Ant

Antenna Engineering
Relevance – Practical issues – Current research
RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

www.tu-ilmenau.de/hmt Prof. Dr. M. Hein
Since 1961 Summer semester 2018
Antenna Engineering Lecture: Content
1. Wireless technologies
Brief introduction and example applications
Propagation of electromagnetic waves: Free space vs multipath
Requirements for antennas (receive and transmit)
2. Fundamentals of antenna engineering
Electrodynamic foundations and theoretical approach
Basic radiating elements
Examples of practical radiating elements
3. Antenna arrays
Displacement principle
Performance figures of linear arrays
Beam forming and spatial signal processing
4. Practical aspects of antenna engineering
Packaging and protection
Design and numerical simulation
Antenna measurements
Content

Further interactive formats
Seminar topics
50% tutorial, 50% revision: See homework topics
• Loop antennas
• Patch antennas
• Broadband antennas
• Tracking antennas
• Antenna measurements (anechoic chamber)
Homework topics
Partly to be solved during the seminar,
partly by yourself in a small group or at home
See current internet version: www.tu-ilmenau.de/hmt  Education
Content

Literature (selection)
S. Drabowitch, A. Papiernik, H. Griffiths, J. Encinas, B.L. Smith, "Modern antennas",
2nd edition, Springer, 2005 (1st edition: Chapman & Hill, 1998).
Signature: ELT ZN 6440 D756(2)
C.A. Balanis, “Antenna theory: analysis and design”, Wiley, 1997.
Signature: ELT ZN 6440 B171(3)
J. Volakis Ed., “Antenna Engineering Handbook”, 4th edition, New York, McGraw-Hill,
2007.
Signature: ELT ZN 6440 A627(4)
Rothammels Antennenbuch (in German), 12th edition, DARC Verlag Baunatal, 2001.
J.D. Kraus und R.J. Marhefka, "Antennas for all applications", McGraw-Hill, 2002.
K. Fujimoto and J.R. James Eds., “Mobile Antenna Systems Handbook”, 2nd edition,
Artech House, 2001.
T. Weiland, M. Timm, and I. Munteanu: A Practical Guide to 3-D Simulation, IEEE
Microwave Magazine, Dezember 2008, pp.62-75; DOI10.1109/MMM.2008.929772
D.G. Swanson, Jr., W.J.R. Hoefer: Microwave Circuit Modeling Using Electromagnetic
Field Simulation, 2003 ARTECH HOUSE, Norwood, MA , ISBN 1-58053-308-6
Literature

Mobile antenna systems handbook, K. Fujimoto and J. R. James Eds, Artech House, 2001
Antenna =
Part of
a system
• „Air interface“
• Transmitter or receiver
or transceiver
• Combination of analog
RF and IF with digital
baseband
• Function convolved
with radio wave
transmission (wireless
channel)
• Antenna parameters
enter link budget
calculations

Functions: Antennas ...
Antenna
RX
... convert the mode of propagation Waveguide
Radiated wave  guided-wave

(RX/TX, omnidirectional / directive)
Matching: Power (TX), noise (RX), bandwidth Antenna
TX
Waveguide
... select spectrum and space
Time frequencies: Single resonance – multi-
resonant – ultra-wideband
Spatial frequencies: Omnidirectional – directive –
multi-beam
... are (analog) signal processors

Antenna arrays for diversity (multipath propagation, MIMO)
Phased-arrays (electronic beam-steering, radar)
Adaptive arrays (tracking, reconfigurability, multi-user systems)
Antennas

Frequency ranges
Frequency Wavelength Designation Propagation loss (dB)
f (MHz)  (m) (4r/)2 at r = 10 km
< 0.003 > 100,000 ELF < 0 – 20
0.003...0.03 100,000...10,000 VLF 0 – 20 ... 0
0.03...0.3 10,000...1,000 LF 0 + 0 ... 20
0.3...3.0 1,000...100 MF 0 + 20 ... 40
3.0...30 100...10 HF 0 + 40 ... 60
RF
30...300 10...1 VHF 0 + 60 ... 80
300...3,000 1...0.1 UHF micro- 0 + 80 ... 100
3,000...30,000 0.1...0.01 SHF waves 0 + 100 ... 120
30,000...300,000 0.01...0.001 EHF mm 0 + 120 ... 140
0.3-3 THz 1-0.1 mm Sub-mm-waves
3-400 THz 100-0.75 mm Infrared 0  20log(4)  22 dB
400-750 THz 400-750 nm Visible light
Multitude of services allocated to wide frequency range; inter/national regulation

Research and development of antennas
Frequency: High centre frequencies, broad bandwidths
Spectral efficiency, data rates, range, mobility
(communications, multimedia, localisation, radar, hybrid)
Design and numerical simulation

Optimal results: Radiation pattern, efficiency,
frequency, bandwidth, size
Optimal methods: Geometric and electromagnetic
boundary conditions, CPU time and efficiency
Miniaturisation, integration (on-chip, packaging)
Added performance
Selective / Diversity (space, mode, and polarisation)
Adaptive (beam steering, smart antennas, ad-hoc networks)
Cognitive (spectral and spatial adaptation, RX and TX)
Antennas

Specular and diffuse reflection
Specular reflection
Region of reflection is perfectly flat on scale of
wavelengths (h /16)
Reflection law applies (geometrical optics)
One well-defined directed reflected beam exists
(depending on angle of incidence)
Diffuse reflection
Region of reflection is uneven on scale of wavelength (Rayleigh, h > /16)
Huygens‘ priniciple: Superposition of point sources; incident wave is
scattered in many directions (tendentially independent of angle of incidence)
Ideal diffuse surface: Lambert‘s law P()  P0  cos 
Mixed
reflection
specular directive diffuse Wave propagation

