- Dead larva hang from top of plant with prolegs attached (Tree top disease or
“Wipfelkrankeit”)
o Body becomes fragile and ruptures to release polyhedra (virus occlusion bodies)
II. Bacteria Entomogenous bacteria
Spore formers Non-spore formers

(eg) Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas spp.
Streptococcus spp.
Obligate Facultative
(eg) Bacillus popillae Crystelliferous Non- crystelliferous

(eg.) B. thuringiensis (eg.) B. cereus
i. Spore forming (Facultative, Crystelliferous)

- They produce spores and also toxin (endotoxin).
- The endotoxin paralyses gut when ingested e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis effective against
lepidopteran.
- Commercial products - Delfin, Dipel, Thuricide. Eg. Bt var kurstaki against lepidopterans
ii. Spore-forming (Obligate)
- e.g. Bacillus popilliae attacking beetles, produce ‘milky disease’
- Commercial product - ‘Doom’ against ‘white grubs’
iii. Non-spore forming - e.g. Serratia entomophila on grubs
o Mode of entry of bacteria: The bacteria should be ingested to produce the disease. Due to
alkaline gut juice, endospore release delta endo toxins which create pore on mid gut walls
and brought the death of insect by altering the homeostasis
III. Fungi
o Green muscardine fungus- Metarhizium anisopliae (marketed as Biomax) against coconut
rhinoceros beetle
o White muscardine fungus - Beaveria bassiana against lepidopteran larvae
o White halo fungus - Verticillium lecanii on coffee green scale.
o Hirsutella thompsoni (Mycar) on Red spider mite
IV. Nematodes
o Infective juveniles enter in to host insect and cause death of insect either alone or with the
help of symbiotic bacteria
o Steinernema spp., Heterorhabtidis spp. on lepidopteran larvae
o Romanomermis culicivorax against mosquitoes
4. Insect Weed killers
• Insects destroy weeds by killing vital plant parts and by creating favourable condition to
plant pathogens
• Desirable characters of weed killers
✓ Should be self propagater and an internal feeder on weeds
✓ Should not be a a pest on crops
✓ Faster growth, rapid multiplication and reproduction
Examples for important insect weed killers

Order Family Weed killer Target weeds
Diptera Agromyzidae Ophiomyia lantannae Lantana camera
Lepidoptera Pyralidae Cactoblastis cactorum Prickly pear, Opuntia inermis
Dactylopis tomentosus Opuntia dilleni (in India)
Coleoptera Curculionidae Neochetina eichhorinae, Water hyacinth, Eichhornia
Neochetina bruchi crassipes (in Kerala and
Acari (mite) Oribatidae Orthogalumna terebrantis Karnataka)
Coleoptera Curculionidae Cyrtobhagus salviniae Salvinia molesta (in India)
Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Zygogramma bicolorata Parthenium hyterophorus (in
India)
Diptera Tephritidae Procecidochares utilis Crofton weed, Eupatorium
Other insect weed killers

o Aristalochia butterfly, Papilio aristalochiae on Aristalochia weed
o Calotropis butterfly, Dananus chrysippus on Calotropis
12. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

Transgenic plants
o Transgenic plants are plants which possess one or more additional genes
o This is achieved by cloning additional genes into the plant genome by genetic engineering
techniques
o Transgenic plants have been produced by addition of one or more following genes
o Refuge strategy (20%) - Planting of Bt cotton with non Bt cotton is followed in Bt cotton
cultivation to maintain susceptible population of target insect pest
o Eg. Bollguard I against H. armigera in cotton
o In India, Only transgenic plant for commercial cultivation is Bt cotton (from 2002
onwards). World’s largest cultivating transgenic plant - Soyben (Herbicide resistance)
o In India - Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) - authority for approving
GM crops
a. Bt endotoxin gene: The gram positive bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis produces a crystal toxin
called  (delta) endotoxin a stomach poison, kills the lepidopteran insects if consumed.
Transgenic Bt plants Target insect pests
1. Cotton Bollworms, S. litura
2. Maize European corn borer
3. Rice Leaf folder, stem borer
4. Tobacco, Tomato Cut worms
5. Potato, Egg plant Colarado potato beetle
b. Protease inhibitors (PI) gene

▪ Insects have proteases in their gut which are enzymes helping in digestion of protein.
Protease inhibitors are substances inhibit the proteases and affect digestion in insects.
▪ e.g. Cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI) is a PI isolated from cowpea and cloned into tobacco
which is resistant to Heliothis virescens
c. -Amylase inhibitor gene
▪ -Amylase is a digestive enzyme present in insects for digestion of carbohydrate
▪ Transgenic tobacco and tomato expressing -amylase inhibitor have been produced which
are resistant to Lepidopteran pests
d. Lectins genes
▪ Lectins are proteins that bind to carbohydrates. When insect feed on lectins, it binds to
chitin in peritrophic membrane of midgut and prevents uptake of nutrients.
▪ e.g. Transgenic tobacco containing pea lectin gene is resistant to H. virescens
e. Enzyme genes
▪ Chitinase enzyme gene, and cholesterol oxidase gene have been cloned into plants and
these show insecticidal properties
Pyramiding of genes
▪ Engineering transgenic crops with more than one gene to get multi-mechanistic resistance
PRODUCTIVE INSECTS
o Silk worm- The silk worm filament secreted from the salivary gland of the larva is used
in producing silk
o Honey bee- It provides honey and many other byproducts like bees wax and royal jelly
o Lac insects- The secretion from the body of these scale insects is called lac.
1. APICULTURE - HONEY BEES

The modern bee keeping became possible after discovery of movable frame hive (1851)
by Rerd. L.L. Langshoth. In India beekeeping was introduced in 1882 in Bengal.
Honey bee species (according to the size)
1. The rock bee, Apis dorsata (Apidae)
2. The European or Italian bee, Apis mellifera (Apidae)
3. The Indian hive bee, Apis cerana indica (Apidae)
4. The little bee, Apis florae (Apidae)
5. Dammer bee or stingless bee, Melipona irridipennis (Meliporidae)
Differetiating characters of honey bees
Parameters A. dorsata A. mellifera A. cerana A. florea M.
indica irridipennis
Comb Open place In darkness In darkness Open place In dark areas
construction
Number of Single, Parallel, Parallel and Single, Honey pots
combs/ hive large comb multiple multiple small
combs combs comb
Domestication No, highly Yes Yes No Yes
ferrocious
Prone to - Less More - -
swarming and
absconding
Honey yield/ 36 kg 35 kg 5 kg 0.5 kg Around 100 g
year/ hive
Honey bee castes
❖ Queen- fertile (functional) female (heavily fed up with royal jelly), from fertilized eggs
❖ Worker- sterile (non functional) female (with light feeding of royal jelly and bee bred),
from fertilized eggs
❖ Drone- functional male insect, developed from unfertilized eggs
Characters Queen Worker Drone

Location of Lower side of the Surface of the hive, Surface of the hive, raised
cells (bottom) hive flat capping cappings
Nos/colony Only one; rarely few In thousands In hundreds
Biology
Egg period 3 days 3 days 3 days
Larval period 5 days 4 days 7 days
Pupal period 8 days 13 days 14 days
Adult longevity 3 years 3 months 2 months
Larval feed Royal jelly Royal jelly - 2 days Royal jelly –3 days; Royal
throughout Bee breed - 2 days jelly + Bee bread – 4 days
Bee breed: It is a mixture of honey and partially digested pollen

Duties of different castes
1. Queen
 Egg laying and leading out the swarm
 Lays up to 2000/day in Apis mellifera
 Lives for 3 years.
 The secretion from mandibular gland of the queen is called queen’s substance- prevent
development of ovary in workers and maintain the Colony cohesion
2. Drones – Fertilizing the queen
3. Workers - concentrate on both indoor and outdoor activities- life span is around 6 weeks
 I week : 1-3 days- Cleaning and incubating the brood cells
4-7 days- Feeding the larvae (Feeder bees)
 II week - Royal jelly and wax secretions
 III week - Role of house bees- Buarding, storing of food
 Day 22 – old age –Foragers - pollen and nectar collection
Honeybee communication
Honey bee caste Producing substance Gland responsible
Queen Queen substance Mandibular gland
Worker Venom Accessory gland – sting
Royal gelly Pharyngeal gland
Colony odour scent Vasanov gland of last abdominal gland
Wax for comb building Wax gland - 4 to 7 abdominal ventral segment
Alarm pheromone Sting and tarsal gland
Bee dances (response to food source)

 Round dance- used to indicate a short distance (< 50m in case of A. mellifera)
 Wag-tail dance- used to indicate long distance (> 50m in case of A. mellifera)
Important points in apiculture

✓ Bee pasturage/ Florage - Plants that yield pollen/nectar to bees
✓ Swarming- a natural method of colony multiplication- a part of the colony migrates to a
new site to make a new colony
✓ Foraging- collection of nectar and pollen by bees
✓ Specific gravity of pure honey = 1.25-1.44
✓ Fully ripened honey is rich in Levulose (41%) and Dextrose (35%)
 High ratio of Levulose/Dextose (L/D) - Less granulation
 High ratio of Dextrose/Water (D/W) - More granulation
✓ Stripping – process of opening of Lucerne flowers during pollination
✓ Good nectar plant sources-Tamarind, Moringa, Neem, Prosopis juliflora, Glyricidia,
Eucalyptus, Tribulus terrestris,Pungam
✓ Plants of good pollen sources- Sorghum, Sweet potato, Maize, Tobacco, Coconut, Varagu,
Ragi, Roses, Castor, Pomegranate, Date palm
✓ Plants which are good source of Pollen and Nectar- Banana, Peach, Citrus, Guava,
Apple, Sunflower, Pear, Mango, Plum
✓ A bee visits same species of plant for pollen/nectar collection until exhausted - Floral
fidelity
✓ Propolis- It is resinous substance of plants collected by bees for ceiling cracks and crevices
✓ Bees travel 2-3 km distance to collect pollen/nectar
✓ Rate of bee hive keeping in crops= 3/ha - Italian bee; 5/ha - Indian honey bee
Bee keeping appliances

Bee space: Indian bee – 7 to 9 mm and Italian bee -10 mm
➢ Bee hive
1. Bottom board
2. Brood chamber- rearing area of broods
3. Super chamber- To store honey
4. Hive cover
5. Frames- facilitates the hive construction
➢ Comb foundation sheet- a thin sheet of bee wax embossed with a pattern of hexagonal
cells of equal size to the base of natural brood cells on both sides to facilitate hive
construction
➢ Dummy division board- Wooden board placed inside the brood chamber to prevent the
bees from going beyond it
➢ Queen excluder – Placed between brood frames used to confine the queen to brood chamber
➢ Drone trap – Rectangular box with one side open placed at the bottom of box to collect
excess drone from the hive
➢ Queen gate- It is placed at the entrance of hive to prevent the escape of queen
➢ Queen cage – Made up of wire gauze and used for new queen introduction
➢ Queen cell protector – a cone shaped structure fits around the queen cell
➢ Pollen trap – to collect foraging pollen at the entrance itself
➢ Sugar feeder
➢ Smoker
➢ Decapping knife – used to remove the wax cappings of honey comb
➢ Honey extractor
Important pests of honeybees

1. Greater wax moth – Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Galleriidae) – feeds on comb wax
2. Lesser wax moth – Achroia grisella
3. Yellow banded hornet- Vespa cincta (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)
4. Bee hunter wasp- Philanthus ramakrishnae
5. Traceal mite – Acarapis woodi
 Causes ‘K’ winged condition of bees
 Bees are seen crawling in front of the hive
6. Varroa mite – Varroa jacobsoni
Important disease of honeybees

1. American foul brood – Bacillus larvae- Sunken capping of hive
2. European foul brood – Streptococcus pluton
3. Thai sac brood viral disease- Specific to Indian bees
4. Chalk brood and stone brood fungal diseases – Mummification of diseased larvae
2. SERICULTURE
Mulberry Silkworm – Bombyx mori, (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae)
Host: Mulberry – Morus alba (Moraceae)
Mulberry
➢ Varieties preferred
o Var. S36- chawki worms (more watery, quick growth and succulent with the
yield of 45t/ha)
o V 1 = Late age worms (Yield – 60 t/ha)
➢ Propagation of varieties by Stem cuttings
➢ Age of sapling in the nursery (raised nursery bed systems) - 90 to 120 days
➢ Spacing: Pit system (45x45x45 cm), Row system (60 x 60 cm), Paired row system(105/75 x
90 cm)
➢ Fertilizers (NPK): Pit system (300:120:120 kg/ ha), Row system (280:120:120 kg/ ha)
➢ Pruning: 8 time harvest schedule and 12 time harvest schedule
Pest and diseases of mulberry

 Root rot disease is the major problem for mulberry cultivation
 Tukra disease of mulberry is by Pink mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus
 Papaya mealy bug, Paracoccus marginatus is the recent problem in mulberry
 Mulberry leaf webber, Diaphania pulverulentalis is often serious in mulberry cultivation
 Spraying dichlorvos 76 WSC @ 1 to 2 ml/lit is recommended against insect pests. (Avoid
plucking of leaves for 15 days)
Silk worm - biology

1. Egg period – 10 days; I DFL – 350 eggs
2. Larva – 5 instars
 Chawki worms (I and II instars) – 10 days
 Late age worms (III, IV and V instars) – around 22 days
 Silk protein is Fibroin which is coated with another protein namely Sericin
 Silk is secreted from silk gland (modified labial gland), whereas maxillary gland acts as
salivary gland
3. Pupa- Silken cocoon from 22 day onwards
 Harvest of cocoon @ 25th day
 Total pupal period is around 10 days
4. Adult – Wings are atrophied
Silkworm breeds
✓ Multivoltine – eg. Pure Mysore (PM) – Yellow cocoon. (Yield- 60kg/ 100 DFL)
✓ Bivoltine – eg. CSR 2, CSR 4 – White cocoon
✓ Bivoltine hybrid – eg. CSR 2 x CSR (Yield – 65 to 75 Kg/ 100 DFL)
✓ Cross breed - PM x CSR 2 (Kolar Gold), PM x CSR 4, PM x NB4 D2. (Yield – 60 to 70
Kg/ 100 DFL). In India, over 95% of the commercial silk being produced is from
multivoltine female x bivoltine made parent (cross breed)
✓ Double hybrid – eg. (CSR 6 x CSR 26) X (CSR 2 x CSR 27) = Double hybrid 1
Silkworm rearing
➢ Chawki rearing
o 18 to 25 kg of leaves required per 50 DFL (Top 3 leaves of plant is preferred
o Leaf moisture should be 80 to 85 %
➢ Late age worms rearing = 500 kg leaves are required per 50 DFL with a rearing space of 1m2/
DFL; Leaf moisture – 75 to 80%
➢ 2 types: shoot rearing method (mulberry shoots), Tray rearing method (Mulberry leaves
➢ Bed disinfectants: Lime 2%, Vigetha 2% (moulting care)
➢ Rearing room: temperature = 24 to 27oC and RH 80 to 85%
➢ Disinfectants for the rearing room and appliances: Formalin, Bleaching powder, Lime 2%,
Chlorine di oxide (ClO2) 2%, Formaldehyde and Formalin + KMnO4
➢ Different mountages like rotary mountage, bamboo mountage, Chandrika, Netrike et… are
used to facilitate cocoon spinning by larvae
➢ Silk is separated in Reeling unit
Pests of silk worm

1. Uzi fly – Exorista bombysis (Tachinidae)
o Black pepper like spots on larval body indicate its infestation and pupates in cracks
✓ Discard the affected larvae and clean culturing
✓ Uzi net in windows
✓ Uzi tablet – 2 tablet/ lit
✓ Spary uzicide (1% benzoic acid) @ 6 lit/ 100 DFL
✓ Important hyper parasitoid – Nesolynx thymus @ 1 lakh adult/ 100 DFL
2. Dermestes beetle – Dermestes ater (Dermestidae) – pest of cocoon storage room
3. Earwigs and Tribolium beetles feeds on pupae and stored cocoon
Important diseases
1. Virus disease - Grasserie
2. Bacterial disease
Flacherie – Chain like excreta, rupturing of body, oozing of black or brown fluid
3. Protozoan disease – Transovarial transmission
Pebrine – Nosema bombysis – Malformed adults, overlapping of eggs, malformed larvae;
protection by Mother moth examination and use of disinfectants
4. Muscardine – Fungal disease
Non mulberry sericulture

 Ericulture – Rearing of Eri silk worm (Philosamia ricini) Hosts: Castor, Tapioca, Papaya
 Muga silk worm – Ahimasa silk, Pride of India
 Tasar silk worm – Antheraea spp. Hosts: Terminalia arjuna, Ailanthus, Ber etc…
Sericulture institutes in india

▪ Central Sericulture Research and Training Institute, Mysore
▪ Central Silk Board – Bangalore
▪ Central Tasar Research Institute, Ranchi
PEST OF IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL CROPS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

1. RICE
Sucking pests
1. Thrips, Stenchaetothrips biformis (Thysanoptera : Thripidae)
Damage
o Affected leaves are yellow colour with brown tips
o The infestation invariably disappears after sharp showers
o Silvery streaks are seen on the leaves
o entire nursery may dry up.
o Eggs laid singly in the tissues of the tender leaves on the sides facing the stem.
2. Green leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)

Damage
o Affected plants become pale yellow in colour and get stunted in growth
o Both nymphs and adults suck the plant sap from the leaf and leaf sheath
o Plants are predisposed to fungal and bacterial infection through feeding and ovipositional
punctures.
o It transmits plant diseases such as dwarf, transitory yellowing, yellow dwarf and rice
tungro virus (Tungro is transmitted during short feeding period).
o Egg- Greenish transparent eggs are deposited in the midrib of leaf blade or sheath of rice
or green grass. They are laid in batches of 10 to 15 arranged in a single row.
o The insect is active during July to September
3. Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, (Hemiptera : Delphacidae)

Damage
o Hopper burn, in circular patches (phloem feeder)
o It also acts as vector of the virus diseases like grassy stunt and ragged stunt.
o Eggs are laid in a group of 2 to 12 in leaf sheath (near the plant base or in the ventral
midribs of leaf blades)
o Wing morphs: macropterous (long winged) and brachypterous (short winged)
o crowding during the nymphal stage and reduction in the quality and quantity of food, short
day length and low temperature, which favour macropterous forms
4. Whitebacked planthopper, Sogatella furcifera, (Hemiptera : Delphacidae)

o Damage: hopper burn appears uniformly in a rice field, whereas it appears as circular
patches in the case of BPH.
o Macropterous males and females and brachypterous females are commonly found in the
field
5. Mealy bug, Brevennia rehi, (Hemiptera : Pseudococcidae)