Fresnel reflection
Propagation scenario LOS
Two-path model (applies often) h1

  h2
Line-of-sight (air) plus single
reflection (ground) r1 r2
r = r1+ r2
Statement of problem
Continuity conditions for E- and H- fields across interfaces depend on
• Angle-of-incidence
• Material  sin     cos 2
 sin     cos 2

v  r r
h  r
• Polarisation r sin   r  cos2  sin   r  cos2 
Approximation sin   C b  1 for V  pol

 C  rb with 
Flat geometry (  0) sin   C b  1 for H  pol
|r| 1 (e.g., water)
Asymptotically for   0: v = h  –1 (180o phase jump)
Wave propagation

Atmospheric
attenuation
Resonant absorption
Dominated by oxygen
and water at
microwave frequencies
55 and 118 GHz (O2)
22 and 180 GHz (H2O)

Fresnel zone – or S E
http://www.radartutorial.de, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnelzone
„how thick is a ray?"
Undisturbed transmission
S E
Certain space between transmitter S
and receiver E free of obstacles
(otherwise direct and reflected or
diffracted wave portions may interfer) S E
Of special relevance: Region around line-
of-sight (LOS) with additional path lengths
up to /2 (NLOS): First Fresnel zone
Geometry
d1 d2
Rotational ellipsoid with focal points S E
rF,1
S and E, path difference /2 along edge
reflections compared to LOS
de1  d11  d21 rF,1  de d

Diffraction: analytical results
E 1 1 j   h   h  1.2
   C    jS    E/E
E0 2 2   rF   rF  
0
1
x x
C(x)   cos( 2 u2 )du S(x)   sin( 2 u2 )du
o o
0.8 asymptotic, h<0 asymptotic, h>0
h = distance beam – diffracting edge
rF = Fresnel radius rF  de Fresnel integrals
0.6
Nearly undisturbed “beam” for h > rF/2

0.4
Height of antenna mounting is relevant
0.2
Asymptotic for v > 1 (“light”)
1 1   1 1   0
C(v)   sin  v 2  S(v)   cos  v 2 
2 v 2  2 v 2  -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
h/r
F
Asymptotic for v2 1 (“shadow”)
Shadow Light
E(P) 1 rF
 
E0 2 | h |
Wave propagation

Two-path model (LOS and specular reflection off ground)
Analytical result | Eges |  h1  h 2  1

 2  sin  2    E (r) 
(flat geometry, plane waves) E 0 (r)    r 
ges
r 2
Pathloss exponent nTPM = 4
Case 1: Variation with distance Case 2: Variation with height

At given antenna heights At given distance and height h1
2 2
0
0
|/E
|/E
ges
ges
Relative field strength |E
Relative field strength |E
1.5
1 1
0.5
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Normalised distance r/r Normalised height h /h
ref 2 2,ref

Path loss exponent n
Constituents
Line-of-sight (LOS) 2
of multipath Single specular 2
propagation reflection
LOS + single specular 4
reflection
Diffraction 1
Diffraction + reflection 5
(obstacle gain)
Scattering (radar eq.) 4
(r) r n
Average behaviour r = 3…300 m ( ) r = 0.3…0.6 m ( )
A. Paulraj, R. Nabar, D. Gore, “Introduction to Space-Time Wireless Communications,” 2003. Wave propagation

Radiation pattern 0 90
120 60
-10
Normalised angular -20
distribution of radiation
parameters, e.g. -30 30
• Gain or directivity -40 Isotropic radiator

(hypothetic, d )  (or )
• Field amplitude -50
• Phase of field -60 Patch
0
(d)
Distinguish between G (dB)
• Main lobe Rectangular
• Side lobes aperture (d )
• Backward radiation 210 330
Normalisation of G0 lin (dBi)

Isotropic radiator 1 0 240 300
270
Rectangular patch (TM100) 6 7.8
Rectangular aperture
1200 30.8
(10  ×10 , homogeneous)
Wave propagation

Effective area of an antenna Aeff
Definition and constituing equation
The effective area Aeff describes the capability of
collecting power from a power density (Poynting vector).
The ratio of effective area Aeff to
A eff  2
max. antenna gain G0 is constant 
(thus equal for every antenna). G0 4
Two examples
1. Hertzian dipole (lossless, HD)
3 2 1 2
A HD    
2 4 8
eff
2. Parabolic reflector antenna (diameter d, PR)

2 2
 2 2 d d
eff  A phys 
A PR d  G0       10   
4  
Wave propagation

Radio links: Friis equation
• Path loss FS
PRX 1
 • Matching (orientation,
PTX (, ) polarization, impedance)
2
  2    • Antenna gain → link budget
 GTX ( , )  GRX (, )  eTX eRX   
 4r  • Antenna  Frontend
Customised version (matched antennas)
 (dB)  92.4  20  logf(GHz)  20  logr(km)  10  logGTX  10  logGRX
System-oriented version (max. gains G0) • EIRP = PTX·GTX0 defined by

standards
 G0 
2
   1
2
rmax    EIRPTX     • SNR determined by BER
 4   T SNR min  k B  B  F RX • Range rmax determined by
TX RX mobility and data rate
Wave propagation

Parameter space of wireless data transmission
  
2
 G 1 
Mobility / Range 2
  EIRPTx   
rmax  
 4    sys B
T k  BW  SNR min 
Rx
TX RX
Mobile
Rural
High-
way
Urban
Nomadic
Pedes- GSM 3G
trian GPRS HSDPA 4G LTE
EDGE
Noma- UMTS
W
Stationary
dic M
WLAN
DECT A
Room 802.11x WLAN WiGig
N.16x 802.11ad
Person Bluetooth
100k 1M 10M 100M 1G 10G 100G
User data rate (bps)
Wave propagation

Antenna noise temperature
Black body radiation Advancing Pahoehoe toe, Kilauea Hawaii 2003
Every object emits radiation (T > 0 K)

TB (, )  (, )  Tphys (emissivity)
Antenna noise temperature

Mean environmental temperature,
weighted by antenna gain pattern
http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/kilauea/update/archive/2003/May/main.html
2 
  T (, )  G(, )sin  d d

B
Images obtained with a THz scanner
TA  0 0
2 
  G(, )sin  d d
0 0
Example values (radiometry)

• Dark sky (average background): 3K
• Earth (on average): 290 K
• Human body: 310 K http://www.tsa.gov/graphics/images/approach/mmw_large.jpg

Electromagnetic foundations
Constituing vector fields Sources of electromagnetic fields
Electrical field E Stationary: Charge density 
Electrical displacement D Moving: Current density J
Magnetic field H   d
Conservation of charge   J  
Magnetic flux density B dt
Complex material parameters: permittivity , permeability 
Maxwell‘s equations (f-domain)

Free space (no sources)   
  E   jH (Faraday ' s law)
Harmonic time-varying fields   
  H   j E (Ampere ' s law)
Linear isotropic media    
  E    H  0 (Sourcelessness, free space)
Electromagnetic potentials   
Magnetic vector potential A   A B   
    jA  E
Electric scalar potential    A   j
Fundamentals

Electromagnetic properties of matter
propagation cons tan t     j  jk  k '' jk '
Medium Material Propagation Wave impedance

 = 0 k 0   00   / c Z0  0 / 0
Free space
 = 0 v   c  1/ 00  120 
(Vacuum, air)
=0   377 
 = 0r real k      / v 
Perfect
(lossless)  = 0 r real v   c / r  r Z  /
dielectric =0 
 = ‘ - j ‘‘ = ||e-j k '   |  |   cos   2 / 

Dielectric  = 0 r real Z   / |  |  e j / 2
k ''   |  |   sin   1/ 
with losses
=0 v   c / cos  | r | r
Good arbitrary Zs  Rs  (1  j)
k '  k ''  2 /   1/ 
metallic  = 0 r real 
conductor Rs  1/  
 ||   2 /  2
Fundamentals

Why do antennas radiate?
Cases to be distinguished
1. Static fields 2. Stationary fields 3. Time varying fields

 J(t)
 J(t)  const. 0
J(t)  0   t
  E(t) H(t)  
E(t),H(t)  const.  0 E(t) H(t)
t t  0, 0
t t
   
E H H E
t t
   
H E H E
t t
Double curl coupling: Equivalent to charges being accelerated
Accelerated charges cause electromagnetic radiation

Fundamentals

Derivation of radiation parameters
Full electrodynamic solution
Electromagnetic Radiated power

Electromagnetic Electric and
sources density and total
potentials magnetic fields
Time-varying radiated power
Wave equations, Near fields and
charge and current Antenna parameters
Lorenz gauge far fields
densities e.g., G, D, SLL
Far-field approximation
Electric and Radiated power

Distribution of electric or magnetic magnetic density and total
fields across radiating aperture far fields radiated power
Aperture illumination 2D Fourier Antenna parameters
transformation e.g., G, D, SLL
Fundamentals

Fourier transform between real domain and image domain
Fourier transformation Radiation source in (x,y)-plane
Time – frequency domain Spatial – image domain (k-space)
 
G(t) 
1

2 
 )e jt d
G( G(x,y)  

 , )e jk( x y )dd
G(
 
 , )  1  G(x,y)e jk( x y )dxdy
 )  1  G(t)e jt dt
G( 
T 
G( 
 2 

Wave vector k | k | (, ,  )T
Corresponding terms
Time domain – frequency domain Spatial domain – spectral domain (2-dim)
t  x, y kx, ky
Phase t Phase kx
Normalisation 2/ = T Normalisation 2/|k| = 
t·c = |r|, ·c = k |r| / c = t, |k| / c = 
Fundamentals

Determination of radiation field by tangential
components in aperture
Follows from Maxwell‘s equations and absence of sources in propagation
region (Verification: see homework)
E-field given H-field given

(electrical antenna) (magnetic antenna)
 
1


div E  0  E z      E x    E y     1   H
div H  0  H z


   H
x

y 
H x
Z

   1    E  1   2   E
x   y  Z


E x      H
  1   2   H
x  

y 
H y
Z 

   1  1  2   E    E
 x y  Z


E y    1  2   H
    H
x

y 
H z
Z

   1    E    E
x y  
E z  Z    H
   H
x

y 
Fundamentals

Four key rules of antenna theory
   
1. Every field component is fully G(x,y,z)  

 jk( x y z)
determined by its value in the G( , ,0  )  e d  d
aperture plane (free space: no sources)  
Far field = Superposition of plane waves along direction of propagation,

2.
weighted by the field distribution in aperture plane G(,,0+)
3. Far field determined by tangential field components in aperture plane
 e jkr      
Far field proportional to EFF (x,y,z)  j  2   k 0  E 0t (, ,0 )  z 0
4. kr  
Fourier transform  1  
of aperture illumination HFF (x,y,z)   k 0  EFF (x,y,z)
Z
(No information about near-field through 2D-FT; accessible through em potentials)

Fundamentals

x
Radiation fields
Aperture plane
Q1(x,y,0)
Radiating area or aperture
M(x,y,z)
in (x,y)-plane (at z = 0) Q2(x,y,0)
Q3(x,y,0)
Distribution of sources Qi
Function G(x,y)
Fourier transform y

 ,)  1  G(x,y)e  jk( x y)dxdy
G( 
 2 
z
Example  1 for x  a,y  b   ab sin(ka / 2) sin(kb / 2)

G(x,y)     G( ,  )   
0 for | x | a,| y | b   2
k  a / 2 k b / 2
Fundamentals

Fourier transformation: Trade-off between D and SLL
0
1
Normalised aperture field distribution
-10
Directivity pattern ~ |E| (dB)

-13 dB
0.8
2
-20
-26 dB
0.6
-30
0.4
-40
0.2 Rectangle Rectangle

-50
Triangle Triangle
Gaussian Gaussian
0 -60
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
Position along aperture (a.u.) Image domain (k-space) (a.u.)
Solution: Adjust aperture distribution (amplitude tapering)