Damage
o Stunting, circular patches may be seen in the fields
o Soorai disease – stunting and affected plants with out any panicle
o The damage occurs from September
o In severe cases, yield may be reduced upto 50%
6. Earhead bug/ Gundhi bug, Leptocorisa acuta, (Hemiptera : Alydidae)

Damage
o Appearance of numerous brownish spots at the feeding sites / shrivelling of grains.
o Its presence in the field make strong musty smell
o Sucking of the milky sap from ear heads causes ill-filled/ partial filled and chaffy grains
o Serious infestation can reduce the yield by 50%
Borers
7. Paddy stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas, (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)
Damage: Dead heart and white ear head
o The incidence is mild in June to September, but intensified from Oct to Jan and Feb
o The caterpillar enters the stem and feeds on the growing shoot
Biology
Egg
o Each egg mass consists of 15-80 eggs and covered with buff coloured hairs
o They are laid mostly near the tip of the leaves
Larva
o Larvae enter in to the leaf sheath
o Deposition of silica in the epidermal layer of the stem and leaf sheath acts as an obstacle
to the first instar larvae
o Generally only one caterpillar is seen inside a tiller.
o The full-grown caterpillar measures about 20 mm, white or yellowish white in colour with
a conspicuous prothoracic shield.
Pupa: Pupation takes place inside the rice stem, straw or stubble.
Adult
o The female moth is bright yellowish brown with a black spot at the centre of the forewing
and a tuft of yellow hairs at the anal region
o The male is small in size and brownish
8. Paddy gall midge, Orseolia oryzae, (Diptera : Cecidomyiidae)

Damage
o The maggot bores into the growing point of the tiller and causes abnormal growth of the
leaf sheath- onion shoot, silver shoot or anaikomban (due to cecidogen, is responsible for
cell proliferation of the meristematic cells and gall formation.
o It is a pest in irrigated and wet season crop
9. Leaf folder/ roller: Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae)

o Leaves folded longitudinally or transversely with silk and scrapped patches
10. Swarming caterpillar: Spodoptera mauritia (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

o Affected plants with grazed appearance
o Damage is severe during July to September
11. Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)

o Plants stunted, caterpillars hanging on the leaf edges in a tubular case
12. Grass hoppers : Hieroglyphus banian (Large grasshopper) Oxya nitidula (Small grasshopper)
: Acrididae: Orthoptera
o The nymphs and adults nibble leaves and also earheads
o Leaves folded longitudinally and scrapped patches
13. Spiny beetle/ Rice hispa: Dicladispa armigera (Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae)

o White parallel line will be clear on the leaves
14. Whorl maggot: Hydrellia sasakii (Diptera : Ephydridae)

o Presence of feeding lesions in the lines and the infested plants become stunted
Minor pests
o Stripped bug, Tetroda histeroides, (Hemiptera : Pentatomidae)
o White leafhopper, Cofana spectra, (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae
o Zigzag leafhopper, Recilia dorsalis, (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)
o Black bug, Scotinophara lurida, (Hemiptera : Podopidae)
o Rice skipper: Pelopidas mathias (Lepidoptera : Hesperidae)
Pests ETL
2
Stem borer 2 egg masses/m or 2% white ear head or 10% dead hearts
Leaf folder 10% leaf damage at vegetative phase and 5% of flag leaf damage at
flowering
Gall midge 10% silver shoots
Whorl maggot 25% damaged leaves
Thrips 60 numbers in 12 passes or rolling of the first and second leaves in
10% of seedlings.
Brown plant hopper 1 hopper/ tiller in the absence of predatory spider and 2 hoppers
/tiller when spider is present at 1/hill.
Green leafhopper 60/25 net sweeps or 5/hill at vegetative stage or 10/hill at flowering
or 2/hill in tungro endemic area
Ear head bug 5 bugs/100 ear heads at flowering and 16 bugs/100 ear heads from
milky stage to grain maturity
Important management practices

Insect pests Management strategies
Stem borer ✓ Resistant varieties – Ratna, Jaya, TKM 6
✓ Clippping off seedling tip
✓ Egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum @ 5cc/ ha
✓ Spray Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki @ 1.0 kg/ha when the stem
borercrosses ETL.
✓ Spray any one of the following insecticides :
Fenthion 100 EC 500 ml/ha
Monocrotophos 36 SL 1000 ml/ha
Quinalphos 25 EC 1000 ml/ha
Leaffolder ✓ Resistant varieties – Akash, Cauveri
✓ Avaoid excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers, Light traps
✓ Release Trichogramma chilonis thrice @ 1,00,000/ha
✓ Spraying of Monocrotophos 36 SL - 1000 ml/ha; Quinalphos 25 EC -1000
ml/ha ; Dichlorvos 76 WSC - 250 ml/ha
✓ Neem seed kernel extract 5% 25 kg/ha
Gall midge ✓ Resistant varieties – MDU 3, Sakthi, Vikram
✓ Release Platygaster oryzae parasitized galls at 1/ 10 m2 on 10 days DAT
✓ Seedling dip with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC (0.02%) @ 10 DAT
✓ Spray any one of the following : Fenthion 100 EC - 500 ml/ha
✓ Fenitrothion 50 EC - 1000 ml/ha, Phosalone 35 EC -1500 ml/ha
✓ Quinalphos 25 EC - 1000 ml/ha
Brown ✓ Resistant varieties – Aruna, Ptb 33
planthopper ✓ Avoid closer planting and excessive use of nitrogen
✓ Control irrigation by intermittent draining once in 3 days
✓ Light traps during night or yellow pan traps during day time
✓ Natural enemies – Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Lycosa pseudoannulata
✓ Drain the water before use of insecticides and direct the spray towards the
base of the plants.
✓ Monocrotophos 36 SL - 1250 ml/ha, Phosalone 35 EC -1500 ml/ha
✓ Carbaryl 10 D - 25 kg/ha, Acephate 75 SP- 625 gm/ha, Carbofuran 3G
17.5 kg/ha, Dichlorvos 76 WSC - 350 ml/ ha, Neem oil 3% -15 lit/ha
Green ✓ Resistant varieties – IR 50, CR 1009
leafhopper ✓ Avoid nurseries near lamp posters
✓ Apply insecticides twice, 15 and 30 days after transplanting.
✓ Monocrotophos 36 SL - 1000 ml/ha, Fenthion 100 EC- 500 ml/ha
✓ The vegetation on the bunds should also be sprayed with the insecticides
✓ Light traps
Mealy bug ✓ Trimming of field bunds, Destroy affected plants
✓ Thorough puddling
✓ Fenitrothion 50 EC 1000 ml/ha, Phosalone 35 EC 1500 ml/ha,
✓ Dimethoate 30 EC - 500 ml/ha
Earhead ✓ Dust any one of the following at 25 kg/ha twice, the first during flowering
bug and second a week later : Quinalphos 1.5 D , Fenitrothion 2D, Carbaryl
10 D, Malathion 5 D
✓ Spray any one of the following twice as above
✓ Monocrotophos 36 SL - 500 ml/ha, Fenitrothion 50 EC - 1000 ml/ha,
✓ Fenthion 100 EC- 500 ml/ha, Malathion 50 EC - 500 ml/ha, NSKE 5%
Army ✓ Drain water from the nursery
worm ✓ Chlorpyriphos 20 EC- 80 ml
Thrips ✓ Monocrotophos 36 SL - 100ml/ 20 cents, 1lit/ ha

Caseworm ✓ Mix 250 ml of kerosene to the standing water in nursery
✓ Dislodge the cases by passing a rope and drain water
✓ Monocrotophos 36 SL - 40 ml, Quinalphos 25 EC- 80 ml
Rat ✓ Poison bait at 1 part zinc phosphide with 49 parts popped corn/rice/dry fish or
warfarin 0.5% 1 part with 19 parts of popped corn/rice/dry fish
✓ Bromodialone 0.25 w/w (1:49) at 0.005% - mix one part of bromodialone +
49 parts of bait
✓ Setting up of bird perches
2. SORGHUM
I. BORERS
1. Shoot fly: Atherigona soccata (Diptera: Muscidae)
Damage
o Dead heats or drying of central shoots
o Production of profuse side tillers in main plants.
o The infestation often goes as high as 60%.
o The high yielding hybrid varieties are severely attacked.
o In South India, heavy damage - October to December and also in summer
o ETL = 10% of dead heart or 1 egg/ plant
o Egg: cigar shaped, laid singly on the under surface of the leaf blade
o Pupates at the base of the stem or soil
Management
✓ Higher seed rate – 12.5 kg/ ha
✓ Fish meal trap – 12/ ha
✓ Seed pelleting with Chlorpyriphos 4ml/ kg or Monocrotophos – 4ml/ kg
✓ Spraying of Dimethoate – 500 ml/ ha
2. Stem borer: Chilo partellus: (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
Damage
o Presence of parallel bore unfolded leaves
o Dead hearts in the early stages and the damage is about 70 – 80%. ETL – 10% dead heart
Biology
o Egg are yellowish in colour, flat and oval, laid on the underside of the leaves, near the
midrib.
o Larva is dirty white with four longitudinal stripes on its dorsal surface
o Pupation takes place inside the stem.
o Adult: Male moth has pale brown forewings provided with dark brown scales forming a
dark area along the coastal margin. Hindwings are light straw light straw in colour. Female
possesses forewing of a lighter colour and nearly white hind wings
Management
✓ Intercropping with lab lab or cowpea @ 4:1ratio
✓ Destroy the stubbles, Light traps
✓ Mix Insecticides (Phorate- 8 kg/ ha or Carbofuran – 17 kg/ ha) with sand 25 kg and apply
in leaf whorls
✓ Foliar spray with Carbaryl – 1kg/ ha
3. Pink Stem borer : Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) - Presence of dead heart.
4. Shoot bug : Peregrinus maidis (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

o The mid rib of the leaves become red due to egg laying and may dry up subsequently.
5. Aphids: Rhopalosiphum maidis (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

o Nymphs and adults suck plant sap from the leaf, leaf sheath and inflorescence.
o Reproduction parthenogenetic
o Cloudy and humid weather favours reproduction.
6. Sorghum midge: Contarinia sorghicola (Diptera : Cecidomyidae)

o Earheads are devoid of grains and during severe attack, may appear blighted
o Puoal case protrude out of grains
o ETL – 5/ ear head
o Eggs are laid inside the glumes of closed or open flowers
Management
✓ Light traps, Proper threshing of ear heads
✓ Insecticides : Carbaryl 10 D, Malathion 4 D, @ 25 kg/ ha, Phosalone – 1000 ml/ ha
7. Gram caterpillar: Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

o Caterpillars feed on the grains- Chalkiness of grains
8. Earhead bug: Calocoris angustatus (Hemiptera: Miridae)

o On the developing grains small brownish spots will be visible
o In severe case, the grains - shriveled without maturing and ear heads appear uneven
o Eggs – Blue coloured, cigar shaped
o ETL – 10 bugs/ earhead
o Carbaryl 10 D or Malathion 5 D@ 25kg/ ha
3. MAIZE
1. Stem fly, Atherigona orientalis, (Diptera: Muscidae)
2. Corn worm/ Earworm, Helicoverpa armigera, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Damage on grains and presence of broken grains in the earhead
o Feeds on silk and developing grains.
3. Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Cutting of tender stem and defoliation.
4. Stem borer, Chilo partellus, (Lepidoptera : Crambidae)
5. Pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
6. Webworm, Cryptoblabes gnidiella, (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)
7. Cutworm, Mythimna separata, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
8. Aphid, Rhopalosiphum maidis, (Hemiptera : Aphididae)
9. Shoot bug, Peregrinus maidis, (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)
4. MINOR MILLETS
1. Pink borer, Sesamia inferens, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Deadheart (ETL – 10% dead heart)
o Larva congregate inside the leaf whorls and feed on the central leaves causing typical ‘pin
hole’ symptom; Pupa is present inside the stem
o Light traps, Carbaryl – 1 kg/ ha
2. White borer, Saluria inficita, (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae)

o Deadheart.
o Larva found at the base of tillers close to soil level and attack the basal plant parts
3. Cutworm, Spodoptera exigua, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Defoliation in the nursery
4. Root aphid, Tetraneura nigriabdominalis, (Hemiptera : Aphididae)

o Wilting and drying of plants in patches and Presence of black ants, around the plant base
✓ Pull out the affected seedlings, Soil drenching with Dimethoate – 3 ml/ lit
5. WHEAT
Shoot fly, A. noquii - ETL – 10% Dead heart
Cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon, Mythimna separata
o Nocturnal feeder, Cut seedlings 2 collar region, as a result toppling of seedlings
Pink stem borer Sesamia inferens, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
Termites, Odentotermes obesus (Isoptera: Termitidae)
Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor
Stem saw fly, Cephus cinctus (Hymenoptera : Tenthridinidae)
6. PULSES
1. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Larva feeding on flowers, developing pods and seeds
o ETL – 5 to 6 eggs/ plant or 2-3 larva/ plant
Biology
Egg
o Spherical wiith a flattened base, surface is sculptured in the form of longitudinal ribs.
Yellowish-white, glistening and change to dark brown, before hatching
Larva
o Newly hatched caterpillar is sluggish and whitish-green in colour.
o Full-grown larva is 3.5-4.0 cm in length with pale-green body colour. However, the colour
varies according to the food intake
o Dorsal surface bears dark broken stripes.
o Larva is highly cannibalistic and readily eats one another.
Pupa - It pupates in soil in earthen cell. Obtect type
Adult
o It is a medium-sized light brown coloured moth.
o On the forewings, there is speck that forms a V-shaped mark. Hind wings are dull grey
coloured with a black border on the distal end
o Female moth is bigger than male and presence of tuft of hairs on the tip of the abdomen
Management
✓ Light traps, Pheromone traps (Helilure) @ 12/ ha for adult monitoring
✓ Egg parasitoids, Trichogramma chilonis @ 5cc/ ha
✓ Spraying of HaNPV @ 250 LE/ ha
✓ Insecticides : Triazophos 40 EC @ 0.05%, Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 625ml/ ha
2. Blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus and Euchrysops (Catochrysops) cnejus, (Lepidoptera :

Lycaenidae)
o Damage- Bore holes on buds, flowers, green pods and matured pods
o Pupation occur in soil or on the plants
o Adult: wings are violet metallic blue to dusky blue. The tail of hind wings is black and
tipped with white – L. boeticus
o Adult: Blue coloured butterfly having five black spots on the dorsal surface of the hind
wing and two black spots on the ventral surface - E. Cnejus
Management
✓ Avoid closer planting and late sowing
✓ Carbaryl 10 D – 1kg/ ha
3. Plume moth: Exelastis atomosa, (Lepidoptera : Pterophoridae)

o Damage- Pods are scrapped in the early stages, later boreholes seen on the pods
o Greenish–brown larvafringed with hairs and spines.
o Pupation occur on pod surface or in the entrance hole itself
o Adult is lightly built and light brown in colour, wings deeply fissured, the forewings
longitudinally cleft into two plumes and hind wings into three plumes
4. Spotted pod borer: Maruca testulalis (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)

Damage
o Presence of semi-solid excreta at the junction of the borehole
o Larva present inside the webbing of leaves, flowers and young pods
o Egg: Laid on or near the flower buds
o Larva: Light green with brown head and four pairs of black warts present on the dorsal
surface of each segment, which form four black longitudinal lines on the body with short
dark hairs
o Pupa: Pupates inside the affected pods or leaf fold in a thin silken cocoon. Pupa is yellow
with greenish body
o Adult: Dark brown with a white cross band in the middle of the forewings and the hind
wings are white with a darker border
5. Spiny pod borer, Etiella zincknella (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae)

Damage
o In pods, the larva devours many seeds. The pod always contains a mass of frass and held
together by a loosely spun web.
o Pink coloured, larva with five black spots on prothorax
6. Field bean pod borer, Adisura atkinsoni (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

o Damage: Affected pods and flowers have irregular bore holes.
7. Redgram podfly Melanagromyza obtuse (Diptera : Agromyzidae)

o Damage- Shriveled pods and seeds
o One seed is enough for the development of a maggot
8. Stem fly, Ophiomyia phaseoli (Diptera : Agromyzidae)

Damage
o Drooping of tender leaves and yellowing and causes serious damage of young plants
o The sites where maggot and pupae are present become swollen and start rotting
9. Blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata, (Coleoptera : Meloida)

Damage
o The adult beetles feed on flowers, leaves and tender panicles, thus preventing grain
formation
o Egg - Eggs laid on the ground or in the soil.
o Larva - First stage larva is ‘triungulins’ (long-legged) and actively searches for the host.
They moult to become eruciform or caraboid. (Hypermetamorphosis)
o Pupa - Pupates in the soil.
o Adult - Beetles are bright metallic blue, green, black and yellow or brown in colour
10. Bean aphid: Aphis craccivora, (Hemiptera : Aphididae)

Damage
o Presence of aphid colonies on the leaves, terminal shoots and pods.
o In severe cases, the plants wither and vigour reduced
11. Thrips: Ayyaria chaetophora, (Thysanoptera : Thripidae)

o Damage- Leaves mottled with characteristic silvering
12. Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci, (Hemiptera : Aleyrodidae)

o Damage- Yellowing of leaves, plant vitality reduced, development of sooty mould
Transmits yellow mosaic virus (YMV)
13. Green leafhopper: Empoasca kerri, Empoasca binotata, (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)

o Damage: Affected leaves curl downwards, show 'hopper burn' symptom
14. Pod bug: Riptortus pedestris, Clavigrella horrens, Clavigrella gibbosa, Anoplocnemis
phasiana (Hemiptera : Coreidae)
Damage
o Nymphs and adults cause substantial damage to pods and also to stem, leaves and flower
buds
o Pods and seeds shrivel up
Adult
o R. pedestris: Slender elongated, two black bands on ventral side of the abdomen
o C. horrens: Robust, greyish brown in colour with spines at anterior margin of prothorax
o C. gibbosa: Greenish-brown with spines on either side of the middle of the prothorax
o A. phasiana: Biggest of all the bugs with swollen curved hind legs
15. Pod wasp: Tanaostigmodes cajaninae (Hymenoptera : Tanaostigmatidae)

o Minute boreholes on pods and grubs feed on seeds
16. Serpentine leaf miner: Lyriomyza trifoli (Diptera : Agromyzidae)

o Numerous mines seen on leaves
Other Pests
17. Leafhopper, Empoasca kerri, E. Binotata (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)
18. Leaf cutter bee, Megachile antracena (Hymenoptera : Megachilidae)
19. Termites, Odonototermes sp., (Isoptera : Termitidae
20. Lablab bug/ Stink bug, Coptosoma cribraria (Hemiptera : Platuspidae)
7. GROUNDNUT
1. Red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta albistriga (Lepidoptera : Arctiidae)
o Damage: Defoliation, During severe attack, the caterpillars move in groups destroying
field after field.
Biology
o Egg- Light yellow spherical eggs are laid in clusters on the undersurface of the leaves.
o Larva- Hairy caterpillar reddish brown with black band on either end,long reddish brown
hairs all over the body
o Pupa- Reddish brown and elongate. Adults emerge after receiving the first monsoon
showers. Pupal diapause occurs
o Adult- Forewing white with brownish streak all over and yellowish streak along the
anterior margin and head; hindwings white with black markings
o Damage is more during monsoon
o ETL – 8 egg mass/ 100 m2
Management
✓ Deep summer ploughing, Light trap and bonfire
✓ Inter crop with cowpea @ 1:4 as oviposition attractant
✓ Trenching around the field to prevent migration of larvae
✓ Hand picking and mass killing of larvae
✓ Amsacta NPV @ 1.5 x 10 POB
✓ Predator: Cantheconidia furcellata
✓ Insecticides: Quinalphos 4D, Phosalone 50 EC
2. Leaf miner/ Surul poochi, Aproaerema modicella (Lepidoptera : Gelechiidae)

Damage
o Brown blotches in midrib; terminal leaflets webbed with white patches; distorted and
finally get dried up
o ETL – 1 larva/ row
Biology
o Egg: Laid on the leaves and shoots
o Larva: Small, green in colour with dark head and prothorax
o Pupa: Reddish brown. Pupa is formed inside the mines.
o Adult: Dark brown moth with a white spot on the costal margin of each forewing
✓ Quinalphos 25 EC, Phosalone 50 EC – 750 ml/ ha
3. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

o Damage: Skeletonization, defoliation.
Biology
o Egg: Yellow in colour, laid in mass and covered with hairs.
o Larva: Pale greenish with dark markings; gregarious in the early stages.
o Pupa: Brown colour, obtect pupa.
o Adult: Moth with wavy white markings on a brown forewing. Hindwings white with a
brown patch along the margin.
4. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

Damage: Defoliation.
5. Stem borer, Ver poochi, Sphenoptera perotetti (Coleoptera : Buprestidae)

Damage: Branches may droop and the plants show wilting
6. White grub, Holotrichia spp., (Coleoptera : Melolonthidae)

Damage
Wilting of plants in patches
Adult beetles feed on the foliage and are capable of defoliating plants and even trees like neem,
banyan. Feeding is carried out during the night.
Egg: Laid in loose moist sandy or sandy-loam soil on the onset of monsoon.
Grub: White coloured.
Pupa: Execrate pupa.
Adult: diapause occurs from November to June.
Management
✓ Collect and destroy adult beetles
✓ Summer ploughing and flooding
✓ Trap crop- Sunnhemp
✓ Neem and Ailanthus as border trees to attractant adults
✓ Carbofuran 3G – 25kg/ ha
7. Termite, Odontotermes obesus (Isoptera : Termitidae)

o Damage: Wilting of plants in patches
8. Pod borer (Earwig), Euboriella (=Anisolabis) stali (Dermaptera : Forficulidae)

o Damage: Young pods showing bore holes plugged with excreta and sand particles
o Discoloured pulps; pods without kernels.
✓ Adult: Dark brown to black with forceps like caudal cerci and white leg joints.
9. Pod bug, Elasmolomus sordidus (Hemiptera : Lygaeidae)

o Damage: Freshly harvested pods having shrivelled kernels.
10. Aphids, Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera : Aphididae)

o Damage: Wilting of tender shoots during hot weather, Vector of ground nut resetting
11. Leafhopper, Empoasca kerri (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)

o Damage: Yellowing of leaf tips of ‘V’ shape later turn brown, dry and brittle- known as
‘hopper burn’
12. Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Frankliniella schultzei, (Thysanoptera : Thripidae)

o Damage: Tender leaves showing yellowish green patches on the upper surface and brown
necrotic areas and silvery sheen on the lower surface
Vector of ground nut bud necrosis virus- Frankliniella schultzei
13. Millipede, Spirostreptus sp., (Spriostreptidae)
o Damage: Empty pods with hole.
8. SESAME
1. Leaf webber, Antigastra catalaunalis (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)
Damage
o Top leaves rolled and webbed together and damaged
o I instar stage, acts as leaf miner, in later stage, comes out of the mine and acts as webber
and when capsule formed, it acts as capsule borer
o Pest is active during rainy season, ETL – 2 larvae/ m2, 10% leaf damage
2. Gall fly, Asphondylia sesami, (Diptera : Cecidomyiidae)

o Damage: Maggots feed on floral parts and cause malformation like galls on the buds which
fail to develop.
o Egg: Eggs laid singly on buds, flowers and capsules
o Maggot: White, found inside the flowers
o Pupa: Pupation occurs inside the galls and protrude out of galls
3. Sphingid moth or hawk moth, Acherontia styx, (Lepidoptera : Sphingidae)

Damage: Defoliation.
o Adult: Large, robust, greyish brown insect, thorax bears a prominent Death’s head mark.
Abdomen is ochracious with dark-brown cross bands
4. Leaf hopper, Orosius albicinctus (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)
o Damage: Vector of sesamum phyllody.
o Adult: Light brown coloured hoppers.
5. Aphid, Aphis gossypii, Aphididae, Hemiptera
6. Stink bugs, Nezara viridula, Pentatomidae, Hemiptera
9. SUNFLOWER
1. Capitulum borer, Helicoverpa armigera, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
o Damage: Feeds on capitulum and leaves.
2. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura, (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

3. Black hairy caterpillar, Estigmene lactinea, Arctiidae, Lepidoptera
4. Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma oblique, Arctiidae, Lepidoptera
5. Ash weevil, Myllocerus spp., Curculionidae, Coleoptera
6. Stink bug, Nezara viridula, Pentatomidae, Hemiptera
7. Stink bug, Dolycoris inidcus, Pentatomidae, Hemiptera
8. Peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi, Aphididae, Hemiptera
10. CASTOR
1. Shoot and capsule borer: Conogethes punctiferalis (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)
Damage
o Capsules with bore holes, damaged capsules webbed together, peduncle and capsules show
galleries made of silk and frass.
Biology
o Egg- Eggs are laid on tender parts of plants.
o Larva- Pale greenish with pinkish tinge, black blotches with dark head and prothoracic
shield.
o Pupa: Pupation takes place in cocoons of silk, inside the stem or capsule.
o Adult: Yellowish with black spots on both pair of wings
2. Castor semilooper, Achaea janata (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

o Damage: Defoliation.
o Matured larvae pupates in loosely threaded silken cocoon amongst wrapped up leaves
o Adult: Forewings are pale-reddish brown. Hindwings possess a medially white patch and
three large white patches on the outer margin
3. Castor slug caterpillar, Latoia (=Parasa) lepida (Lepidoptera : Cochlidiidae)

4. Tussock caterpillar, Notolopus (=Orygyia) postica (Lepidoptera : Lymantriidae)

o Adult: Small with yellowish brown wings. Female moth is wingless
5. Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis fraterna, Porthesia (=Euproctis) scintillans, Dasychira mendosa,

(Lepidoptera : Lymantriidae)
6. Castor butterfly, Spiny caterpillar, Ergolis merione (Lepidoptera : Nymphalidae)

o Damage: Defoliation
7. Wooly bear, Pericallia ricini, (Lepidoptera : Arctiidae)

o Damage: Defoliation
8. Whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini (Hemiptera : Aleyrodidae)

Damage: Yellowing and development of sooty mould.
9. Leafhopper, Empoasca flavescens, (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)

10. Thrips, Retithrips syriacus, (Thysanoptera : Thripidae)
11. Gall fly, Asphondylia ricini, (Diptera : Cecidomyiidae)
12. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
11. COCONUT
1. Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
o Damage- Inverted ‘V’ shaped cutting of leaves
o Adult – Stout beetle with dorsal spine, lays eggs in decaying matter
o Grub development on decaying matter and pupation occurs in earthern cocoon. Adult is
the only damaging stage
Management
✓ Remove and burn all dead coconut trees
✓ Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of the beetle from the manure pits
✓ Incorporate the fungus (Metarrhizium anisopliae) in manure pits to check the perpetuation
of the pest @ 5x1011 spores/ m2
✓ Keep castor cake at 1 kg / 5 l of water in small mud pots to attract and kill the adults
✓ Treat the longitudinally split tender coconut stem and green petiole of fronds with fresh
toddy to attract and trap the beetles.
✓ Hook out and kill the adults with iron rod.
✓ For seedlings- 3 naphthalene balls/palm weighing 3.5 g each at the base of inter space in
leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of the crown once in 45 days
✓ Set up light traps following the first rains in summer and monsoon period to attract and kill
the adult beetles
✓ Field release of Baculovirus inoculated adult rhinoceros beetle @ 15/ha reduces the leaf and
crown damage caused by this beetle.
✓ Apply mixture of either neem seed powder + sand (1:2) @150 g per palm or neem seed
kernel powder + sand (1:2) @150 g per palm in the base of the 3 inner most leaves
✓ Place phorate 10 G 5 g in perforated sachets in two inner most leaf axils for 2 times at 6
months intervals
✓ Set up rhinolure pheromone trap (Aggregartion pheromone) @ 1/ha
2. Red palm weevil, Rhinocophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

o Damage - Oozing of brown fluid and chewed fibers on stem
o Both grub and adults are damaging stages
o Pupation occurs in fibrous cocoon
Management
✓ Avoid injuries on stems of palms as the wounds may serve as oviposition sites
✓ Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed, they should be cut about 120 cm away from
the stem.
✓ Fill the crown and the axils of top most three leaves with a mixture of fine sand and
neem seed powder or neem seed kernel powder (2:1)
✓ Plug all holes and inject pyrocone E or carbaryl 1% or 10 ml of monocrotophos into the
stem by drilling a hole above the points of attack.
✓ Setting up of attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane molasses 2½ kg or toddy
2½ litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5 g + longitudinally split tender coconut stem/logs of
green petiole of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to trap adult red palm weevils in large
numbers
✓ Install pheromone trap (Ferrulure) @ 12 per ha
✓ Root feeding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml
3. Black headed caterpillar: Opisina arenosella (Lepidoptera: Cryptophasidae)

Damage
o Dried up patches on leaflets of the lower leaves
o Galleries of silk and frass on under side of leaflets.
Biology
o Larva- Caterpillar is greenish brown with dark brown head and prothorax, and a reddish
mesothorax with brown stripes on the body
o Pupa- inside the web itself in a thin silken cocoon
o Adult- Greyish white in colour
Female: with long antenna and three faint spots on the forewings
Male: with fringed hairs in hind wings in apical and anal margin.
Management
✓ Larval parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Bracon brevicornis at 1:8 of host-parasitoid
✓ Pupal parasitoid: Trichospilus pupivora
✓ Remove and burn all affected leaves/leaflets.
✓ Spray malathion 50 EC 0.05% (1mi/lit) to cover the undersurface of the leaves
thoroughly in case of severe epidemic outbreak of the pest in young palms.
✓ Stem injection or Root feeding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml
✓ Spray following chemicals: Dichorvos 76WSC @ 2ml/lit, Triazophos 40EC @5 ml
4.White grub: Leucopholis coneophora
o Damage- Premature nut shedding and delayed flowering
Management
✓ Collect and destroy the adult beetles attracted to trees like neem, Ailanthus and
Accasia on the receipt of monsoon showers
✓ Plant neem twigs with leaves in coconut gardens after rain to attract and kill adult beetles
✓ Set up light trap @ 1 / ha or bonfire
✓ Soil application- Malathion 5 D or endosulfan 4D 25 kg/ ha at the time of planting
5. Coconut Eriophyid mite: Aceria guerreronis

Damage
o Triangular yellow patches close to perianth
o Longitudinal fissures and splits on the husk
o Oozing of the gummy exudation from the affected surface
o Reduced size and copra content and premature button shedding
o Malformed nuts with cracks and hardened husk
Management
✓ Neem cake @ 5 kg and organic manure 50 kg/palm/ year
✓ Borax 50 g + gypsum 1.0kg + Manganese sulphate 0.5 kg/palm/ year
✓ Grow intercrop (sun hemp, four crops/year) and shelter belt with casuarina all round the
coconut garden to check further entry
✓ Triazophos 40 EC 5 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 2 ml / lit or carbosulfan 25 EC
2 ml/ lit in alternation with neem azal 1% 5ml/lit as spot application
✓ Root feeding with Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 15ml or triazophos 40 EC @15 ml or
carbosulfan 25EC @ 15 ml / 15 ml of water - After root feeding, next harvest should be
done 45 days later.
6.Termite: Odontotermes obesus

Damage
o Wilting of seedlings
o base of trunks plastered with runways made of soil and fibers
Management
✓ Locate termite mounds in or near the coconut nursery or garden and destroy.
✓ Swabbing with neem oil 5% once on the base and upto 2 m height of the trunk for
effective control.
✓ Spray chlorpyriphos @ 3ml/lit of water, neem oil 5% or NSKE 20%
7. Lacewing bug: Stephanitis typicus

o Damage - White spots on the upper surface of the leaves
✓ Insecticides- Malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit, Dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/lit, Monocrotophos 36
WSC 1 ml/lit, Neem oil 3%
Other pests
8. Scale insect: Aspidiotus destructor
9. Mealy bug: Pseudococcus longispinus
10. Coconut skipper: Gangara thyrsis
11. Slug caterpillar: Parasa lepida
12. MUSTARD
1. Mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Hemiptera : Aphididae)
o Damage: Suck the sap from under surface of leaves.
2. Mustard sawfly,. Athalia lugens proxima, (Hymenoptera : Tenthredinidae)
o Damage: Grub nibbles the margins of tender leaves and pod.
o Larva: Resembles lepidopterous caterpillar; oily black or green in colour.
3. Painted bug, Bagrada hilaris (Hemiptera : Pentatomidae)

4. Bihar hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma oblique (Lepidoptera : Arctiidae)
5. Flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae (Coleoptera : Alticidae)
13. COTTON
Sucking pests
1. Leafhopper / Jassid, Amrasca devastans, A. biguttula biguttula Cicadellidae, Hemiptera
o Damage: Yellowing, crinkling, downward cupping of leaves, bronzing and hopperburn
o ETL – 5 nymph/ leaves
Management
o Resistant var: MCU 3, 5, 9
o Seed treatment with Imidachloprid 70 WS @ 5 – 7 g/ kg, Thiamethoxam 48g/kg
o Spraying with Imidachlopris 200 SL or Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1 lit/ ha
2. Cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, Aphididae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Young plants become weak, leaf curl up and wither
o Dimethoate – 500 ml/ ha
3. Thrips, Thrips tabaci, Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thripidae, Thysanoptera

o Damage: Silvery appearance on undersurface of the leaves
4. Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, Aleyurodichus disperses Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera

o Damage: White chlorotic spots on leaves, premature leaf fall, sooty mould formation
Management
o Yellow sticky trap
o Crop rotation with alternate hosts
o Seed treatment with Imidachloprid 70 WS @ 5 – 7 g/ kg, Thiamethoxam 48g/kg
o Acetamiprid 200g/ ha or Triazophos 2lit/ ha
5. Red cotton bug /cotton stainer, Dysdercus cingulatus Pyrrhocoridae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Young bolls are affected, turn to dark brown colour and fail to burst, red
staining of lint and shrivelling of seeds.
o Eggs are laid in loose masses in the soil and protected with soil/ dry leaves
o Nymph- Reddish with white band on the abdomen.
o Adult : Red and black with white stripes ventrally on the abdomen
6. Dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus hyalinipennis, Lygaeidae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Presence of nymphs and adults on the bursted bolls, discolouration of lint, seeds
get shrivelled and fail to germinate
7. Black scale: Saissetia nigra, Yellow scale: Cerococcus hibisci, White scale: Pulvinaria
maxima , Coccidae, Hemiptera
o Damage: Stunting of the plants and bears only few bolls. Frequent movement of ants.
Development of sooty mould
8. Mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis, Ferrisia virgata Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera
o Damage: Yellowing of leaves initially and later the plants die. Leaves and bolls fall
prematurely
o The damage is more towards the end and in places where ratooning is practiced
Boll worms
7. American bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
Damage
o Circular boreholes on bolls, presence of granular faecal pellets
o Caterpillar cuts a hole on the boll and feed on the boll by thrusting their heads alone inside
8. Spotted bollworm, Earias vittella, Spiny bollworm, E. insulana Noctuidae, Lepidoptera

Damage
o Terminal shoots wither and droop, shedding of buds, flowers and bolls,
o Flaring up of bractsand bore holes on bolls plugged with excreta
o Larva bores into the tender top shoot during vegetative stage and during reproductive stage
they bore into the buds, flowers and bolls (ETL – 10%)
Biology
o Egg- Sculptured, shinning bluish eggs are laid singly on tender parts of the plant.
o Larva- E. vittella- Chocolate brown, dorsum showing a white median longitudinal streak
o E. insulana- Last 2 thoracic and all the abdominal segments have two pairs of fleshy
tubercles
o Pupa: Boat shaped, dirty brown cocoons on the base of the bolls or amongst the fallen
leaves
o Adult: E. vittella - Buff coloured moth, forewings with a green wedge in the middle.
o insulana- Buff coloured small moths, forewings uniformly green
Management
✓ Rest var: Deltapine
✓ Collection and destruction of fallen plant parts
✓ Light traps
9. Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella, Gelechiidae, Lepidoptera
Damage
o Premature shedding of the buds and bolls
o Rosetting of flowers and boll fails to open
o Premature opening of the bolls, seeds destroyed, quality of lint quality declined
o Seed germination reduced and interlocular burrowing
Biology
o Egg- Flat eggs, laid singly on tender leaves, flowers or immature bolls
o Larva- Pink larva with several dark and light alternating bands running the entire length.
Larval diapause is observed
o Pupa : Pupates amongst the fallen leaves, debris or soil
o Adult : Small brown moth with black spotted forewings and fringed hindwings
Management
✓ Light traps, Delta pheromone traps
✓ Quinalphos, Triazophos – 2lit/ ha
✓ Lambda cyhalothrin @ 4g a.i./ ha
10. Red bollworm, Rabila frontalis , Noctuidae, Lepidoptera
o Damage- Bolls showing irregular bore holes
Defoliators
11. Leaf roller, Sylepta derogata, Pyraustidae, Lepidoptera
o Damage: Leaves rolled in the form of trumpets and fastened by silken threads, defoliation.
12. Semiloopers : Anomis flava, Xanthodes graellsi, Tarache nitidula:Noctuidae , Lepidoptera

o Damage- Defoliation, leaves with midribs, presence of larva
o Larva- A. flava– Green with five white longitudinal lines and red prolegs;
o X.graellsi – Green with a pair of horse-shoe shaped black mark on each segment and black
warts on the abdomen
o T.nitidula – Dark brown caterpillar.
13. Ash weevil, Myllocerus spp., Curculionidae, Coleoptera

o Damage: leaf margins notched, roots eaten up, plants wilt and they come off easily
when pulled
o Grubs remain underground and feed on the root system. Adults they damage the above
ground parts
Borers
14. Stem weevil, Pempherulus affinis, Curculionidae, Coleoptera
Damage
o Swellings of stem at collar region and plant break off from this point, when heavy
winds blow
o Adults feed on the bark while the young grub bore in to the stem
Biology
o Egg : White, globular,are laid in cavities scooped in tender nodes and sealed with a gummy
secretion.
o Grub : White, apodous.
o Pupa : Exarate, pupates in a pupal chamber within the stem.
o Adult : Brownish weevil, 3 mm long, with two small white patches on the elytra
15. Shoot weevil, Alcidodes affaber , Curculionidae, Coleoptera