Fundamentals

Principles of antenna theory
The far field of an antenna is determined by the 2D Fourier

transform of the field distribution in the aperture plane.
Example
Horn antenna
(nearly homogenous
aperture illumination)
Important consequences
1. Electrical size of an antenna ↔ Capability of spatial focusing
(Least focusing antenna: Hertzian dipole)
2. Homogeneous illumination  Maximal directivity
3. Side lobe level varies in an opposite way as directivity (SLL↑ ↔ D↓)
Fundamentals

z
Elementary dipole: Geometry
Electrical dipole (Hertzian dipole) r0

Straight wire element in origin
Constant current, length  

Electrical dipole moment q    uD
  r
Current density J  I    (x)  (y)  (z)  u D

0
 e jkr     y
H(x,y,z)  j  2   k 0  H 0t (, ,0 )  x 0 
kr   k0

I  z 0
 1  0
H 0t (, ,0 )  2  I0   y 0  const.
2

jk e jkr
H (r, , )    I0   sin 
4 r    
k 0  r  r0    0    0 x
Fundamentals

Field components of the Hertzian dipole
Distinguish between contributions in the near field and the far field
(stored energy, reactive power vs effective power)
Zero Near field Far field
H r  H  0
I0 
H   j sin 
2
e  jkr
r

 1
 ×1 
jkr 
E  0
I0 
E r  jZ cos 

e  jkr
r
 1
 
1 
2 
 jkr (kr) 
E   jZ
I0 
2
sin 
e  jkr
r ××

 1

1

1 
jkr (kr)2 
Radially directed power flow Tangential power flow

(radiation) (near field) Fundamentals

Power-based
antenna parameters
Antenna dPrad(,)/dS Prad Directivity D(,) Dmax

2 2
 I  sin    I 
2
Hertzian 1
Z   2 Z 
(electrical) dipole 8  r 3  3 3
  sin()
2
(1.76 dB)
2
  IS 
2 2 2
Fitzgerald 4 2  IS  sin 
2
4   Z   2 
Z 2   2
2
(magnetic) dipole 8   r 3  
Homogeneously |   E(x,y)e jk( x y )dxdy |2

1  2
 2
4 4
illuminated  , ) |2
 2  | E(   | E |2 dd  S
 S
2Z r 2Z 2   | E(x,y) | 2
2
aperture S 2 dxdy
S
Rectangular, ab sin( a /  ) sin( b /  )   sin  cos  4

E  E0 2    ab
aperture ab 2  a /  b /    sin  sin  2
[cos] radiation 1   2  =1: 4 (6 dBi)

A  cos ,   A 2  (  1)  cos   =2: 6 (7.8 dBi)
into half-sphere r2 2  1
Fundamentals

The size of antennas
20
Normalised antenna parameter (dB)

Radiation quality
Physical size  (m) factor Q ~1/BW
rad
10 Maximum
• Radius, length
directivity D
• Limited by specific max
Efficiency 
0
application (e.g., mobile
handset)
-10
Electrical size  /(1) Realised gain G

-20 eff
determines:
• Directivity and beamwidth -30
• Input matching Input matching ||
• Radiation quality factor -40
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
and matched bandwidth
Electrical size of antenna, log(/)
• Radiation efficiency
• Realised gain Electrically
small large

Dipole antennas
Features
J.D. Kraus, R.J. Marhefka, Antennas for all applications,

Current varies along length
Requires symmetric feed
Diameter neglected (slim wire)
McGraw-Hill 2002
  
I(z)  I0  sin  k   | z | 
 2 
Far field
Linear phase-correct
superposition of the field
contributions from elementary
dipoles along current axis
Fundamentals

Electrical dipole: Radiation patterns
 n   n 
cos  cos    cos  
 n ( )   2   2 
sin 
• Radiation pattern n() for n = n/2 H.D.

• n  2: Nulls along dipole axis at n=1/2
cos0 = ± 1 n=1
n=3/2
• n > 2: Additional nulls at n
n=2
 1 3 
 1, , n odd 
n n
 
 n 
cos  n    1, 0 even 
 2 
 1 n  n=2
  1, odd 
n 2  n=5/2
n=3
Fundamentals

Dipole antennas: Radiated power and directivity
120 2
D()   ( )
Rrad ( )
3dB D0 Rrad
l/
( o) (dBi) ()
1 90 1.76  0
1/4 87  1.9 < 10
1/2 78 2.14 73.2
3/4 64  2.8  200
1 47.8 3.82  200
/2-dipole -dipole
C.A. Balanis, „Antenna theory“, John Wiley, 1982. Fundamentals

Antennas: Selection and design criteria
Application (what for) Implementation (how)
Broadcast, P2P, communications, Radiator elements, arrays,
radar, sensors, implants, direction- geometry,
finding, tracking, ... homogeneous,
periodic, hybrid
Environment (what in)
Feed active, passive
Land, maritime/sub-marine, space
Technology geometry, materials,
near field, far field
package, mounting
Performance (what like) Structure shape, size, weight,
Spectral f0, BW, ... precision, integration,
Spatial pattern, G, 3dB, SLL, ... robustness
Polarisation linear, dual, circular
Cost (wow)
Function fixed, switched, phased-
Manufacture, installation, main-
array, adaptive, ...
tenance, power consumption
Operation fixed, nomadic, mobile
Fundamentals

Application (what for) Implementation (how)
periodic, hybrid
Environment (what in)
package, mounting
Cost (wow)
Fundamentals

Antennas: Selection and design criteria
Application (what for) Implementation (how done)
periodic, hybrid
Environment (where)
package, mounting
Cost (how much)
Fundamentals

Antennas: Geometries and shapes (categories)
Quasi-planar Volumetric, conformal
Waveguide
Patch
Aperture and
Aperture Slot leaky wave
antennas
Surface wave Reflector
(fields) Leaky traveling waves, Single, multiple
coupled elements
Dielectric lens
Linear Circular
Wire Straight, folded symmetric Bi-
antennas conical,
discone, ...
(currents) Loop
Elliptical, rectangular Helix, ferrite
Hybrid Multitude of combinations / variations
Fundamentals