Damage: Galls in the stem and petiole and defoliation by adults
Management
✓ Rest var: MCU 3, SVPR- 2, 3
✓ Earthing up @ 45 DAS
✓ Destroy affected plants
other pests
16. Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura, Noctuidae, Lepidoptera
17. Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis fraterna , Lymantriidae, Lepidoptera
14. SUGARCANE
Borers
1. Early shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus, Crambidae, Lepidoptera
Damage
o Deadheart in 1-3 month old crop
o Rotten portion of the straw coloured dead-heart emits an offensive odour
Biology
o Egg: Flat-scale like eggs are laid in 3-5 rows on the lower surface of leaves in masses of
4-100. The masses are slightly overlapping like tiles.
o Larva: Larva is dirty white with five dark violet longitudinal stripes and dark brown head.
o Pupa: Pupation takes place within the tunnel. Caterpillar before pupating makes a large
exit hole in the stem and blocks the opening with silken discs.
o Adult: Pale greyish brown moth with black dots near the costal margin of the forewings
and with white hindwings
Management
✓ Rest var. Co 221, CO 661
✓ Early planting during main season.
✓ Trash mulching (up to 10-15 cm) to prevent larval movement
✓ Remove and destroy affected plant parts
✓ Granulosis virus @ 1.1 x 105 twice @ 35 and 50 DAP
✓ Laval par. Sturmiopsis inferens @ 125 gravid females/ ha
✓ Leaf whorl application of Carbofuran 12.5 kg/ ha
2. Internode borer, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus, Crambidae, Lepidoptera

Damage
o Internodes constricted and shortened
o Reddening of affected tissues
o Caterpillars attack sugarcane plants after 3-4 months of planting.
Biology
o Egg: Scale-like white eggs are laid by female moths in batches of 9-11, near the midribs,
on leaf sheaths or on stem.
o Larva: White larva with four violet longitudinal stripes and light brown head.
o Pupa: Pupation takes place in semi-dried leaf sheath.
o Adult: Pale brown with white hind wings.
Managemnt
✓ Collect and destroy the eggs periodically
✓ Detrashing on 150 and 210 DAP
✓ Avoid use of excessive nitrogen fertilizers
✓ Egg parasitoid: Trichogramma chilonis @ 2.5 c.c / ha (6 releases from 4th month
onwards at 15 days interval)
3. Top borer, Scirpophaga excerptalis, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera

Damage
o Deadheart
o parallel row of shot holes in the emerging leaves
o Bunchy tip due to the growth of side shoots
Biology
o Egg: Eggs are laid on the lower surface of top leaves in clusters particularly near midribs.
The clusters are covered with buff coloured hairs.
o Larva :Smooth, white or cream coloured with a red coloured mid-dorsal line and yellow
head. Pupa: Pupation takes place within the larval tunnel in a chamber with an exit hole
constructed by the caterpillar.
o Adult: White coloured moth (with a buff coloured anal tuft in the abdominal tip of female).
Management
✓ Collect and destroy the egg masses
✓ Release Ichneumonid parasitoid: Isotima javensis @ 125 females / ha
Sucking pests
4. Whiteflies, Aleurolobus barodensis, Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera
o Damage: Yellowing of leaves, turn pinkish and later gradually dry. Development of sooty
mould
5. Whiteflies, Neomaskellia bergii, N. andropogonis, Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera
o Damage: Black, grey or white dot like pupae on the undersurface of leaves.
6. Leaf hopper, Pyrilla perpusilla, Lophopidae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Yellowing and sooty mould on leaves; top leaves dried up and lateral buds
germinate
Management
✓ Avoid excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers
✓ Set up light trap
✓ Detrashing on 150 and 210th DAP
✓ Epiricrania melanoleuca @8000 -10,000 cocoon /ha
✓ Spray any one of the following on the 150th and 210th day (1000 l spray fluid):
- Malathion 50 EC 2000 ml or Monocrotophos 36 WSC 2000 ml
7. Mealybug, Saccharicoccus sacchari, Pseudococcidae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Pinkish oval insects beneath leaf sheath on the nodes, with whitish mealy
coating, main cane stunted also attack roots. Sooty mould develops on the plant.
8. Scale insects, Melanaspis glomerata, Diaspididae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Dark encrustations on the internode.
Management
✓ Select scale insect free setts
✓ Drain excess water
✓ Sett treatment in 0.1% malathion solution
✓ Spray of the following insecticides(120/150 day after detrashing)
Dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml/lit of water
-methyl demeton 25 EC @ 2ml/lit of water
9. Wooly Aphid: Ceratovacuna lanigera ; C. graminum

Symptoms of damage
o Nymph and adults suck the sap from leaves
o Honey dew excrete – development of sooty mould fungus
o White chalk powder coating on the ground and leaves.
Management
✓ Field release of biocontrol agents like Dipha aphidivora, Micromus and coccinellids
✓ Avoiding transportation of aphid infested leaves from one location to another.
✓ Avoiding use of infested cane for seed purpose.
✓ Ensuring that the insecticides treated leaves are not used as fodder.
✓ Spray any one of the following insecticides once or twice in affected patches:
Chlorpyrifos 25EC @ 2ml/lit,
Monocrotophos 36WSC @ 2ml/lit
10. Black winged bug, Proutista moesta, Derbidae, Hemiptera

o Damage: Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap.
Subterranean pests
11. Termites, Odontotermes obesus, Termitidae, Isoptera
Damage
o Poor germination of setts
o Semi-circular feeding marks on the margin of the leaves in the standing crop
o Entire shoot dries up and can be pulled out
Management
✓ Sett treatment - imidacloprid 70 WS 0.1% or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 0.04 % for 5 min
✓ Soil application - Apply lindane 1.3 D 125 kg/ha
✓ Spray application of Imidacloprid 200 SL at 250 ml in 250 l of water / ha
12. Root borer, Emmalocera depresella, Crambidae, Lepidoptera

o Damage: Young shoots with deadhearts which cannot be pulled out easily and do not emit
any smell
13. Whitegrub, Holotrichia consanguinea, Melolonthidae, Coleoptera

o Damage: Drying of crown and affected canes come off easily when pulled
Defoliators
14. Skipper, Telicota augias, Hesperiidae, Lepidoptera
o Damage: Leaves folded into tubular cells.
15. GREEN MANURES

1. Sunnhemp hairy caterpillar, Utethesia pulchella, Arctiidae, Lepidoptera
o Damage: Defoliation of the plant.
2. Hairy caterpillar, Argina cribraria, Argina syringa, Hypsidae, Lepidoptera

3. Sunnhemp flea beetle, Longitarsus belgamensis, Alticidae, Coleoptera
o Damage: Adult makes minute holes on leaves, grub feeds on the roots by mining.
4. Lucerne spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculata, Aphididae, Hemiptera
IPM FOR RICE

S. No. Pest (on rice) ETL
1. Thrips 25/5 passes of wet palm
2. Stem borer 10% Dead heart or 2% white ear
3. Gall midge 10% Silver shoot
4. Leaf folder 10% leaf damage (at vegetative stage)
5% leaf damage (at Boot leaf stage)
5. GLH 5/hill at vegetative stage, 10/hill flowering stage, 2/hill
in RTV endemic areas
6. BPH (Brown plant 1/tiller; 2/tiller when spider present at 1/hill
hopper)
7. Ear head bug 5 bugs/100 panicle - Flowering stage
16 bugs/100 panicle - Milky stage
1. Avoid use of excess nitrogenous fertilizer - induces BPH and leaf folder
2. Remove/destroy stubbles after harvest
3. Trim field bunds and keep field free from weeds
4. Control irrigation by intermittent draining to manage BPH (Alternate wetting and drying)
5. Avoid close planting, especially in BPH and leaf folder prone areas/seasons
6. Provide rogue spacing of 30 cm at every 2.5 m interval to take up plant protection operation
7. Use light traps to monitor incidence of pests
8. Avoid resurgence inducing chemicals against BPH like Methyl parathion and quinalphos
9. Remove stem borer egg masses by dipping off tip of rice seedling during transplanting
10. Select and use resistant varieties against major pests
11. Manage caseworm by passing rope on crop and draining water
12. Release egg parasitoid Trichogramma japonicum on 30 and 37th day after planting against
stem borer
13. Release egg parasitoid T. chilonis and bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis against leaf folder
14. Use of Neem Seed Kernel Extract 5% (NSKE 5%) or Neem oil 2% against Ear head bug
15. Use insecticides as need based application if pest reaches ETL
IPM FOR COTTON

S. No. Cotton pest ETL
1. Leaf hopper/ thrips 50 nos./50 leaves (or 1/leaf)
2. Whitefly 5 nymphs/leaf
3. Bollworms 10% damage of reproductive parts
4. Stem weevil 10% infested plants
5. Spodoptera litura 8 egg masses/100 m row
1. Selection and use of resistant/tolerant varieties against major pests
2. Use of light trap to monitor hoppers, bollworms, cutworm
3. Use of pheromone traps for monitoring/mass trapping bollworms
4. Collection and destruction of infested plant parts, squares and bolls
5. Growing trap crop (e.g.) Castor for Spodoptera litura
6. Manual collection and removal of egg masses of S. litura
7. Hand picking of bollworm larvae
8. Use of insect viruses SlNPV and HaNPV against Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera
respectively
9. Avoid ratoon and double cotton crop
10. Synchronize sowing time at village level
11. Follow crop rotation with unrelated crops
12. Removal of alternate hosts
13. Judicious use of nitrogen and water to manage hoppers and white flies
14. Use of yellow sticky traps for whiteflies
15. Observe IRM (Insecticide Resistance Management) practices like
a. Seed treatment with Imidacloprid 7.5 g/kg - manage early stage sucking pests
b. Use of predators like Chrysoperla carnea
c. Use of egg parasitoid Trichogramma sp. against bollworms
16. Apply insecticides only based on need, when pest population/damage reaches ETL.
ENTOMOLOGY - II
I. PEST MANAGEMENT IN FRUIT CROPS
1. MANGO
1. Mango hoppers: Cicadellidae: Hemiptera
• Idioscopus niveoparsus: Three spots on scutellum
• I. clypealis: Small, light brown, dark spots on the vertex and two spots on scutellum
• Amirtodus atkinsoni: Large, light brown with two spots on scutellum
Damage
• Nymphs and adults suck the sap of inflorescence and more severe during flowering time
(Dec- Jan)
• Withering and shedding of flower buds and flowers, honey dew on lower leaves -sooty
mould
• Clicking sound due to movement of jassid leaves
• Hoppers hide in the cracks and crevices of the tree barks
✓ Spray phosalone 35EC 1.5 ml / l ; carbaryl 50 WP 3 g /l ; Phosphamidon 36 WSC 1
ml/l. two rounds, first at panicle emergence; second at 15 days interval.
2. Inflorescence midge: Cecidomyiidae: Diptera

• Dasineura maramanjarae- Orange red; Erosomyia indica- Yellowish fly; Procystiphora
mangiferae- Light orange fly
Damage
• Buds fail to open and drop down early due to feedings of maggots
• Adults emergence coincides with flowering
• Pupation occurs in the soil
3. Bud mite: Aceria mangiferae; Eriophidae: Acarina

Damage
• Malformed leaves and buds - bunchy top appearance - bud necrosis
• Normally occurs during summer
4. Fruit fly: Bactrocera (Dacus) dorsalis (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage (Incidence is more during December to July)
• Decayed spots and dropping of fruits by maggots
• Oozing of fluid and brownish rotten patches on fruits
Management
• Collect fallen infested fruits and dispose them properly
• Plough the interspaces during summer to expose the puparia
• Use bait spray of molasses or jaggery 10 g/l, Fenthion 100EC 1ml/l + Malathion 50EC 2
ml/l or dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/l or carbaryl 50 WP 4 g/l or two rounds at 2 weeks interval
before ripening of fruits
• Male annihilation technique: 100 ml of 0.1% methyl eugenol (1ml/l) and 0.05 %
Malathion 50 EC (1ml/l) taken in 250 ml capacity wide mouthed bottle fitted with hanging
device at its neck. Change the solution at fortnightly interval from March to July.
• Spray Fenthion 100 EC 2 ml/ lit or Malathion 50 EC 2ml/lit
5. Mango nut weevil: Sternochaetus mangiferae (Curculionidae : Coleoptera)
Damage
• Fruit dropping and oviposition injuries at marble stage of fruits
• Tunnelling of cotyledons in mature fruit by grubs
• Adult weevils after emergence remain inactive, hidden in cracks and crevices of trees
Biology
• Adult females lay eggs under the rind of ripening fruits
• The grubs tunnel into the pulp till they reach the nut and feed the cotyledons
- Collect and destroy the fallen fruits
- Fenthion 100EC 1ml/l- two rounds- first at marble stage of the fruit & second at 15
days interval
- During non flowering season direct spray towards the base of the trunk
6. Shoot webber: Orthaga exvinacea (Noctiudae: Lepidoptera)

• Damage: Webbing of terminal leaves and scrapes the chlorophyll - drying up plants
7. Leaf caterpillar: Bombotelia jadcosatrix (Noctiudae:lepidoptera)
8. Leaf twisting weevil: Apoderus tranquebaricus (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

• Damage: Twisting, rolling and drying of terminal leaves by grubs
9. Scales (Diaspididae: Hemiptera): Chloropulvinaria psidii- Females with White ovisac
10. Gaint mealybug: Drosicha mangiferae (Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)

Damage
• Drying of leaves and inflorescence and presence mealy bugs on fruit and fruit stalk
Management
• Remove weeds and grasses by ploughing during June-July.
• Band the trees with 20 cm wide alkalthene of polythene (400 gauge) in the middle of
December, 50 cm above the ground level
• Chlopyriphos 20Ec 2.5 ml/l, monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml/l
11. Red ant: Oecophylla smaradina ( Formicidae: Hymenoptera)

Damage: Webbed of leaves with ants forming nests
• Monocrotophos 2ml/lit or DDPV 100Ec 1ml/lit
12. Mango stem borer: Batocera rufomaculata (Cerambycidae: Coleoptrea)

Damage
• Zigzag burrows in the sapwood or branches and Wilting of branches or entire tree
• Adult - stout longihorn beetle with two pink dots and lateral spine on the throax
• Pupation takes place within the tunnel usually just under the bark. Univoltine life
Management
• Remove alternate host, silk cotton and other hosts and affected branches
• Tolerant mango varieties viz., Neelam and Humayudin
• Swab Coal tar + Kerosene @ 1:2 on the basal portion of the trunk up to 3 feet height after
scraping the loose bark to prevent oviposition by adult beetles.
• Hook out the grub from the bore hole if located and apply monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 to
20 ml/ hole or one aluminum phosphide tablet per hole or Apply carbofuran 3G 5 g per
hole and plug with mud
• Padding with monocrotophos @ 10 ml in 2.5 cm /tree soaked in absorbent cotton.
• Carbofuran 3G @ 75 g /tree and irrigate immediately
13. Bark borer: Indarbela tetraonis (Matarbellidae : Lepidoptera)

• Damage: Presence of gallery made out of silk and frass
IPM for Mango
• Avoid high density planting - favourable for hopper multiplication
• Collect and destroy all fallen infested fruits from the orchard and remove weeds
• Plough the orchard during summer to expose mealy bug eggs to natural enemies and heat.
• Plough around the trees to expose the pupae of fruit fly and dust insecticides
• Cover the main stem and branches with 15 -20 cm wide sticky band of alkalhene or plastic
sheet around the trunk about one meter above the ground level during second week of
December and kill the nymphs either mechanically or by 50 g methyl parathion 2 % dust
• Mango hoppers- phosalone 35 EC 1.5 ml /lit; carbaryl 50 WP 3 g /lit @ at panicle
emergence and15 days after first spray
• Fruit fly - bait spray with any one of the insecticides and molasses or jaggery 10 g/l,
Fenthion100 EC 1ml/l, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/l, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/l, carbaryl 50 WP
4 g/l. two rounds at 2 weeks interval before ripening of fruits.
• Nut weevil- Fenthion 100EC 1ml/l; two rounds; first at marble stage of the fruit ; second
at 15 days interval.
• Stem borer - Swab Coal tar + Kerosene @ 1:2 on the basal portion of the trunk up to 3 feet
height after scraping the loose bark to prevent oviposition by adult beetles.
- Trunk injection with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 to 20 ml/ or one aluminum phosphide
tablet per hole or Apply carbofuran 3G 5 g per hole and plug with mud.
- Padding with monocrotophos @ 10 ml in 2.5 cm /tree soaked in absorbent cotton
2. CITRUS
A. BORERS
1. Orange borer: (Cerambycidae : Coleoptrea)
a. Chelidonium cinctum: Grub- Creamy white with flat head. Adult- Dull metallic green to
dark violet with yellow band across the middle of elytra.
b. Chloridolum alcamene : Grub- Creamy white with flat head, Adult- Shiny blue beetle.
Damage
• Drying of terminal shoots in early stages - wilting of branches and main stem
• Grub is the only damaging stage
Biology
• Adults emerge with the break of monsoon in June –July
• Females lay eggs singly at the angles of twigs or thorns
• Pupation takes place within the tunnel
Management
• Prune the branches (July- September) containing grubs
• Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1 ml/l or Carbaryl 50 WP @ 4 g/l
• Trunk injection with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml/l and plug with wet clay
B. LEAF FEEDERS
2. Citrus leafminer: Phyllocnists citrella (Gracillariidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Serpentine glistening mines and distortion and drying up of the leaf lamina
Biology
• Female - lay eggs singly on the undersurface of young leaves, near the midrib
• Pupation takes place with in the mine in a white silken cocoon near the leaf margin
• There are 9-13 generation in a year
• Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5 % or Dichlorvos 76 WSC @ 1ml/lit, monocrotophos
36 WSC @ 1.5 ml/lit
3. Citrus butterflies (Paplionidae: Lepidoptera)
a. Paplio demoleus: Adult- Dark brown swallowtail butterfly + numerous pale yellow markings
b. P. polytes: Adult- Black butterfly with white marking
Damage: Defoliation of tender leaves
Biology
• Female butterfly lay eggs singly or in groups (2-3) on the under surface of tender leaves
• Caterpillars give an appearance of bird droppings. They feed on the moulted skin after each
moulting. Emit distinct smell when disturbed (by ejecting - Osmeteria)
• Pupa – Chrysalis type, Occurs on the plant. Pupal diapause is noticed during winter
C. SAP FEEDERS
4. Fruit sucking moths (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
a. Otheris materna: Adult: Stout moth with grey and yellowish orange wings. Hind wing with
black spot
b. O. fullonica: Adult- Curved black marking on hind wing.
c. O. ancilla: Adult- White band in the middle of forewing
Damage
• Damaged fruits:- Rot around the feeding site and fruit drop due to adult piercing
• Adult is the only damaging stage
• Larva breeds on weeds such as Tinospora cardifolia or Cocculu hirsutus and C. pendulus.
Managements
• Destroy the weed hosts
• Bag the fruit with polythene bag (300 gauge) punctured at the bottom
• The moths can be caught with torches lights and killed
• Apply smoke to prevent moth attack
• Set up light trap or food lure (pieces of fruits) to attract adult moths
• Poison bait with fermented molasses + malathion 50EC 1ml
5. Aphid: Toxoptera citricidus (Aphididae :Hemiptrea)