J.D. Kraus and R. J. Marhefka, Antennas for all applications, McGraw Hill (2002)
Aperture antennas
Radiating elements
Horn, lens, reflector, surface wave
(leaky waves)
Radiation pattern
~
Aperture distribution E(,)
Far field E(x,y)
Homogeneous aperture distribution
 Maximal directivity
 Pronounced sidelobes
Reduced sidelobes
 Inhomogeneous aperture
distribution (amplitude taper)
Fundamentals

2018
Reflector antennas Rotational paraboloids
www.2cool4u.ch/microwave/rifu_anforderungen/rifu_anforderungen.pdf
1 – Main reflector
(Rotational paraboloid,
Focus F, Apex S)
2 – Sub-reflector
(Focal widths f1 and f2)
3 – Focal point of Direct feed Indirect feed (Cassegrain)
main reflector
Shell antenna Horn parabol
4 – Focal point of
sub-reflector
5 – Feed horn
Direct feed Indirect feed (Gregory)
Fundamentals

Parabolic reflector antenna
Relevant geometry parameters
Q
| FS | f

| PQ | D 55
50
45
After http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parabel-def-p.png
Gain G (dBi)
40
Rule-of-thumb (simplification)
35
Gain 2 2
D D
G    2     10    30
  25
D=0.6m
D=1.2m
G(dBi)  20.4  10log   20log D(m)  f(GHz)

D=1.8m
D=2.4m
D=3.0m
20 D=3.7m
3-dB beamwidth D=4.5m
15
  0.12  1 10 100
3dB   3dB 
D G D(m)  f(GHz) frequency f (GHz)
Fundamentals

H-sector horn antenna
Rule-of-thumb (simplification, fundamental mode)
Geometry a b A opt R
 0.5  0.25  1.73 
E    
y a
x b R
A
z
Aperture distribution corresponds to

waveguide mode, e.g., TE10:
Ey(x) = E0x·cos(x/A), Ey(y) = E0y
R http://www.feko.info/applications/white-
Gain GH  3  3-dB beamwidth
 papers/naval-radar-analysis-with-utd
R 0.125  30. May 2012

GH (dBi)  7.4  5log   H,3dB 
 R
 Fundamentals

Microstrip patch antenna
2 2 2
c m n p
Dielectric resonator (modes: standing waves) fmnp        
2 r  a  b h
Field distribution and radiation pattern
h p0
TM100 TM020
Fundamentals

Patch antenna
E
Fundamental mode z
Ez(y) = E0 H 
Ez(x) = E0·cos (x/a), a  g/2
Virtual magnetic dipole sources:
h
   y
M  2n  E

Two narrow slits constructive E
a 
Constant field distribution M
Two-element array pattern
Two long slits destructive b

In (y,z)-plane as well as in 
opposing (x,z)-plane. x
Fundamentals

E-plane
Patch antenna: radiation pattern
Broad beam perpendicular to surface of
patch (array pattern)
C.A. Balanis, „Antenna theory“, John Wiley, 1982.

 a 
E-plane E
C|E|  cos   sin  
H-plane
90   
0
10 120 60
-1
10
-2 30
10
10
-3
H-plane
-4
10 0
210 330
240 300
270
sin  sin 
b

H
C|E|  cos  
 b sin 
Fundamentals

Patch antenna: Directivity
1. Estimated from radiation mechanism

Two elementary dipoles: 1.76 dBi + 3 dB
Reflection from groundplane: + 3 dB D  7.76 dBi (factor 6)
2. Estimation from radiation pattern 4 4

Effective aperture angle about 120 deg D  2  6 (7.8 dBi)
e 3 
3. Analytical approximation b/ D D (dBi)

Two-slit array 1 6.6 8.2
1 8·b/ 9+10·log (b/)
Fundamentals

Polarisation of patch antennas
Linear polarisation
Polarisation determined by surface currents on patch
 controlled by feed point
y
Circular polarisation
Superposition of two linear polarised fields in quadrature
(either dual-feed or mode mixing)
Fundamentals

Examples of array antennas
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GSM_base_station_2.JPG

Displacement principle
Simplifying assumptions y 
  r,k
Two identical sources O and O'
k 0d
Distant observation point in far field 
 r
O

 e  jkr   d
E   f (k0 ) O
kr 
  x
 e  e 0d  
 jkr  jkk
e  jkr    
E     f (k 0 )   f (k 0 )  e  jkk 0d
   
k(r  k 0 d) kr | r  || r | k 0 d
  jkd   
E  E  e k 0 d  d  cos 
Displacement in spatial domain (x,y,z) corresponds

to phase shift in spectral domain (kx,ky,kz)
Arrays

Uniform linear arrangement of N identical radiation elements
L = Nd
Linear array (phased array)
n
k0
nAdAsinθ f()
θ d
A0 A1 A2 An
a0 an
0 1 n
Arrays

Normalised array factor RN'(,0)
sin[N  (   0 / 2)]
RN ( , 0 ) 
N  sin(   0 / 2])
virtual real virtual
Auxiliary parameters (invisible) (visible) region (invisible)
Angular direction 1 =/d
Magnitude pattern |R'()|

= sin
0.8
Electrical element
separation
0.6
 = d/
0.4 
0
0.2
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Direction  = sin
Arrays

Array pattern RN'(,0)
sin[N  (   0 / 2)]

RN ( , 0 ) 
N  sin(   0 / 2])
virtual real virtual
(invisible) (visible) region (invisible)
• Determined by electrical element 1 =/d
Magnitude pattern |R'()|

spacing  and phase gradient 0 0.8
• Main beam direction: 0 = 2·0
0.6
• Main lobes periodic:  = 1/
0.4 
• Unambiguity:  ≥ 2 (  1/2) 0
0.2
• Beamwidth: R'N (1/2) = 1/2
0
• Beamwidth varies with steering:
Scan loss (broadfire – endfire) -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Direction  = sin
• Scan range max:  < (1+sinmax)–1
Arrays