Damage: Yellowing and crinkling of tender shoots. It is a vector for tristeza virus
6. Psyllid bug, Diaphorina citri (Psyllidae: Hemiptrea))

Damage: Tender shoots and leaves dried, presence of sooty mold, Vector of citrus greening
7. Mealy bug: Planococcus citri ( Pseudococcidae: Hemiptrea)

Management
• Debark the branches and apply methyl parathion paste
• Dichlorvos ( 0.20%) in combination with fish oil rosin soap ( 25 b/l) as spray of for dipping
the fruits for two minutes
• Single soil application of aldicarb 10 G 50 g per tree around the base at the time of pruning
• Release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 / tree
14.Citrus rustmite: Phyllocoptes oleivorus (Eriophyidae: Acrina)

Damage: Silvery, scaly or rusty black discolouration fruits
3. SAPOTA
1. Leaf webber or Chickoo moth: Nephopteyrx eugraphella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage
• Webbing of leaves and scrapping of chlorophyll - reduced to a network of veins
• Flower buds and tender fruits bored become withered and shed
• Spray Phosalone 35EC 2 ml/l or Carbyral 50 WP 3 g/lit
2. Fruit fly
4. BANANA
A.BORERS
1. Rhizome weevil: Cosmopolites sordidus (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage
• Death of unopened pipe: withering of outer leaves and presence of dark coloured tunnels
in the rhizomes
• Grubs pupate in the tunnels and adult weevils lay eggs on growing point
Mnanagement
• Select healthy sucker and plant
• Treat the suckers in 0.1 % quinalphos emulsion before planting
• Perennial varieties of plantain are prone to more damage than seasonal varieties
• Avoid growing susceptible varieties like Robusta, Karpooruvally, Champa and Adukkar
• Grow less susceptible varieties like Poovan, Kadali, Kunnan, Poomkalli
• Trap adult weevils with pseudostem chopped into small pieces
• Soil incorporation of carbofuran 3 G 10g, phorate 10 G 5 g/plant at the time of planting
2. Pseudostem borer: Odoiporus longicollis (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

• Damage: Wilting of attacked plant and bore holes and tunnels in the pseudostem.
• Adult weevils lay eggs on air chambers of outer epidermal layer of pseudostem
• Adults are negatively phototrophic and remain within the pseudostem
Management
• Uproot and burn the infested plants.
• Apply carbofuran @ 3.33 g a.i per plant and irrigate immediately
• Pseudostem injection of monocrotophos
3. Fruitfies: Bactrocera (Dacus) dorsalis

• Damage: Rotting of fruit in patches
B.SAP FEEDERS
4. Banana aphid: Pentalonia nigronervosa f. typica (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
• Damage: Vector of bunchy top virus. Aphids are in leaf axils and pseudostem
• Adult aphids reproduce parthenogenetically
• Moderate temperature accompanied with high humidity is favoured for its population
Management
• Dimethoate 30 EC 200 ml, monocrotophos 36 WSC 100 ml/acre. @ 21 days interval
• Pseudostem injection: Monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 1 ml/ 4 ml of water at 45 days interval
5. Spittle bug: Phymatostetha deschampes (Cercopidae: Hemiptera)

• Damage: Yellowing of leaves. Frothy covering on leves and grasses
6. Fruit rust thrips: Chaetanaphothrips signipennis

• Damage: Yellowing of leaves and rusty growth over fruit
7. Flower thrips: Thrips florum (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

• Damage: Corky scab on fruits and flowers
C. LEAF FEEDERS
8. Castor hairy caterpillar: Pericallia ricini (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Scraping of leaf chlorophyll and windowing symptom in unfurled leaves
9. Cut worm: Spodoptera litura( Noctuidae :Lepidoptera)

10. Hard scale: Aspidiotus destructor ( Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
11. Burrowing nematode: Radopholus similis

Management
• Paring and Pralinage: Dip the corm in slurry solution and sprinkle carbofuran 3 G @ 40
g/sucker
• Soil application carbofuran 3 G 40 g/plant a month after planting
5. GUAVA
1. Congethers (=Dichocrocis) punctiferalis, Deudorix (Virachola) isocrates (Pyraustidae:
Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Bore holes on the fruits and it is covered with frass and excreata
2. Fruit flies : Bactrocera dorsalis; B. zonztus
3. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis antonii ( Miridae :Hemiptera)

• Damage: Corky scab formation on fruits. Incidence is more during flowering and fruit
formation stages
• Spray malathion 50 EC 2 ml/ lit or fenthion 80 EC 1 ml/lit or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2
ml/lit, neem formulations 2 ml/1 at bimonthly interval at the time of flowering
4. Aphid: Aphis gossypii ( Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage: Yellowing of tender shoots and wilting.
5. Two tailed mealy bug, Ferrisa virgata ( Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

• Damage: Premature dropping of fruits
• Adult: Females apterous, long, slender covered with white waxy secretions and having a
pair long glossy wax filaments at caudal end
• Triozhophos 2 ml+ neem oil 5 ml/1, phosalone 35 EC 1.5 ml+ neem oil 5 ml/1.
• Release Cryptolaemous montrouzieri beetles @ 10/tree
6. Guava scale: Chloropulvinaria psidii (Coccidae: Hemiptera)

• Damage: Yellowing of leaves
• Adult female with long white ovisac and resembles mealy bug
Management
• Prune and destroy the infested shoots at initial stage of infestation
• Spray monocrotophos 1ml/lit or phenthoate 1ml/lit
• After two weeks release 20 C. montrouzieri or Scymus coccivora beetle per tree
7. Spiraling whitefly: Aleurodicus dispersus

• Damage: Yellowing of leaves. Sooty mould in lower leaves
• Adults lay eggs in concentric rings covered with mealy coat
• Adult- Powdery white, active during early morning hours
6. CASHEW
1. Cashew tree borer: Plocaederus ferrugineus (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)
• Damage: Wilting of branches, Grubs are the most damaging stage, Univoltine insect
2. Bark borer: Indarbela tetraonis
B. INFLORESCENCE FEEDERS
3. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis antonii (Miridae: Hemiptera)
Damage
• Inflorescence blight and terminal drying of young shoots lead to die back symptom
• Water soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the feeding sites.
• Population starts in Oct. –Nov (new flesh stage). Peak population - blossom period
- Lambda cyhalothrim 5EC 0.4ml/1 (or) profenofos 50 EC 1-2 ml/1 + Urea - I round
during the time of new flush formation, II during floral formation and the third at
fruits set.
C. LEAF FEEDERS
4. Leaf miner: Acrocercops syngramma
Damage: Older leaves show big hole due to drying and crumbling of mined areas
Hairy caterpillars: Parasa lepida, Metanastria hyrtaca, Cricula trifenestrate
D. SAP FEEDERS
5. Aphids: Toxoptera odinae
6. Red banded thrips: Solenothrips rubrocintus (Thripidae : Thysanoptera)
Damage: Crinkling, discolouration and leaf drop
7. Thrips: Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage: Silvery white patches on leaves with black excreta, yellowing and withering in severe
infestation
7. POMEGRANATE
A. FRUIT BORERS
1. Deudorix (Virachola) isocrates (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage
• Infested fruit with bore hole plugged with anal segment of the larva
• Fruit rotting and dropping
Biology
• Egg - Lay on the calyx or on small fruits. Egg period is 7-10 days.
• Larva - Young larvae bore into the fruits and feed on the pulp and then seeds. Later stages
comes out by boring through the hard shell and spins a web that tie the fruits stalk to the
main stem branch to prevent the fruit from fall down. Larval period - 18 -47 days.
• Pupa - Pupation occurs either inside the damaged fruit on the stalk
Management
• ETL (5 eggs/plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits)
• Cover the fruit with polythene bags when the fruits are up to 5 cm.
• Spray NSKE 5% or neem formulations 2 ml/1 four times at fortnightly interval from
flowering as oviposition deterrent
• Release Trichogramma chilonis at one lakh/acre.
• Dimethoate 30 EC 1.5 ml/lit.
2. Fruitflies: Bactrocera (Dacus) zonata
3. Conogethes punctiferalis
8. GRAPE VINE
1. Stem girdler: Sthenias grisator (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)
• Damage: Wilting of branches and vine, damage is by both grubs and adult beetles
• Swab the trunk with carbaryl 50 WP paste 10 g/1
2. Grape vein beetle: Sinoxylon anale (Bostrychidae: Coleoptera)
• Damage: Wilting of branches and vine Wilting of branches and vine, damage is by both
grubs and adult beetles
3. Flea beetle: Scelodonta strigicollis (Eumolpidae: Coleoptera)

• Damage: Semi circular shot holes on tender leaves by adult. Root damage by grub.
Management
• Remove the loose bark at the time of pruning to prevent egg laying
• Phosalone 35 EC 2 ml/1, quinalphos 25 EC 2 ml/1, first round immediately after pruning
and repeat it 2 or 3 times.
4. Leaf roller: Sylepta lunalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

• Damage: Rolling of leaves by larva.
5. Sphingid: Hippotion celerio (Sphingidae: Lepidoptera)
6. Thrips: Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus

Damage
• Presence of silvery white scorchy patches on the leaves.
• Veins without fruits or fruit drop off prematurely
• The peak incidence from March to April and August to October. Pupation in soil
7. Pink mealy bug: Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

• Damage: Crinkling and yellowing of leaves, rotting of berries.
• Dichlorvos 75 WSC 1 ml+ fish oil rosin soap 25 g/1, monocrotophos 36 WSC 2ml/1,
8. Fruit sucking moth: Othreis ancilla

• Damage: Rotting of fruits and premature fruit dropping
9. Root knot nematode: Meloidogyne incognita

• Carbofuran 3G 60g (apply a week before pruning)
9. BER
1. Fruit borer: Meridarches scyrodes (Carposinidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage: Bore holes on fruits and fruit drop
2. Fruit fly: Carpomyia vesuviana (Tephritidae: Diptera)
Damage: Fruit rotting and fruit drop
10. JACK FRUIT

1. Borer: Margaronia caesalis, M. bivitralis (Pyrasutidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Bore holes on fruit and fruit drop
• M. bivitralis seen in Tamil Nadu .The larva feeds gregariously within the folded and
webbed leaves.
• Collect and destroy the affected shoots, flower buds and fruits in the initial stages of attack
• Cover the fruits with perforated alkathane bags of suitable size
• Spray carbaryl 50 % WP @ 1g/lit
2. Thrips: Pseudodendrothrips dwivarna (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

• Damage: Yellowing and terminal drying of shoots.
16. PINE APPLE
1. Mealybug: Dysmicoccus brevipes (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)
• Damage: nymphs remain in whorls. Yellowing of leaves. Vector of pine apple wilt
• Spray dimethoate 2ml/lit or methyldemeton 1.5 ml/lit phosphamidon 2ml/lit
• Release Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 / plant
2. Rhinoceros beetle: Oryctes rhinoceros (Scarabaeidae:Coleoptera)
• Damage: Wilting of the plant due to adult boring at the base of the stem.
12. PAPAYA
1. White fly: Bemisia tabaci, Aleurodicus dispersus (Aleurodidae : Hemiptera),
2. Fruit fly
13. TAMARIND
1. Scale: Aspidiotus tamarindi (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
• Damage: Yellowish encrustation over developing pods, ill filled and hard pods
14. APPLE, PLUM, PEAR, PEACH

1. Woolly aphid: Eriosoma lanigerum (Pemphigidae: Hemiptera)
Damage
• Weakening and death of the smaller plants
• Galls on the roots and white, woolly patches on the trunk
Host: Apple and peach
Biology
• The mid- December to mid – February is a non reproductive period for this aphids.
• March onwards, female aphids reproduce parthenogenetically and produce alate (Winged)
or apterous (Wingless)
• Apterous forms are present throughout the year while the alate occurs from July to Oct
• In winter, sexual forms appear but the nymphs already on the trees migrate downwards to
enter the root zone for hibernation
• Reverse migration from the roots to the aerial parts takes place in May
Management
• Use tolerant or resistant root stocks: M.788, M.799, MM104, MM110, MM 112, MM113,
MM114 and MM115, Northern spy, Golden delicious
• Aerial forms- Release aphelinid parasite: Aphelinus mali or predators: Coccinella
septumpunctata
• Spray dimethoate 0.03% or phosphamidon 0.025% in March-April and June
• Subterranean forms: Apply phorate 10 G @ 5 kg/tree.
2. San Jose scale : Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Diaspididae:Hemiptera)

• Damage: The infested region in bark becomes reddish, purple colouration on fruits
• They active from April-December
3. Codling moth: Cydia ( =Carpocapsa) pomonella ( Torticidae : Lepidoptera)

• Damage: Infested leaves and fruits show tunnels with frass
4. Cottony cushion scale: Icerya purchasi (Margarodidae (=Coccidae:Hemiptera)
• Damage: Yellowing of leaves.
5. Fruit fly: Bactrocera zonata (Tephritidae : Diptera )
• Damage: attacked fruits with punctures and are malformed and become rotten
• Hosts: Peach and Plum
6. Peach Leaf curl aphid: Brachycaudus helichrysi (Aphididae:Hemiptera)
• Damage: curling and yellowing of tender shoots.
7. Green peach aphid: Myzus persicae
II. PEST MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTANT VEGETABLES

1. BRINJAL
1. Shoot and fruitborer: Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera : Pyraustidae)
Damage
• Withered terminal shoots and shedding of flower buds
• Bore holes on fruits plugged with excreta [Monophagous pest on brinjal]
Management
• Collect and destroy affected shoots and fruits.
• Carbaryl 50WP 2g/1, quinalphos 25EC 2ml/1, deltamethrin 28EC 0.5ml/1, cypermethrin
25EC 0.5ml/1, fenvalerate 20EC 0.5ml/1 from one moth after planting at 15 days interval
• Set up pheromone trap (Leucinlure)
2. Stemborer: Euzophera perticella (Lepidoptera : Phycitidae)
Damage
• Withering and wilting of plants, bore holes on stem and leaf axils covered with excreta
3. Leaf roller: Antoba (=Eublemma) olivacea (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
4. Leaf webber: Psara bipunctalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Skeletonizing of leaves by webbing and scrapping the tissue
5. Ash weevils: Myllocerus spp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Damage
• Notching of leaf margins by adults and Grubs feed on roots - wilting of plants
6. Epilachna beetle: Epilachna vigintioctopunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Damage
• Both grubs and adults feed by scrapping the chlorophyll from epidermal layers of leaves
– skeletonization or windowing of leaves
✓ Collect and destroy life stages; Spray carbaryl 50WP 3g/1, malathion 50EC 2 ml/1
7. Brown leafhopper: Cestius phycitis (Hemiptera : Cicadellidae)

• Damage: Vector of little leaf disease.
8. Root knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp.

✓ Carbofuran 3 G or aldicarb 10 G in planting holes at 0.4 kg a.i./ac
9. Others sap feeders like, Aphids, Thrips, Mealy bugs
2. TOMATO
1. Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)
Damage
• Young larvae feed on tender foliage. Later instars attack the fruits
• Bore circular bore holes on fruits and thrust only a part of their body inside the fruit
2. Leaf miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyziidae)
• Damage: Numerous irregular mines on leaves
3. Leaf eating caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) [Damage- defoliation]
4. Whiteflies: Bemisia tabaci – Vector of Tomato leaf curl disease
5. Others sap feeders like, Aphids, Thrips, Mealy bugs
6. Fruit sucking moths: Othreis fullonica
7. Root knot nematode: Meloidogyne spp.
3. BHENDI
1. Fruit borer: Earias vittella, E. insulana (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage
• Withering and drying of tender shoots in early stage
• Larva bores into flowers and flower buds causing withering and dropping
• Presence of bore holes on the fruits and sometimes malformation of fruits
Management
• Install pheromone traps @ 10/acre
• Release egg larval parasitoids Chelonus blackburni @ 4000/acre
• Carbaryl 50WP 500g/ monocrotophos 36WSC 250 ml/ fenvalerate 20EC 60 ml/ acre
2. Fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera

3. Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
• Damage: Gall like swellings on the collar regon of the stem
4. Shoot weevil: Alcidodes affaber (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

• Damage: gall like swellings on shoots and leaf petioles
5. Semiloopers : Anomis flava, Xanthodes graellsi, Tarache nitidula (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
6. Ash weevil: Myllocerus spp.
7. Aphids: Aphis gossypii
8. Whiteflies: Bemisia tabaci- Vector of Bhindi yellow vein clearing mosaic virus
9. Leafhopper: Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Management – Sap feeders

• Seed treatment: Imidacloprid 70WS 10g or 600 FS 9-12 ml/ kg of seeds
• Spray monoctotophos 36 WSC 250 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 250 ml or imidacloprid 200
SL 40 ml/ acre
4. CHILLIES
1. Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
Damage
• Upward curling, marginal rolling and silvery streaks on leaves
• Vector of chilli leaf curl virus – Frankliniella schultzi
2. Yellow mite: polyphagotarsonemus latus (Acari: Tarsonemidae)

• Damage: Elongation of leaf petioles– Rat tail symptom
3. Fruit borers : Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura
5. CUCURBITS
A. BORERS
1. Fruit flies : Bactrocera (Dacus) cucurbitae, B. Ciliatus, B. zonata (Tephritidae: Diptera)
Damage
• Oozing of brown, resinous fluid from fruits: distorted and malformed fruits
• Premature dropping of fruits by maggot feeding
Management
• Clean cultivation
• In endemic areas, peak population of fruit flies coincide with rainy season
• Soil racking and dusting of insecticides
• Use ribbed gourd as trap crop and apply carbaryl 0.15% or malathion 0.1% on
congregating adult flies on the under surface of leaves
• Use attractants like citronella oil, eucalyptus oil, vinegar (acetic acid), dextrose and lactic
acid
• Poison baits: Saturated sugar solution 5ml+ malathion 50EC 5ml+ 100ml of fermented
palm juice
• Use fly trap: Keep 5g of wet fishmeal in ploythene bags (20 x 15 cm) + 0.1 ml of dichlorvos
@ 20 traps/acre
2. Snake gourd stem weevil: Baris trichosanthis (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage
• Grubs bore into the stem or petioles - withering of leaves and Adults on green matter
3. Stem gall fly: Neolasioptera falcate (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

• Damage: Maggots bore into the distal portion of shoots and making galls
4. Stem borer: Melittia eurytion (Aegeriidae: Lepidoptera)

• Adult: Dark brown moth with transparent wings
B.LEAF FEEDERS
5. Leaf miner: Liriomyza trifolii
6. Pumpkin beetles: Galerucidae: Coleoptera
• Damage: Grubs feeds on the roots, stem and fruits touching the soil and adult feeds on
leaf
• Adult: A. foveicollis - red in colour, A. cincta- grey in colour with yellow-red border;
A. intermedia - blue in colour
7. Snake gourd semilooper: Plusia peponis (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae)

8. Plume moth: Sphenarches caffer (Lepidoptera : Pterophoridae)
9. Pumpkin caterpillar: Diaphania indica (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Young larva scrapes the chlorophyll and later folds and webs the leaves and
feeds within
• Adult: Female has tuft of orange coloured hairs at its anal end
10. SAP FEEDERS: Aphids, Stink bug: Cordius janus, Spiralling whitefly
• Use of BHC, DDT, Copper and sulphur dusts should be avoided as they are phytotoxic to
gourds
6. COLE CROPS (CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, RADDISH)

1. Diamondback moth: Plutella xylostella (Plutellidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Presence of small yellow mines and Scrapping of epidermal leaf tissues
Management
• Mustard as trap crop
• Install pheromone trap (DBM lure) to monitor and control DBM adults @ 5 traps/ac.
• ETL - 20 larvae/10 plants
• Becillus thuringiensis 400 g or NSKE 4% spray.
• Depending upon the pest intensity, spray cartap hydrochloride 0.05% or carbosulfan
0.025% or quinalphos0.05% at primordial or head initiation stage.
• Apply dichlorovs 0.075% at 10 or 15 days interval starting from 15 days after sowing.
• Larval parasitoids viz., Cotesia plutellae in plains and Diadegma semiclausum in hills.
Release 40,000 adults/ac @ 8,000 adults/release commencing from 20 days after planting
to reduce DBM damage
2. Cabbage borer: Hellula undalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

• Damage: The larvae web the leaves and bore into the stem, stalk or leaf veins
3. Leaf Webber: Crocidolomia binotalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

• Damage: webs the leaves together together the leaves and feeds within
4 Cabbage green senilooper: Trichoplusia ni (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Leaves with holes and severe damage by skeletonization and defoliation
5. Cabbage butterflies: Pieris brassicae, P. rapae (Pieridae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Defoliation. Sometimes caterpillar bores into the heads of cabbage.
6. Spodoptera litura
• Damage: on leaves and heads of cabbage and cauliflower
7. Radish flea beetles: Phyllotreta downsei

• Damage: Adult beetles bite holes in the leaves. ADULT
8. Mustard sawfly: Athalia lugens proxima (Tenthridinidae: Hymenoptera)

• Damage: Nibbling the margins of the tender leaves
9. Aphids: Myzus persicae, Brevicoryne brassicae, Painted bug, Bagrada spp.

Management
• Set up yellow sticky trap @ 4/acre
• Spary any one of the following: Dimethoate 400 ml/acre, Monocrotophos 250 ml/acre,
Neem oil 800 ml/acre
7. POTATO
1. Potato tuber moth: Pthorimaea operculella (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae)
Damage: ETL = 5% of leaf damage
• Pest of both field and storage, Important invasive pest of potato
Management
• Select healthy tubers; Sowing of tubers at 10-15 cm depth
• Clean cultivation; Tolerant varieties- Kufi Sindhuri, Kufri dewa
• Pheromone traps – 20/ ha
• Egg larval parasitoid – Chelonus blackburnii @ 30,000/ ha. Twice on 40 and 70 DAP
• NSKE: 5% or Quinalphos 2ml/ lit
2. Potato cut worm: Agrotis spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) [ETL – 2 larvae/ m row]
3. White grub
*Pests of both field and storage - Potato tuber moth, Pulse beetle & Sweet potato weevil
8. SWEET POTATO
1. Sweet potato weevil: Cylas formicarius (Coleoptera: Apionidae)
• Adult weevils with non geniculate antenna
Management
• Select healthy seed material and clean cultivation; Tolerant variety – CO3
• Racking up of soil and do earthing up at 50 DAP
• Using of yellow sticky trapYellow sticky trap
• Soaking of tubers in Fenthion 100 EC or Monocrotophos @ 2 ml/ lit before sowing
2. Tortoise beetles
9. DRUMSTICK
A. FLOWER FEEDERS
1. Budworm: Noorda moringae (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Larva bores into flower buds and causes shedding
2. Bud midge: Stictodiplosis moringae (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

• Damage: Feed on the internal content of the flower buds and cause shedding
B. LEAF FEEDERS
3. Leaf caterpillar: Noorda blitealis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
• Damage: Larva remains in a thin silken web on the under surface of leaf and feeds on the
leaflets reducing them into papery structures
4. Hairy caterpillars: Eupterote mollifera, Pericallia ricini, Metanastria hyrtaca
5. Pod fly: Gitona distigma (Drosophilidae: Diptera)

• Damage: Drying and splitting of fruits from tip. Gummy exudates oozing from fruits.
10. CURRY LEAF

1. Psyllid bug: Diaphorina citri (Psyllidae:Hemiptera)
• Damage: Tender shoots and leaves infested by nymphs and adults
2. Citrus butterfly
11. AMARANTHUS
1. Amaranthus weevil: Hypolixus truncatulus (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage
• Irregular zig-zag tunnels in the pith region fillied with excreta
• Gall like thickening and longitudinal splitting of stem
2. Leaf caterpillar: Hymenia recurvalis (Pyraustidae:Lepidoptera)

• Damage: Scraping of epidermal leaves by webbing of the leaves with silken threads
3. Leaf webber: Psara basalis (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
12. OTHER IMPORTANT PESTS OF CROPS

1. Tapioca scale: Aonidomytilus albus (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)
• Select pest free seed materials for planting
• Indigenous coccinellid Predator – Chilocoris nigritus
2. Papaya mealy bug: Paracoccus marginatus on Tapioca, papaya, Mulberry
3. Aphids and whiteflies on papaya
4. Onion and garlic Thrips: Thrips tabaci
• Pale white blotches on leaves, drying of leaves from tip to down- Silvery shoot formation
• Bulb development is affected
5. Onion fly: Hylemya antique (Diptera: Muscidae)
• Shrivelling and withering of bulbs lead to soft rot
III. PEST MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTANT SPICES AND PLANTATION CROPS
1. PEPPER
1. Pollu beetle: Longitarsus nigripennis (Coleoptera: Alticidae)
Damage
• Grubs bore in to berries and make them hollow; Soil pupation
• Peak incidence is during June to January
2. Marginal gall thrips: Liothrips karnyi
• Marginal rolling of leaves ultimately leaves become brittle
2. TURMERIC AND GINGER
1. Scale: Lepidosaphes cornutus, Coccidae: Hemiptera
• Select scale free vines; monocrotophos 36 SL @ 0.036%
2. Leaf roller: Udaspes folus (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), Rhizome borer, C. punctiferalis

3. CARDAMOM
1. Shoot, panicle and capsule borer: Conogethes punctiferalis
• Bore hole on shoots and capsules and plugged with excrea lead to dead heart
2. Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi Thripidae: Thysanoptera

Damage
• More damage during December to April. Injured tissues become scabby and rough-
• Affected flower stalks wither and dry early
• Scabbed pods, Shriveled, malformed seeds - collectively known as Itching of cardamom
• Mysore variety is highly susceptible
Management
• Wider spacing of 2.5 x 2.5m
• Remove alternate weed hosts: Panicum longipes, Ammomum sp., Colacasia sp.etc…
• Remove dry leaves, leaf sheath and old panicles prior to insecticide application
• Insecticides: monocrotophos 36 SL @ 0.07% or quinalphos 25 EC @ 0.05% or dimethoate
30 EC @ 0.06%
3. Cardamom aphid: Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii

• Vector of katte disease; More incidence during June to August
4. Hairy caterpillars
4. COFFEE
1. White stem borer: Xylotrechus quadripes, Cerambycidae:Coleoptera
Damage: Grubs make tunnels in the stem
• Uproot and burn borer infested plants during March– April and September – October
• Padding with monocrotophos 36 SL @ 5 ml by making a window in the stem at 5 cm
and filling it with absorbent cotton soaked in insecticide solution and close it.
• White muscardine fungus, Beauveria bassiana can be used
2. Coffee berry borer: Hypothenemus hampei, Scolytidae: Coleoptera

Damage
• Grubs and adults make damage to berries by feeding the inner contents
• Damaged berries are highly susceptible for invasion of other pathogens
• Peak population during Sep. and Oct.
Biology
• Egg: Laid in the tunnel on the berry
• Grub: Apodous grub with brownish head and pupation: inside the berries
• Adult: Small black beetle with a sub cylindrical body covered with thick hairs
Management
• Adopt cultural and phytosanitary measures
• Spread gunny bags or polythene sheets on the ground to minimize cleaning
• Maintain optimum shade and good drainage
• Collect and destroy infested fruits by burning
• Dip infested berries in boiling water for 2-3 min to kill the stage inside
• Dry coffee to the prescribed moisture level to prevent breeding of beetles in stored coffee
(Arabica / Robusta parchement: 10% , Robusta cherry: 11%)
• Fumigate the harvested berries and cloth bags
• White muscardine fungus: Beauveria bassiana @ 109 spores/ ml
• Use attractant trap to collect and kill the beetles (Borca trap)
3. Coffee green scale: Coccus viridis Coccidae: Hemiptera

• Remove and burn weeds which harbour the scale
• Control ants by dusting quinalphos 1.5 % or methyl parathion 2 % around the base of
coffee
• Insecticides: quinalphos 25 EC 300 ml or methyl parathion 50 EC 300 ml or dimethoate
30 EC 420 ml/ ha in 200 lit of water
• Mealy bug, Planococcus spp. Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera (Three nymphal instars)
4. Shot hole borer: Xylosandrus compactus Scolytidae:Coleoptera
5. Aphids: Toxoptera aurantii, Aphididae: Hemiptera and Root grub, Holotrichia conferta
6. Snail, Ariophanta solata, Ariophantidae: Gastropoda: Mollusca
5. TEA
1. Tea mosquito bug: Helopeltis theivora Miridae: Hemiptera
2. Hairy caterpillars and Tea Looper: Biston supressaria,(Geometridae: Lepidoptera)
3. Tea mites (Acari)

Mite Scientific name Mostly present on Damage
Coffee mite Oligonychus coffeae Upper surface of Browning, bronzing, drying
(Tetranychidae) mature leaves and falling of leaves
Scarlet mite Brevipalpus Lower surface of Yellowing, browning and
(Phytoptipalphidae) phoenicus mature leaves falling of leaves
Pink mite Acaphylla thea Both upper and Pink or coppery brown
(Eriophyidae) lower surface of discolouration, withering of
leaves leaves
Purple mite Calacarus carinatus Lower surface of Upward curling, leathery
(Eriophidae) young leaves appearance of leaves
Yellow mite Polyphagotarsonemus Upper and lower Leaves become brittle, with
(Tarsonemidae) latus surface of young corky patches
leaves
Management
• Collect and destroy all types of damaged parts along with mites, Water sprinkling
• Insecticides: Dicofol 18.5 EC 0.037% or Ethion 50 EC 0.1% or Wettable sulphur 50 WP
0.1% or Phosalone 35 EC 0.07% or quinalphos 25 EC 0.05%
IV PESTS OF IMPORTANT FLOWER CROPS
1. ROSE
1. Rose aphid: Macrosiphum rosaeformis; M. rosae Aphididae: Hemiptera
• Remove and destroy damaged leaves and flower buds
• Natural enemies: Aphidius rosae and Aphelinus sp. and Coccinella septumpunctata
• Insecticides: dimethoate 30 EC 0.06% or methyl demeton 25 EC 0.05%
2. Thrips, Scales, maely bugs and white flies on other flower crops
3. leaf cutter bees on rose
4. Red spider mite: Tetranychus spp.- on cut flowers (eg. carnation)
2. JASMINE
1. Bud worm: Hendecasis duplifascialis, Pyraustidae:Lepidoptera
2. Gallery worm: Elasmopalpus jasminophagus Pyralidae: Lepidoptera
3. Leaf roller: Glyphodes unionalis Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera
4. Eriophyid mite: Aceria jasmini – Felt like out growth on leaves- namely erineum
Management of Jasmine pests
• Collect and destroy damaged leaves, webbings or leaf rolls along with larvae
• Use light trap @ 1/ ha to attract and kill adult moths
• Maintain proper pruning and hygienic of bushes
• Insecticides: NSKE 5% or malathion 50 EC 0.1% in case of severe infestation
5. Root knot nematode on crossandra (cuases crossandra wilt)
PESTICIDES
Chemical control: Management of insect pests using chemical pesticides
Pesticides: Chemicals which are used to kill pests; Insecticides – used to kill insects
• In 1939, insecticidal property of DDT was discovered by Paul Muller of Switzerland and
was awarded Nobel Prize in 1948
1) LD50 (Median lethal dose) – Dose of insecticide required to kill 50% of the target insect
population and expressed as mg or g / kg body weight of larva or adult insect
2) LC50 (Median lethal concentration) - Concentration of insecticide required to kill 50% of the
given organism or insect and expressed in PPM or %
3) LT50 (Median lethal time)- Time required to kill 50% of the population at a certain dose or
concentration and expressed in hours or minutes
Generations of insecticides
Generation Year Compounds
I 1939-1942 BHC and DDT
II 1944-1947 Organophosphates and Carbamate
III 1967 Hormonal insecticides, JH mimic insect growth regulators
IV 1970s Synthetic pyrethroids
• Pesticide should be applied only based on the need, i.e. if pest reaches ETL.
• Only 1% of the pesticide applied to crop reaches the target
TOXICITY TERMS
Acute toxicity – Toxicity is by single dose of the toxicant
Chronic toxicity – Toxicity is by accumulation of small amount of toxicant over a period of time
Others: Oral, Dermal and Inhalation toxicities
I. PESTICIDES GROUPS
Groups of pesticide: The pesticides are classified into various groups based on pest organism
against which the compounds are used, their chemical nature, mode of entry and mode of action
Based on organisms
a) Insecticides: Chemicals used to kill or manage insects (eg.) Monocrotophos, malathion
b) Rodenticides: Chemicals exclusively used to control rats (eg.) Zinc phosphide,
Bromadialone
c) Acaricides: Chemicals used to control mites on crops/ animals (eg.) Dicofol,
Spiromecifen
d) Avicides: Chemicals used to repel the birds (eg.) Anthraquionone
e) Molluscicides: Chemicals used to kill the snails and slugs (eg.) Metaldehyde
f) Nematicides: Chemicals used to control nematodes (eg.) Ethylene dibromide
g) Fungicides: Chemicals used to control fungal plant diseases (eg.) Copper oxy cholirde,
Carbendazim
h) Bactericide: Chemicals used to manage plant diseases caused by bacteria (eg.)
Streptomycin sulphate
i) Herbicide: Chemicals used to manage weeds (eg.) 2, 4-D, Butachlor
Based on mode of entry
a) Stomach poison: The insecticide applied in the leaves and other parts of the plant when
ingested, act in the digestive system of the insect and bring about kill (eg.) Malathion.
b) Contact Poison: The toxicant brings about death of the pest by means of contact (eg.)
Fenvalerate.
c) Fumigant: Toxicant enters in vapour form into the tracheal system through spiracles (eg.)
Aluminium phosphide
d) Systemic poison: Chemicals when applied to plant or soil are absorbed by foliage (or) roots
and translocated throughout the plant and cause death of insect feeding on plant. (eg.)
Dimethoate
Based on mode of action
a) Physical poison: killing of insect by the physical effect of the toxicant (eg.) Activated clay
b) Protoplasmic poison: Toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein (eg.) Arsenicals
c) Respiratory poison: Chemicals which inactivate respiratory enzymes (eg.) hydrogen
cyanide
d) Nerve poison: Chemicals inhibit impulse conduction (axonic & synaptic) (eg.) Malathion
e) Chitin inhibition: Chemicals inhibit chitin synthesis (eg.) Diflubenzuron
Based on chemical nature