Linear phased-arrays
Antenna elements
Superposition of the field-patterns (amplitudes and phases) of the
individual radiation elements in a certain array configuration
Antennas potentially complemented by focusing reflector or lens
n
u
Phase shifters θ d
Electronic beam steering A0 An AN-1
(as opposed to
mechanical) a0
... an
... aN-1
bN-1
Array
b0 bn
Feed network ... ... Phase

shifters
Power distribution,
Driver
matching, de/coupling
Feed and distribution network
(angle-dependent
reflections) Transceiver Processor
Arrays

Active arrays
Each radiating element equipped with its own amplifiers (RX and TX)
→ Maximal variability  Maximal complexity 
Transmit (TX)
Compensate attenuation between feed and radiator
Distributed power control (high total power, e.g., tube amplifier required for
full array)
Improved reliability (drop-out of single elements, graceful degradation)
Improved phase accurady (small-signal operation before amplifier)
Receive (RX)
Adaptive amplitude and phase control for each individual radiating element
Phase → direction of main beam. Amplitude: Beam forming and null steering
TX-RX switching (duplex)

Speed, power, circuit technology, MMIC solutions (Si, GaAs or SiGe)
Arrays

Beam forming: Switched-beam N-element array
Array provides set of M ≤ N predefined beams (e.g. sectorial antenna)
 Simple implementation (single frontend for entire array)
 Limited adaptivity (no beam forming)
Arrays

Beam forming: Adaptive N-element array

Frontend
Frontend
N complete frontends (RF to baseband),

1 beamformer
Digital signal processing
(direction estimation,
complex-weight pattern adaptation)
Arrays

Beam forming: Spatial division multiple access (SDMA)

N complete frontends (RF to baseband),
M  N beamformers
 Ultimate adaptivity (multiple adaptive subsystems)
 Ultimate complexity (signal processing, power consumption,
size & weight) Arrays

Analog beam forming networks
N-element antenna array → N different beams aA 1
v v v
bA A
or N-1 different nulls
2
M-port beam forming network B
3
a3
b3
• Provides amplitudes and phase gradients
for M  N patterns
• Low-loss. Matched. Wideband or selective. A B 1 2 3
Power transfer from feed into far field A 0 0 a A1 a A 2 a A3 
• Excites “independent” beams B  0 0 aB1 aB2 aB3 
No exchange of power, “orthogonality” 1  a A1 aB1 0 0 0 
 
• Analog HW implementation of a linear set of 2  a A 2 aB2 0 0 0 
equations 3  a A3 aB3 0 0 0 
(N+M)  (N+M) matrix, function can be
implemented in the digital domain
  N
  N
S S
2
Losslessness: a A  aB  1 ip  1 Orthogonality: a A  aB*  0 ni Spi*  np
i1 i1
A lossless reciprocal network is orthogonal.

Arrays

Mitigating fading by spatial diversity with antenna arrays
Fading minima depend strongly on antenna position:
• Multiple displaced receive antennas beneficial (antenna arrays)
• Risk of all antennas undergoing a deep fade simultaneously reduced
• Signal optimised by coherent combination (e.g., maximum ratio combining)
Enhanced stability and reliability of the link

SNR (dB)
Antenna 1 Antenna 2 Combined

Time or receiver position
Arrays

Diversity antennas: Statistical description of fading
Line-of-sight transmission (LOS)

No signal-strength fluctuation
Distribution function: unit step
Non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
Received power “fades” (fluctuates)
upon movement of mobile station
Rayleigh distribution function
Combined LOS and NLOS fading

Deep fades are less likely
Rice-factor K
Distribution functions "intermediate"
Arrays

Diversity antennas (Rayleigh fading)

1
CDF()    r N1  e r dr
(N  1)! 0
Array size: N elements

• SNR improves with N (link budget)
• Probability for deep fades decreases
with N (link reliability and quality)
Arrays

Radiation matrix of a lossless N-element antenna array
Generalised efficiency H 
 P a [H]a
• Radiation matrix [H] = [1] – [S]H[S] (a)  r ad   H 
Pavail a a
• Efficiency
• Depends on feed vector (array element excitation, "illumination")
• Determined by radiation matrix (S-parameters, radiation patterns)
• Enables quantitative comparison of different arrays
C. Volmer, Dissertation, Ilmenau 2009 Arrays

Diversity gain Gdiv
• Given outage probability tolerated
by the radio link (e.g., 1%)
• SNR-difference between N-element
array and single radiator at same
C. Volmer, Dissertation, Ilmenau 2009

probability
(e.g., Gdiv,3(1%) = 16.3 dB for N = 3)
p
• Approximation
16.3 dB
q 
Gdiv,N (p)   1  q 

tr [H]1 


p  N  N  1 
 
q  N N!  p  det [H]
Gdiv,N(p) = Power that could be

saved by spatial diversity – without
affecting reliability nor coverage
Arrays

Diversity loss Ldiv
• Accounts for radiation coupling
• Marks the SNR-difference between

coupled diversity antenna (real)
C. Volmer, Dissertation, Ilmenau 2009

and fully decoupled version (ideal)
1
L div,N  ! Ldiv
Gdiv,N
• Approximation
10
L div,N (dB)   logdet [H]  0
N
Mutual element coupling

always reduces diversity gain
Arrays

Packaging issues of antennas
Example: Transmit antenna
Transmission line
Defined by geometrical dimensions and material parameters (, , )
Propagating modes: TEM (broadband), TE vs TM vs hybrid (low-/high-pass)
Matching network
Matching of impedance, effective power, propagating mode
Lumped vs distributed vs hybrid (affects frequency, bandwidth, losses, size)
Radome
Mechanical and environmental ruggedness, affects electrical properties
Practical aspects