A. Inorganic ompounds
Compounds of mineral origin (eg.) Sulphur, Zinc phosphide, Arsenic and Fluorine
compounds
B. Synthetic organic
a) Chlorinated hydrocarbon (OC): Compounds containing chlorine bonded to carbon atoms
(eg.) DDT, HCH, aldrin, endosulfan
b) Organophosphorus (OP) compounds: Esters of phosphonic, phosphoric, thiophosphoric
(or) dithiophosphoric acid. (eg.) Malthion, fenthion, quinolphos.
c) Carbamates: Esters of carbamic acid. (eg.) Carbaryl, carbofuran, aldicarb.
d) Synthetic pyrethroids: Synthetic analogues of natural pyrethrins synthesized from
petroleum based chemicals (eg.) Fenvalerate, cypermethrin, permethrin
C. Newer insecticide molecules

a) Neonicotinoids: Analogues of natural nicotinoids- (eg.) Imidacloprid, Acatamiprid
b) Phenyl pyrazoles: (eg.) Fipronil
c) Spinosyns (Spinosad): Fermented metabolite of soil actinomycete, Saccharopolyspora
spinosa
d) Oxadiazone compounds: Indoxacarb
e) Antibiotics: (eg). Avermectin (from Streptomyces avermitilis) and Emamectin benzoate
f) Tetronic acid derivatives: (eg). Spiromecifen, Spirodiclofen
g) Pthalicacid diamide: (eg). Flubendiamide
II. PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS
Pure active ingredient (toxicant) is highly toxic and quantity available for application is
low and hence they are diluted with many adjuvants. Types of formulation (mode of application).
A. For dry application Solid directly from container
1. Dusts (D)
• Active ingredient + a carrier such as clay (attapulgite, Kaolin, ash), organic flour (wood
bark), pulverized minerals (sulphur, talc, lime, gypsum)
• Drift problem is more- highly toxic to beneficial insects
2. Granules (G)
• Liquid insecticides are coated over coarse particle of porous material like clay and corn
cobs and they are much safer than dusts.
B. For spraying after mixing with water
1. Wettable powders (WP)
• Active ingredient + inert dust + surfactant
• When mixes with water and forms temporary suspension
• Frequent agitation is needed to keep the insecticides in suspension
• They are less phytotoxic than ECs and should never be used without dilution.
2. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC)

• Toxicant + solvent + emulsifier + stabilizing agent
• Emulsifier makes the water insoluble toxicant to water soluble and its yield a stable milky
solution when diluted with water
• When applied, the solvent and water evaporate quickly leaving the toxicant alone.
3. Soluble powders (SP)

• Consist of finely ground solid material which dissolve in water forming true solution.
4. Flowable (F)
• Active ingredient is wet milled with a clay diluent and water
• Constant agitation is needed to prevent formation of insecticide suspension and settling.
5. Ultra low volume concentrates (ULV)

• Special kind of high concentrate solutions and are applied without dilution with special
aerial or ground equipment to produce extremely fine spray
Formulation Particle size Active ingredient

Dust < 100µ (1-40 0.1 - 25%
µ)
WP 100 - 200 µ 15 - 95 % (50% approx.)
Micro granules < 0.25 mm -
Granules 0.25 - 2.5 mm 2 - 10%
Droplet sizes spray fluid
o Coarse spray = > 400 µ
o Medium spray = 210-400µ
o Fine spray = 100 – 200 µ
o Smoke = 0.001 to 0.1 µ
o Aerosols = 0.1 to 50 µ
o Fog = 1 to 50 µ
o Mist =50 to 150 µ
Volume and size of spray fluids

Type of spray Spray Coverage Droplet Equipment used
fluid (ha/ day) size (µ)
High volume sprayer 500 lit/ ha 0.5 to 1 150 Knapsack, Rocker sprayers
Low volume sprayer 200 lit/ ha 3.0 70 to Power sprayer, Mist blower
150
Ultra low volume 5 lit/ ha 8.0 20 to 70 ULV sprayer, Electrodyn
sprayer sprayer
• Desirable droplet size for spraying: Herbicides = 250 µ, Fungicide = 100-250 µ,
Insecticides = 100 µ
• Spraying of dust through air craft can be done up to 5 kmph of wind speed whereas, liquid
spray can be done upto 16 kmph
For application as gas or vapour

1. Fumigants
• It is in the form of poisonous gases that kill when absorbed or inhaled
• Most of the fumigants are liquid and are mixtures of two or more gases.
2. Smoke generators
• Used in the form of coil like strips containing pyrethrum, oxidant and wood dust for the
control mosquitoes. When ignited, these coils release vapours.
3. Aerosols
• A small amount of pesticide is driven through a fine opening by a chemically inactive gas
under pressure when the nozzle is triggered (or) by burning toxicant or vaporizing it
• The toxicant is suspended as minute particle (0.1 - 50 w/w) in air as a fog or mist
• It consists of toxicant (2%), solvent (10%), knockdown agent (2%) and propellant (86%)
Other formulations
1. Poison bait: Comprises of Insecticide + food attractive
2. Seed dressers: active ingredient in a carrier material with an adhesive
3. Tablets: Toxicant, and a carrier to prevent the flammability. They release toxic gas
4. Insecticide paints and polishes: Toxicant is in the form of paint/polish -applied as such by
using a brush
5. Encapsuled fumigants: The fumigant is impregnated with inert material and sealed in plastic
containers
Insecticide additives/ adjuvants
Additives Purpose Example
Dust additives
Carriers/ Organic: flour of walnut, wood, bark, soybean and ground nut shell
diluents Inorganic: Sulphur powder, dolomite, lime, gypsum, talc, clay, kaolinite, vermiculite
Spray additives
Solvent Dissolve water insoluble toxicant or active Kerosene, diesel, petroleum
ingredient (a.i.)
Wetting Convert water insoluble toxicant to water soluble
agent
Spreader Improve the wetting of pesticides through increase Ca caesinate, soybean flour,
the spreading property sulphonated charcoal
Emulsifiers Prevent solvent dissolved toxicant from Na oleate amines, Na lauryl
precipitating out, act as connective bridge between sulphate, Teepol, egg albumin,
water and solvent dissolved toxicant and gives milky Soap solution
emulsion when mixing with water
Sticking Prevent washing off pesticides by rain or dew Gelatin, resin, starch
agent
Stabilizer Prevent rapid degradation of unstable organic Iso propyl cresols
pesticides
Softener Reduce the phytotoxicity of pesticides Sulphur, ZnSo4, Lime, Caesin
Deodorant Masks the unpleasant odour Cedar oil, pine oil, rose wood
oil, other plant oils
III. LABEL INFORMATION (according to Insecticide Act, 1968)

• Label indicate the details like Name of the pesticide (Brand name, Trade name, Common
name), Name of the manufacturer and address, Registration number, Kind and name of
active ingredient and their percentage, Types of formulation, Net content by weight, Batch
number (assigned by manufacturer), Date of manufacture, Expiry date, Antidote statement,
Warming symbols and signal (warming symbol is of diamond shaped consisting of two
triangles with a colour in the lower triangle and a signal in the upper triangle).
• Leaflet furnish the details like Name of the pests, weeds and diseases against the chemical
may be used, Direction for use, Warning and cautioning statement, symptoms of
poisonning, antidotes and first aid Direction for storage, careful handling and disposal.
Classification of Symbol and Word on Colour of the Acute toxicity (mg/kg) body
the Insecticides Upper part of triangle triangle weight
Oral Dermal
Extremely toxic Skull + Cross bone + Bright red 1-50 1-200
'POISON'
Highly toxic Poison Bright yellow 51-500 201-2000
Moderately toxic Danger Bright blue 501-5000 2001 - 20,000
Slightly toxic Caution Bright green > 5000 > 20,000
• Total number of registered pesticides – 221
• Number of pesticides restricted to use in India – 13
• Number of pesticides banned for use and their manufacture allowed only for export - 27
IV. PESTICIDE APPLICATION METHODS

Dusting
• Carried out in the morning hours and during very light air stream and mild dew is needed
• Dusting is cheaper and suited for dry land crop pest control
Spraying
• Spraying is normally carried out by mixing EC (or) WP formulations in water. There are
three types of spraying- High, low and ultra low volume spraying
Granular application
• Highly toxic pesticides are prepared in the form of granules
• Granules can be applied directly on soil or in plant parts and requires slight moisture in
the soil. The methods of applications are
a) Broadcasting – by mixing the Granules with equal quantity of sand
(eg.) Carbofuran 3G @ 1.45 kg/8 cent rice nursery in a thin film of water and impound
water for 3 days
b) Infurrow application
Applied at the time of sowing in furrows in beds and covered with soil before irrigation.
(eg.) Carbofuran 3G applied @ 3 g per meter row for the control of sorghum shootfly
c) Side dressing - After the establishment of the plants, applied on the furrow
d) Spot application - Granules are applied @ 5 cm away and 5 cm deep on the sides of plant
e) Ring application: Granules are applied a sa ring form around the trees
f) Root zone application: Granules are encapsulated and placed in the root zone of the plant
g) Leaf whorl application- Granules + equal quantity of sand = applied in the leaf whorl in
crops like sorghum, maize, sugarcane to control internal borers
Pralinage
• The surface of banana sucker intended for planting is trimmed and dipped in wet clay
slurry followed by sprinkling of carbofuran 3G (40g/sucker) against burrowing nematode
Seed pelleting/seed dressing:

• (eg.) sorghum seeds are treated with chlorphyriphos 4 ml/kg in 20 ml of water and shade
dried to control shootfly
Seedling root dip

• (eg.) in rice to control sucking pests and stem borer in early transplanted crop, and 100 ml
chlorpyriphos in 2.5 litre of water is used
Sett treatment
• Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% malathion for 15 minutes to protect them from scales
• Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% Imidacloprid 70 WS 175 g/ ha or 7 g/l dipped for 16
minutes to protect them from termites
Trunk/stem injection
• Injection of 5 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC into the coconut stem against red palm weevil
and eriophyid mite
• Pseudo stem injection of banana, an injecting gun or hypodermic syringe is used for the
control of banana aphid, vector of bunchy top disease
Padding
• 5-10ml of Monocrotophos 36WSP- against Stem borers of mango, silkcotton and cashew
Swabbing
• Coffee white borer is controlled by swabbing the trunk and branches with HCH (BHC) 1
per cent suspension.
Root feeding
• Trunk injection in coconut results in wounding of trees and root feeding is an alternate and
safe chemical method to control black headed caterpillar, eriophyid mite, red palm weevil
• Monocrotophos 10 ml and equal quantity of water are taken in a polythene bag and tied
with root
Soil drenching
• Chemical+water= solution is used for soil drenching to control certain subterranean pests
• (eg.) BHC 50 WP is mixed with water @ 1 kg in 65 litres of water and drench the soil for
the control of cotton/stem weevil and brinjal ash weevil grubs.
Capsule placement
(eg.) In banana to control bunchy top vector (aphid) the insecticide is filled in gelatin
capsules and placed in the crown region
Baiting
a) Spodoptera: 0.5 kg molasses + 0.5 kg carbaryl 50 WP + 5 kg of rice bran + water (3 litres)
are made into small pellets and dropped in the field in the evening hours
b) Rats: Zinc phophide is mixed at 1:49 ratio with food like popped rice or maize or cholam
or coconut pieces (or) warfarin can be mixed at 1:19 ratio with food. Ready to use cake
formulation (Bromodiolone) is also available
c) Coconut rhinoceros beetle: Castor rotten cake 5 kg + toddy + Contact insecticide
Fumigation: Solid and liquid Fumigants are used/ applied in

a) Soil: To control the nematode in soil, the liquid fumigants are injected using injecting gun
b) Storage: Liquid fumigants like Ethylene dibromide (EDB), carbon tetrachloride etc. and
solid fumigants (Aluminium phosphide) are used in godowns to manage stored product pest
c) Trunk: Aluminium phosphide ½ to 1 tablet is inserted into the affected portion of coconut
tree and plugged with cement or mud against red palm weevil
V. PEST RESURGENCE
• Tremendous increase in target pest population brought about by indiscriminate use of
insecticides
• e.g. Quinalphos, phorate -Cause resurgence of BPH in rice and Carbofuran - Leaf folder
in rice
• Simple resistance: Insect develops resistance only against the insecticide to which it is
exposed
• Cross resistance: Insect develops resistance not only to exposed insecticide but also to
other related insecticides to which it is not already exposed
VI. SECONDARY PEST OUTBREAK

• Application of a pesticide against a major pest, kills the natural enemies of minor or
secondary pest, causes their secondary outbreak
e.g. Use of synthetic pyrethroids against bollworms in cotton killed natural enemies
of whitefly causing an outbreak of whitefly
VII PLANT PROTECTION APPLIANCES

DUSTERS
• Appliances that are used for applying dry dust formulations of pesticides are called as
dusters.
• The dusters consists of a hopper which contains an agitator, an adjustable orifice or
metering mechanism and delivery tube
• Major problem is the greater chance of drift
1. Rotary dusters
• Rotary duster consists of a blower, gear box and a hopper with a capacity to hold 4-5 kg
dust and operated by rotating a crank and motion is transmitted through the gear
• Used for dusting field crops, vegetables and small trees and bushes in orchards
• Efficiency - 1 to 1.5 ha/ day
2. Knapsack dusters
• Dust container of 2 to 5 kg of capacity through which air current is blown by means of
bellows- used for spot application
3. Power operated dusters

• Engine (1 to 3 hp) is the prime mover and dusters pulled by tractor
• Capacity – 10 to 20 kg, Discharge rate- 1- 9 kg/ min
• Used for covering larger area (12 ha) and tall trees
4. Plunger duster: It is used kitchen garden

5. Bellow duster
SPRAYERS
I. Manually operated hydraulic sprayers: the hydraulic pump directly acts on the spray fluid
and discharges it
1. Hand syringe: It is single acting pump working on the principle of cycle pump.
2. Hand sprayer: capacity = 0.5 to 1.0 lit and used for spraying small kitchen garden
3. Bucket pump sprayer
• It consists of a brass pump (either double acting pump with 2 cylinders or a single
pump with one cylinder for continuous discharge of fluid), hose, lance and a nozzle
• This is suited for small scale spraying
4. Knapsack back pack sprayer: 10 to 14 lit capacity- pressure is developed using the
handle
5. Rocker sprayer: Requires 2 operators
• Consist of pump assembly, platform, operating lever, pressure chamber (14 to 18 kg/
cm2), suction hose, strainer, delivery hose and an extension rod with spray nozzle
• This is used for spraying fruit trees and tall crops
6. Foot sprayer (pedal pump) - require single operator, pressure 17 to 21 kg/ cm2
7. Manually operated compression sprayers: These are also known as pneumatic sprayers
- air pressure is employed for forcing the liquid through the nozzle
a) Pneumatic hand compression sprayer
• The tank is filled to ¾ capacity and ¼ with air
• The spray is forced out of the nozzle though trigger cut off valve under the pressure of
air above the spray fluid to emerge inform of a continuous spray
• This is mostly used in glass houses and kitchen garden
b) Pneumatic knapsack sprayer

• Similar to compression hand sprayers and used for spraying large quantities (9-10 lit)
• Pressure = 2 to 5 kg/ cm2. Used for Agricultural spray and mosquito control
II. Power operated sprayer

3. Power sprayer (Mist blower cum duster)
The spray fluid is blown out by an air current produced in the machine, it consists of
1. Chemical tank (12 lit.) 6. Blower assembly
2. Fuel tank (2.5 lit.) 7. Delivery system
3. Engine (1 - 2 hp) 8. Nozzle system
4. Carburetor 9. Starter pulley
5. Spark plug
2. Ultra low volume sprayer (ULV) (Hand carried, battery operated disc-sprayer)
Pesticides are applied with < 5 litres spray fluid produces fine droplets (80 m)
3. Electrodyn sprayer (EDS)

• It is for the controlled droplet application of chemicals (CDA)
• Electrical energy is used for droplet formation and propulsion towards target crops
• Coverage on under surface of leaves is possible and causes minimal drift to non-target
areas
PARTS OF A SPRAYER
• It atomize the spray fluid into small droplets and eject with some force. Its parts are as
follow
1. Tank: To hold the spray fluid during spraying (eg.) knapsack and power sprayers 9 – 13 lit
2. Pump: This create the energy required for atomization of spray fluid
a) Air pump (Pneumatic): Mostly used in compression sprayers. Here, the force created by
pump acts, over the spray fluid
b) Positive displacement pumps (Plunger, rotary and centrifugal pump): It takes a
definite volume of liquid inlet and transfer it without any escape to outlet
3. Agitator: For uniform dispersal of pesticides
4. Pressure gauge
5. Valves: To govern the direction of the flow of the spray fluid
6. Filter: Provided between tank and the pump unit, pump and spray lance to protect the pump
from abrasion and to prevent blocking of nozzles
7. Pressure chamber: prevents fluctuation in the pressure and effects uniformly in spraying
8. Hose: It is attached to the sprayer on one end and the spray lance on the other
9. Spray lance: length varies from 35 to 90 cm with a 120oC
10. Cut-off valve: It is used to shut off the liquid
11. Spray boom: Spray bars carrying more than one nozzle is known as spray booms
12. Nozzle: It breaks the liquid into droplets and spread them into spray droplets. It consist of
a) Body
b) Cap: It is a nut screwed on the body which holds other parts
c) Swirl plate: To give a definite characteristic spray pattern.
d) Washer (sealer): to allow variation in depth of the swirl chamber and prevents the leakage
of spray fluid
e) Strainer: To prevent the entry to bigger size particle
TYPES OF NOZZLES
1. Hydraulic nozzle
a. Fan/ flat type nozzles
• Orifice plate has an oblong orifice (‘V’ shape).
• Uniform pattern of spray is obtained when more than one nozzle is used.
• It is recommended for spraying flat surface such as soil and herbicides
b. Cone type nozzles- It may be either hollow or solid cone,
i) Hollow cone: Only one slot is present through which liquid is forced in the swirl plate to
to produce a hollow cone shape spray and used for insecticide and fungicide spraying
ii) Solid cone: two slots are present at the centre of swirl plate and used for herbicide
spraying
c) Adjustable nozzle: Sprays in a cone pattern of various angles and also in broken form
2) Flood jet nozzle: Since the jet falls at right angle to the surface, drifting of the chemical is
minimized. This is used for herbicide spray
3) Thermal energy nozzle: It produces fog
4) Centrifugal energy nozzle: for ULV and aircraft spraying
5) Two types of nozzles used in power sprayers
i). Jet nozzle
• It contains tdosage sleeves of 4 marks - I, II, III and IV indicating the size of the hole
• No.I - lowest rate of discharge (0.5 lit/ha) and No. IV is for highest rate of discharge
ii) Adjustable micronizer nozzle: Give fixed rate of discharge at a time
Other appliances
1. Soil injecting gun
• Used for fumigating the soil at different depths to control nematodes and soil insects
2. Bird scarer
• It is produced loud noise at regular interval and used to scare away the birds.
• The sound is produced by calcium carbide and water
• One unit is sufficient to scare away the birds from an area of 3-6 acres
3. Flame thrower
• To destroy locust swarm, hairy caterpillars. It is ordinary pneumatic sprayer filled with
kerosene for producing flame
• Lance and nozzle are replaced with metal burner
4. Granular applicator
• It consist of a hopper to hold the granules + regulating mechanism for the constant flow of
granules 1% = 1g/ 100ml or 1g/ 100g or 1ml/ 100g
1 ppm = 1mg/ 1000ml or 1ml/ 1000ml or 1mg/ 1000mg
Pesticide calculations
1. Solid formulations: V1 * N1 = 100 * R * A
V1 – Quantity of commercial formulation required (Kg)
N1 – Concentration of commercial formulation (%)
R – Recommended dose of the formulation (Kg a.i./ ha)
A – Area to be covered (ha)
2. Liquid formulations: V1 * N1 = V2 * N2 1 ha = 2.5 acres
V1 – Volume of commercial formulation required (lit) 1 cent = 40 m2 or 435.6 sq ft
N1 – Concentration of commercial formulation (%) 1 kg = 1000 g
V2 – Volume of spray fluid required (lit) 1 g = 1000 mg
N2 – Concentration of spray fluid required (%)
List of some important insecticides and their trade names
S. No. Insecticides Trade name Colour of the triangle
Organophosphates
1. Acephate 75% WP Asataf, Orthene Blue
2. Chlorpyriphos 20% EC Dursban Yellow
3. Dimethoate 30% EC Rogor Blue
4. Monocrotophos 36% SL Nuvacron Red
5. Dichlorvos 76% EC (DDVP) Nuvan Red
6. Ethion 100% EC Fosmite Red
7. Malathion 50% EC Cythion, Hilthion Blue
8. Methyl Parathion 50% EC Metacid Red
9. Oxydmeton methyl 25% EC Metasystox Yellow
10. Phorate 10% G Thimet Red
11. Phosphomidon Dimecron Red
12. Triazophos 40% EC Hostathion Yellow
13. Phosalone 50% EC Zolone Red
14. Quinalphos 25% EC Ekalux Yellow
Carbamates
1. Aldicarb 10% G Temik Red
2. Carbofuran 3% G Furadon Red
3. Carbaryl 50% WP Sevin Yellow
4. Thiodicarb 75% WP Larvin Yellow
5. Carbosulfan 25% SC Marshal -
Synthetic pyethroid
1. Betacyfluthrin 2.5% EC Bulldock llowYe
2. Cypermethrin 10% EC Cymbush Yellow
3. Deltamethrin 2.8% EC Decis Yellow
4. Fenvalerate 20% EC Tatafen Yellow
Fumigants
1. Aluminium phosphide (tablets) Celphos -
Newer insecticides
Neonicotinoids
1. Imidacloprid 17.8% SL (Foliar spray) Confidor Yellow
2. Imidocloprid 70% WS (Seed treatment) Gaucho Yellow
3. Thiamethoxam 25% WG Actara Blue
4. Thiamethoxam 70% WS Cruiser Blue
5. Acetamiprid 20% SP Pride, Rapid Yellow
6. Thiochloprid 240% SC Alanto Blue
Pyyrole insecticides
Fipronil 5% SC Regent Yellow
Avermectins
Emamectin benzoate Proclaim, Denim -
Spinosyn
Spinosad 45 % SC, 2.5% SC Tracer, Naturalyte -
Chitin synthesis inhibitors
Diflubenzuron 25 WP Dimilin -
Animal derived
Cartap hydrochloride 4 % G and 50% SP Padan, Caldan -
Oxadiazone
Indoxacarb 14.8% EC Avaunt -
Ryanodine receptors
Chlorantraniliprole Coragen Green
Phtalic acid diimide
Flubendiamide 480% SC Fame Blue
Important Acaricides and their trade names
RODENTICIDES
Insecticides Trade name 1. Single dose poison (Acute poison)
Kelthane 18.5 % EC Kelthane (eg). Zinc Phosphide (releases PH3 gas)
Fenpropathrin 10 EC Danitol - Pre baiting is needed to over come
Spiromeccifen 240% SC Oberon baitshyness
Fenazaquin 10% EC Magister (eg). Bromodialone - Moosh Moosh
Fenpyroximate 5% EC Sedna (anticoagulant)
Propargite 57% EC Omite - A second generation anticoagulant
Diafenthiuron 50% WP Polo - Prebaiting is not required
Triazophos 40% EC Hostathion
Phosalone 50% EC Zolone 2. Multi dose poison (Chronic poison)
Dimethoate 30% EC Rogor (eg). Warfarin (Rodaferin)
Monocrotophos 36% SL Nuvacron - An antocoagulant
Phosalone 50% EC Zolone - Bait ratio (1:19)
Ethion 100% EC Fosmite - Affect synthesis and absorption of Vit K
Antidotes for pesticide poisoning

Antidote Used in poisoning due to
Activated charcoal (7g) in warm + Magnesium oxide (3.5g) Stomach poison in general
water + Tannic acid (3.5g) = Universal antidote
Phenobarbital (or) Pentobarbital- intravenous administration Stomach poison of OC cpmpounds
Atropine sulphate (2-4 mg intramuscular administration) or Organophosphate Compounds
PAM (Pyridine-Z aldoxime-N-methliodide)
Atropine sulphate (2-4 mg intramuscular / intravenous appl.) Carbamates
Phenobarbital Synthetic pyrethoid
Potassium permanganate Nicotine, Zinc phosphide
Vitamin K1 and K2 Warfarin, Zinc phosphide
RODENTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

(Class: Mammalia; Order: Rodentia)
1. House rat, Roof rat, Black rat: Rattus rattus
2. House mouse: Mus musculus
3. Norway rat, Brown rat, Sewer rat, Ship rat: Rattus norvegicus
4. Lesser bandicoot: Bandicota bengalensis
5. Larger bandicoot: B. indica
RODENT MANAGEMENT
1. Physical methods: Rat proofing, Hygiene and sanitation
2. Mechanical method: Tanjore bamboo bow traps
3. Cultural method: Deep ploughing, flooding the fields, Formation of narrow bunds
4. Chemical
a. Acute/ Single dose poison: Zinc phosphide, Barium chloride, e.g. Zinc phosphide 2 parts, food
grains 96 parts and any edible oil 2 parts.
b. Chronic/ Multiple dose poison: Anticoagulants. If consumed regularly in sufficient quantity
for a prolonged period causes blood hemorrhage. These do not create bait shyness.
c. Fumigation of rat burrows:
• Cyanogas fumigation: Calcium cyanide was used as a fumigant.
• Phosphine gas fumigation: Aluminium phosphide pellets can be used
IMPORTANT STORAGE PESTS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
I. PRIMARY FEEDERS
a. Internal Feeders (feed entirely with in the grains)
1. Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Hosts: Rice (main), maize and other cereals in storage
Damage: The developing larva lives and feeds inside the grain
2. Lesser Grain Borer, Rhizopertha dominica (Coleoptera.: Bostrychidae)
Hosts: Stored cereals (main), cassava, cereal products, flours
Damage: Both larvae and adults feed on the grains. The adults are quite long-lived
3. Pulse beetles, Callosobruchus chinensis and C. maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
Hosts: Cowpea, Soybean, and other pulses; Eggs are highly visible and laid on the seeds
4. Cigarette Beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (Coleoptera.: Anobiidae)
Hosts: Stored leaf and cigarettes of tobacco, groundnut, peas and beans, many stored grains
5. Drug store beetle, Stegobium paniceum (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)- An external feeder
Grubs make cylindrical g alleries on dried herbs and spices by making and adults feed little
6. Tamarind beetle, Pachymeres gonagra (Coleoptera: Bruchidae)
Hosts: Groundnut (main) and other legumes (alternative).
Damage: Larvae bore into the kernels, and a single larva makes a large hole in the cotyledons
7. Angoumois Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)
Hosts: Paddy, maize and wheat, Sorghum and other stored grains, and dried fruits
8. Potato Tuber Moth, Phthorimaea operculella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)
Hosts: Potato, tobacco, tomato, eggplant
Damage: Tubers are bored by the caterpillars and they become infected with fungi or bacteria
9. Sweet Potato Weevil, Cylas formicarius (Curculionidae: Apionidae)
b. External Feeders (feed the grains from outside)

1. Khapra Beetle, Trogoderma granarium (Coleoptera: Dermestidae)- A
Hosts: Cereals and groundnut, Pulses, spices, and various cereal and pulse cakes
2. Red Flour Beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)
Hosts: Maize, wheat and other stored grains
3. Almond moth, Ephestia cautella (Lepidoptera: Phycitiae)
Hosts: Maize, wheat, and other grains in store, Dried fruit, beans, nuts, bananas
Damage: Webbing on the grain and on the surface of bags and feed the grains
4. Indian Meal Moth Plodia interpunctella (Lepidoptera: Phycitiae)
Hosts: Meals and flours and Dried fruits
Damage: The direct eating and contamination of foodstuffs with larvae, frass and silk
webbing.
5. Rice moth Corcyra cephalonica (Staint), (Lepidoptera: Galleriidae)
Larva webs the food grains with frass, moults and dense webbing.
II. SECONDARY FEEDERS (feed on broken grains which are out of condition)
1. Saw-toothed Grain Beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Coleoptera: Silvanidae)
2. Flat grain beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus (Coleoptera: Cucujidae)
3. Grain mite: Acarus siro (Order: Astigmata)
These pests attacks the germ of seeds, which reduces germination and spreads fungi
INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF STORAGE INSECTS

1. Preventive measures:
• Disinfection of stores and Legal methods
2. Curative measures
I. Non-chemical control measures
• Heat treatment, Controlled atmosphere – using CO2 , Use of plant products, Use of
activated clay, Irradiation, Airtight storage, Drying of grains
II. Chemical control measures
a. Prophylactic treatment
• Application of Malathion 50 EC (or) DDVP 76% SC over the bags
• Empty gunny bag soaking with 0.1% Malathion emulsion for 10 minutes and dried before
using for seed storage
• Fumigants: EDCT and EDB
b. Curative treatment: Use of Aluminium phosphide (Period of fumigation is about 5 days)
• Cover fumigation- 3 tablets of 3 grams each per tonne of grain
• Shed fumigation- 21 tablets of 3 grams each for 28 cu. metres
INSECT VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASES

Insects, after acquiring of viruses from the infected plant source, passes from vector to
healthy plant through saliva which is injected while feeding. Based on the type of transmission it
is classified as
a. Circulative or persistent or non stylet borne virus or non mechanical trasmission
Insect has to feed on the source of virus for comparatively long periods and after
acquisition of virus, becomes infective only after a certain period of incubation ranged from
several hours to 10-19 days. Eg. Leaf hoppers.
b. Non circulative or non persistent stylet borne virus
The vector is capable of acquire virus from a disease source and transmit to a healthy plant
by feeding for a few seconds or minutes. The infectivity of virus is rapidly lost unless there is
renewed access to a fresh source. Eg. Many aphids
c. Propagative viruses
Some viruses after acquition, they multiply inside the body of the vector and remain
virulent for longer time.
List of some insect vectors of plant viral diseases
S. Vector Diseases
No
I. Aphid (Aphididae) transmitted viruses
1. Myzus persicae Potato virus X, Potato leaf roll, Sugar beet yellow
mosaic
2. Acyrthosiphon pisum Bean common mosaic, Bean yellow mosaic,
Soybean mosaic, Pea enation mosaic
3. Toxoptera citricidus, T. aurantii Citrus tristeza virus
4. Aphis craccivora Cowpea mosaic, Groundnut rosette, Papaya mosaic
5. Aphis gossiphi, Myzus persicae Cucumber mosaic
6. Pentalonia nigronervosa var. Banana bunchy top, Banana mosaic
typica
7. P. nigronervosa var. caladii Katte and Foorkey diseases of cardamom
8. Rhopalosiphum maidis Maize streak mosaic virus, Sugarcane mosaic
II. Green Leaf hopper (Cicadellidae) transmitted viruses
1. Nephotettix virescens Rice tungro, rice grassy stunt
III. Zig Zag leaf (Cicadellidae) hopper transmitted virus
1. Recilia dorsalis Rice dwarf virus, Rice orange dwarf
IV. Leaf hopper (Cicadellidae) transmitted viruses
1. Cicadulin nubila Ragi mosaic
V. Plant hopper (Delphacidae) transmitted viruses
1. Peregrinus maidis Freckled yellows of sorghum, Maize mosaic
2. Nilaparvata lugens Rice ragged stunt, Orange stunt
VI. Whitefly (Aleyrodidae) transmitted viruses
1. Bamisia tabaci Bhendi yellow vein mosaic, Bhendi leaf curl, Chilli
mosaic, Cotton mosaic, Tomato spotted wilt, Tobacco
leaf curl
VII. Thrips (Thripidae) transmitted viruses
1. Thrips tabaci Papaya leaf curl, Tomato spotted wilt
2. Frankliniella schultzei Soybean spotted wilt, Groundnut bud necrosis
3. Scirtothrips dorsalis Chilli leaf curl
VIII. Mealy bugs (Pseudococcidae) transmitted viruses
1. Dysmicoccus brevipes Pine apple wilt
2. Saccharicoccus sacchari Sugarcane mottling
IX. Psyllid (Psyllidae) transmitted viruses
1. Diaphorina citri Citrus greening
List of some insect vectors of other plant diseases
S. Vector Causative agent Disease
No.
I. Leah hopper (Cicadellidae) transmitted diseases
1. Orosius albicinctus Phytoplasma Sesamum phyllody
2. Nephotettix virescens Phytoplasma Rice yellow dwarf
3. Cestius (Hisimonas) Phytoplasma Little leaf of brinjal
phycitis
II. Lacewing bug (Tingid bug- Tingidae) transmitted viruses
4. Stephanites typicus Phytoplasma Coconut root wilt
Bees transmitted fungal diseases
1. Bees Claviceps purpureum and C. penisetti Sugary disease of
sorghum
List of some mite (Eriophyidae) vectors of plant viral diseases
Sl. No. Vector Disease
1. Aceria cajani Redgram sterility mosaic
2. A. mangiferae Mango malformation
3. A. tulipae Wheat streak mosaic
4. A. sacchari Sugarcane streak mosaic
1. Nematode transmitting plant viruses

a. NEPO viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with polyhedral particles.
Eg. Nematodes like, Xiphenema and Longidorus spp.
b. NETU viruses: These are nematode transmitted viruses with tubular particles.
Eg. NETU viruses are transmitted by Trichodorus and Paratrichodorous.
List of important Nematode transmitted plant viruses
S. No Nematode vector Virus Virus
group
1. Paratrichodorus sp. & Pea early browning, Tobacco NETU virus
Trichodorus sp rattle
2. Xiphenema index Grapevine fan leaf NEPO virus
3. Xiphenema americanum Tobacco and Tomato Ring spot NEPO virus
IMPORTANT MITE PESTS OF CROPS
I. Family: Tetranychidae
1. Red spider mite: Tetranychus urticae
Hosts: cotton, castor, pulses, groundnut, Brinjal, bhendi etc...
Damage
o Undersurface of the leaves - covered with strands of webbing which affect photosynthesis
and yield
o Chlorotic spots coalesce into pale or silvery patches, drying up and leaf fall off
2. Oligonychus coffeae on tea
3. Oligonychus oryzae on rice
II. Family: Tarsonemidae

4. Yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (yellow mite, broad mite, chilli muranai mite)
o Damage: Sudden curling and crinkling of leaves followed by development of blister patches
Eg. Rat tail (elongation of leaf petioles) symptom in chillies
III. Family: Eriophyidae (Eriphyid mites)

5. Aceria cajani: vector of sterility mosaic of pigeonpea.
6. Aceria sorghii: Leaf crinkling, general chlorosis and choking of terminal leaves
7. A. jasmini: felt like out growth (erineum) on jasmine leaves
Management
✓ Cultural: Avoid monocropping, do intercropping using non-host crops, clean cultivation
Chemical: use of Acaricides
✓ Biological: predatory mites (eg. Phytoseiulus persimilis) and predatory insects
(coccinellids, Scolothrips indicus, Chrysopa)

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AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY

1. Factors determine insect abundance

2. Factors affecting insect population

4. Reasons for pest outbreak

5. Examples for Insect diapause

SURVEY AND SURVEILLANCE OF INSECT PESTS AND FORECASTING

3. Three basic components of pest surveillance

5. Types of pest forecasting

6. Objectives of Pest Surveillance

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

F. Use of greasing material

G. Use of visible radiation

H. Use of Abrasive dusts

C. Mechanical exclusion- Mechanical barriers prevent access of pests to hosts

Appliances used in controlling the pests

4. HOST PLANT RESISTANCE (HPR)

A. Based on number of genes

C. Based on population/Line concept

Mechanisms of host plant resistance

2.Antibiosis - (Adverse effect of the host plant on survival, development and

Chemical factors in antibiosis

3. Tolerance- Ability of host plant to withstand insect population

Examples for HPR in IPM

Examples of resistant varieties in major crops

5. LEGAL CONTROL METHODS

5. Different Classes of Quarantine

Restriction imposed on the importation of

5.2. Domestic quarantine (within different parts of country)

5.3. Legislation to take up effective measures to prevent spread of established pests

iii. Stem borer of coffee (1946)

6. THE INSECTICIDES ACT, 1968 (Insecticides Rule, 1971)

6. SEMIOCHEMICALS IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

Examples of female sex pheromones identified in insects

• Multi-component pheromone system

3. Alarm pheromone and trial marking pheromone

7. INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS (IGRs)

1. Brain hormone (activation hormone (AH))

IGRs used in Pest management

d) Chitin Synthesis inhibitors

Examples of natural and synthetic food lures

2. Use of Attractants in IPM

3. Examples of poison baits

10. INSECT REPELLENTS

11. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

Important families of insect parasitoids and examples

➢ Hyperparasitism- Parasitoid attacking another parasitoid

2. Important points in Biological control

3. Agricultually important predators

Important insect predators against Agricultural pests with examples

Micromus igrotus Sugarcane wooly aphid

II. Bacteria Entomogenous bacteria

Spore formers Non-spore formers

(eg) Bacillus popillae Crystelliferous Non- crystelliferous

i. Spore forming (Facultative, Crystelliferous)

Examples for important insect weed killers

Other insect weed killers

12. BIOTECHNOLOGY IN INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

b. Protease inhibitors (PI) gene

1. APICULTURE - HONEY BEES

Characters Queen Worker Drone

Bee breed: It is a mixture of honey and partially digested pollen

2. Drones – Fertilizing the queen

Bee dances (response to food source)

Important points in apiculture