Types of transmission lines (selection)
Wire transmission lines
Open and shielded geometries (simplicity vs performance)
Coaxial lines
Power handling
Flexibility vs dissipation losses
Strip transmission lines

Microstrip, slotline, coplanar waveguide, coplanar slot
(Principle of duality, characteristic impedance,
field concentration, power handling)
Hollow-tube waveguides
Different contours (e.g., rectangular, circular)
Different cross-sections (e.g., ridged, fin-line)
Different environments
(substrate-integrated waveguides, via fences)

Impedance Z0  cos    jZ L sin 
Z in  Z L 
matching using ZL  cos   jZ 0 sin 
transmission
line elements  / Z0 = 0 (short circuit) Z0 →  (open circuit)
< /2 < 1/4
= /2 = 1/4
< < 1/2
= = 1/2
Practical aspects

Baluns: Necessity
even mode
odd mode
Rothammels Antennenbuch, 12. Auflage (in German)

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balun
Current distribution at
unbalanced-balanced
transition
Mode matching and/or suppression Dipole radiation pattern with

of ground currents required (top) and without balun (bottom)

Baluns: Types and example implementations
1 Differential transformers
2 Half-wave line baluns
3 Quarter-wave baluns 1 2 5
(loop, collinear: Marchand)
4 Reactance networks
(lumped elements,
distributed line elements) 3 3
5 Radials, bazooka,
coil baluns
(suppress sheath currents)
6 Absorbers (ferrites)
4 4 6
Practical aspects

Antenna radomes
Function
• Protective enclosure
• Minimal impact on performance
Implementation
• Sandwich, space frame,
dielectric, solid laminate
• Ceramic and organic materials

Simulated influence of a radome (direction finding
antenna at 950 MHz) on electromagnetic fields
Courtesy Rohde & Schwarz, Dr. M. Pauli, Nov. 2010

Direction of propagation (plane wave)

Radome materials (selection)
Ceramics Mass density Dielectric Loss tangent
Material  (g/cm3) permittivity r 103·tan
Al2O3/AlN 3.69 9.28 0.3
Aluminum oxide 3.32 7.85 0.5
Beryllium oxide 2.88 6.62 1
Boron nitride 2.13 4.87 0.5
Silica-fiber composite 1.63 2.90 4

Silicon nitride 2.45 5.50 3
Organics and Material  (g/cm3) r 103·tan

composites Lexan 1.2 2.86 6
Teflon 2.2 2.10 0.5
Epoxy-E glass cloth 1.9 4.40 16
Polyester-quartz cloth 3.70 7
Quartz-reinforced polyimide 1.3 3.2 8

Duroid 5650 2.2 2.65 3
Practical aspects

Circuit analysis versus field simulation
Circuit elements of uniform
cross-section can be modeled by
conventional circuit analysis
(transmission line models), Engineered transformations of field
including simple types of distributions and/or radiation effects
discontinuities (steps, vias, ...) require numerical field simulation
Practical aspects

Classification of field problems
Keyword Description
N ~   / min 
3
Electrical size Number of variables
Time domain (broadband, switching)

Domain Frequency domain (resonant, high-Q)
Related by FT in linear systems
Electric (PEC, E, H||)
Boundaries Magnetic (PMC, H, E||)
Space (matched, absorptive)
1d (transmission lines)
Dimensionality 2/2.5d (PCB, symmetric 3d problems)
3d full complexity
Practical aspects

Classification of simulation methods
Keyword Description
General Wave equations  potentials  fields  parameters

Procedure like impedance, gain/directivity/efficiency, radiation pattern, ...
Geometry
Boundary Material(s)
conditions Ports (position, type)
Excitation (current/voltage, E/H fields, modes)
Analytical: Closed form, simple problems, reference solution
(e.g., Hertzian dipole)
Semi-analytical: Integral expression  numerical computation
Solver
 high computational efficiency
(specific problems, limited validity, e.g., /2-dipole)
Numerical: Wave equation @ discrete lattice, local interpolation
Practical aspects

Finite-element method
Complex and inhomogeneous field problems are split into homogeneous
simple sub-structures with known solutions
1
 c1   1 x1 y1   1 
    
 c 2   1 x2 y 2    2 
 c  1 x y 3   3 
 3  3
 2

V
1
2  |  | dV  min
Discretisation of a planar problem using

a triangular mesh
Example for an Ansoft HFSS

microstrip mesh
Practical aspects

Finite-difference time domain models
Example FDTD grid, formed by brick- Solution of wave equations on a
shaped hexahedral cells discrete lattice (mesh)
 2  2  2
  2  2  2  0
x y z
 1
   l1,m,n  l1,m,n 
x 2h
6l,m,n   l1,m,n  l1,m,n   ...

...   l,m1,n  l,m1,n   ...
...   l,m,n1  l,m,n1   0
Practical aspects

Numerical simulation tools: summary
FDTD FEM
CST Microwave Studio Ansoft HFSS
Example
Many other codes available Many other codes available
Domain Time Frequency
Solution Iterative time steps Matrix equation
Cell geometry Rectangular / cubic Triangular / tetrahedral
Low memory requirements Adaptive discretisation of
Efficient for broadband complex structures
Advantages problems and physical Rapid computation for single
transitions frequency points (e.g. high-Q
Electrically large geometries devices) and multi-port devices
Less efficient for curved Electrically small geometries
Dis- structures High memory requirements
advantages Each port requires separate CPU time increases with number
simulation of frequency points
Practical aspects

Port modeling and mode matching
Port parameters (mode specific) define
incident power flow
Currents and voltages (circuit design) 
must be related to field parameters 
requires a reference path 1 for integration
 
I port  
 cond
Hd 
   

1 2
E d    j 
A path
B dA  0
  2
(  E d )
Zport 
1
  

A port
1
2 (E  H*)dA
Practical aspects

Input matching 30
Reflection coefficient 25
Return loss RL (dB)

Z / Z0  1
 20 S ~ 1.2
Z / Z0  1
15
Standing wave ratio
1 |  | 10 S ~ 1.9
S
1 |  | 5 S ~ 5.8
Return loss
0
RL  20log |  | 0 2 4 6 8 10
Standing wave ratio S
Matching (Reciprocity) V Rx e 11 e   2 2

  tFS  (1  AUT ) 
Voltage ratio V Tx 1  T SA e 2 11 1  AUT R e 2 2 2
Practical aspects

Radiation measurements
• Known reflections or none
• Natural or artificial environment
• Defined methods
(e.g., far/near field; frequency/time
domain)
• Calibrated precision measurements
(distances, power levels,
phase centres, …) "Virtual road" antenna and channel measurements (HMT)
Free space Anechoic chamber (HMT) www.orbitfr.com

Radiation measurement schemes
http://www.cuminglehman.com/pdf/mag.pdf (12.07.2017)
Rectangular anechoic chamber Compact antenna test range
Outdoor elevated range Ground reflection range
Planar near-field Cylindrical near-field Spherical near-field

Practical aspects

Anechoic chamber measurements
http://www.mvg-world.com/en/products/field_product_family/absorber-6 12.07.2017
Reflections damped by absorbers (-30 ... -50 dB)
Absorber: Height reflects wavelength, shape matches
impedance (free space – metal shield)
Chanber size: Far field conditions, constant amplitude under
rotation
Specific adaptations w.r.t. frequency ranges and test specs
ECCOSORB® HHP-60-NRL
Practical aspects

From near field to far field rff D
2
 2 
Near field: reactive (stored energy)  
Far field: plane waves (E  H  z) Electrically small antennas:
rff /  < 1
Given value of D/ 1/2:
Rayleigh Fresnel Fraunhofer
rff / ≈ 1
High gain:
rff /  1
Example: parabolic
reflector antenna
2
D
Gparabol  2  

rff 2
 2 Gparabol
 
Practical aspects

Radiation measurement uncertainties
Major influences
Measurement setup
Quiet zone, electrical distance,
calibration, dynamic range, e.g.
After Jeffrey A. Fordham, Microwave Instrumentation Technologies, LLC
for high frequencies
Near field
Region ≈ , environmental
effects, e.g. SAR
Non-idealities
Phase centre variation upon H. Eder, A. Wiedenhofer, http://www.mobilfunkundschule.bayern.de, 2012
rotation, parasitic radiation from
cables, shadowing from
positioner, calibration
Require careful adjustment and critical analysis

Practical aspects

Examples of measured radiation patterns
Elevation Azimuth
Commercial GNSS antenna
TallysmanTM TW3870
Polar
Cartesian
Graphical display of measured data:

AUT Studio, www.lisa-analytics.de

Examples of measured radiation patterns (UWB)
Doppelsteg-Hornantenne (im Prinzip für große Bandbreiten geeignet)
U. Schwarz, TU Ilmenau, Dissertation in Vorbereitung (2008)

Practical aspects

Radiation patterns in time domain
Dispersion: frequency dependent impulse responses
Non-resonant E-plane H-plane

(Vivaldi)
W. Wiesbeck, „Ultrabreitbandantennen“, KIT, 2008

Resonant
(Log-periodic) time
(ns)
Azimuth (deg)
Practical aspects

G/T-measurements
G – Antenna gain
Tsys – System noise temperature
http://www.ips.gov.au/Solar/3/4 (12.07.2017)
 – Power flux
3
10
Solar flux  (f) in "solar flux units"

1 sfu = 10-22 W/m2Hz 22.01.2004
27.01.2006
26.01.2007
G 4 k  PN,  10.07.2008
 2 B   1 09.07.2009
Tsys   P  03.04.2010
 N,0  29.06.2010
12.07.2011
burst?
2 10.07.2012
10 08.07.2013
04.07.2014
Data (Sun) 13.07.2015
S
11.07.2016
Power flux of the sun 12.07.2017
Data updated on daily basis Steady contribution (quiet solar)

Learmonth /Australia
Frequency specific analysis 10
1
2 3 4
10 10 10
Frequency f (MHz)
Other astronomic radiating sources:
Cassiopeia A, 3Cxyz, Cygnus A, ... Practical aspects


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Antenna Engineering

Relevance – Practical issues – Current research

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

See current internet version: www.tu-ilmenau.de/hmt  Education

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Radiated wave  guided-wave

... are (analog) signal processors

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Multitude of services allocated to wide frequency range; inter/national regulation

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Design and numerical simulation

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Two-path model (applies often) h1

• Polarisation r sin   r  cos2  sin   r  cos2 

Approximation sin   C b  1 for V  pol

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

de1  d11  d21 rF,1  de d

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Nearly undisturbed “beam” for h > rF/2

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Analytical result | Eges |  h1  h 2  1

Pathloss exponent nTPM = 4

Case 1: Variation with distance Case 2: Variation with height

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Average behaviour r = 3…300 m ( ) r = 0.3…0.6 m ( )

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

• Gain or directivity -40 Isotropic radiator

Normalisation of G0 lin (dBi)

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

2. Parabolic reflector antenna (diameter d, PR)

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Customised version (matched antennas)

 (dB)  92.4  20  logf(GHz)  20  logr(km)  10  logGTX  10  logGRX

System-oriented version (max. gains G0) • EIRP = PTX·GTX0 defined by

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Every object emits radiation (T > 0 K)

Antenna noise temperature

  T (, )  G(, )sin  d d

Example values (radiometry)

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Maxwell‘s equations (f-domain)

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Medium Material Propagation Wave impedance

 = ‘ - j ‘‘ = ||e-j k '   |  |   cos   2 / 

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Accelerated charges cause electromagnetic radiation

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Electromagnetic Radiated power

Electric and Radiated power

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

E-field given H-field given

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering

Far field = Superposition of plane waves along direction of propagation,

3. Far field determined by tangential field components in aperture plane

(No information about near-field through 2D-FT; accessible through em potentials)

RF & Microwave Research Lab Antenna Engineering