Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The history
The history is the most important component
of the preoperative evaluation. In conducting
CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 71 • NUMBER 1 J A N U A RY 2 0 0 4 63
PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION MICHOTA AND FROST
the interview, the physician needs adequate ating room, and adequate equipment and
time and interviewing skills. The history expertise in the event of a malignant hyper-
should include: thermic reaction.
A complete review of systems to look for Functional status. In addition to identified
undiagnosed disease or inadequately controlled risk factors, self-reported exercise tolerance is
A thorough chronic disease. The review of systems, in con- the foundation of cardiovascular risk stratifica-
preoperative junction with the medical history, can also tion (see discussion below) and is an indepen-
identify risk factors for perioperative complica- dent predictor for postoperative cardiovascular
evaluation tions, such as alcohol or tobacco use, recent complications.12 Activity scales such as the
optimizes chest pain, history of deep venous thrombosis, Duke Activity Status Index13 can help quanti-
or prior hospitalization for asthma. fy the estimated metabolic equivalents generat-
outcome An extensive medication history. This ed with daily activities. For example, in formal
should include over-the-counter medications cardiac testing, the ability to perform greater
and herbal supplements. Recent use of antico- than 4 metabolic equivalents has been associat-
agulants, aspirin, and nonselective non- ed with a lower cardiovascular risk.14 Questions
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) about and discussion of daily activities can also
must be specifically sought. help determine functional status.
Allergies, particularly allergies to rubber
products and to foods associated with latex The physical examination
reactions, such as bananas, avocados, kiwis, The physical examination should build on the
apricots, and chestnuts. information gathered during the history.
Surgical and anesthetic history. Patients For example, patients with identified
with a history of bleeding complications chronic organ diseases such as congestive
should be carefully assessed for coagulation heart failure or chronic obstructive lung dis-
disorders. Reactions to anesthetics by the ease should be evaluated for uncompensated
patient or family members should raise con- disease. Patients with a history of heavy alco-
cerns about susceptibility to malignant hyper- hol use should be assessed for stigmata of
thermia. Patients with malignant hyperther- chronic liver disease with concomitant con-
mia susceptibility require an anesthesia con- cern for postoperative alcohol withdrawal syn-
sultation, appropriate preparation of the oper- dromes and delirium.
64 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 71 • NUMBER 1 J A N U A RY 2 0 0 4
Anything found in the review of systems TA B L E 1
should be addressed, particularly a new cough, The Lee index for assessing
fever, or symptoms of infection. perioperative cardiovascular risk
All patients should receive a thorough car-
diovascular and pulmonary examination and One point for each of the following:
should be asked about chronic or recent infec-
High-risk surgery
tions. Unexpected abnormal findings on the
physical examination should be fully charac- History of ischemic heart disease
terized and investigated before elective surgery. Congestive heart failure
TA B L E 2
Indications for preoperative noninvasive cardiac testing:
The ACC/AHA guidelines
Testing is indicated if any two of the following factors are present:
1 Intermediate clinical predictor
Canadian class 1 or 2 angina
Prior myocardial infarction based on history or pathologic Q waves
Compensated or prior heart failure
Diabetes
2 Poor functional capacity (less than 4 metabolic equivalents)
3 Procedure with high surgical risk
Emergency surgery
Aortic repair or peripheral vascular surgery
Prolonged surgical procedure with large fluid shifts or blood loss
MODIFIED WITH PERMISSION FROM: LEPPO JA, DAHLBERG ST. THE QUESTION: TO TEST OR NOT TO TEST
IN PREOPERATIVE CARDIAC RISK EVALUATION. JNUCL CARDIOL 1998; 5:332–342.
The investigators found that simply renal failure), and beta-blocker therapy in vas-
assigning 1 point for each factor present and cular surgery patients. The main outcomes
adding up the points was as accurate in pre- assessed were cardiac death and nonfatal
dicting cardiac risk as a complicated weighting myocardial infarction. Findings:
system derived by logistic regression analysis. • Patients with 0 to 2 points who received
Compared with the Goldman, Detsky, and beta-blockers had a low rate of cardiac com-
American Society of Anesthesiology methods plications (< 1%), irrespective of the findings
Noninvasive of preoperative risk assessment,26 the new Lee on dobutamine stress echocardiography.
cardiac stress risk index was statistically more accurate. • Patients with a modified Lee risk index of 3
or higher who received beta-blockers also had a
testing has Noninvasive cardiac stress testing questioned low rate of cardiac complications (< 1.2%)—if
not been Much like the situation with laboratory test- the dobutamine study was normal or showed
ing, there is no convincing evidence that rou- fewer than four segments with new wall-motion
shown to tine noninvasive cardiac stress testing abnormalities. However, the rate of cardiac
improve improves perioperative care.16,27,28 complications was significant (> 6%) in
perioperative Practice guidelines recommend that non- patients with a profoundly abnormal dobuta-
invasive cardiac stress testing be reserved for mine stress echocardiographic study, irrespec-
care patients with poor functional class or whose tive of whether they took beta-blockers.
clinical risk is unclear,22,24 despite a history, This study suggests that patients with a
physical, and electrocardiographic evaluation. Lee risk index of 0 to 2 can be given a beta-
Moreover, a growing body of literature blocker and can proceed directly to surgery,
demonstrates that beta-blockers are cardiopro- with a low risk of complications. Patients with
tective when given perioperatively to patients a score of 3 or more should be considered for
undergoing noncardiac surgery,5,6,29–33 further further risk stratification via noninvasive car-
bringing into question the need for noninva- diac stress testing but may still be at an accept-
sive cardiac stress testing (see below). able risk level to undergo surgery while on
Boersma et al34 retrospectively evaluated beta-blockers if the stress test is normal.
the relationships among the findings on dobu-
tamine stress echocardiography, a modified ACC/AHA guidelines
Lee risk index (age over 70, current angina, The American College of Cardiology (ACC)
history of myocardial infarction, cerebrovas- and the American Heart Association (AHA)
cular accident, diabetes mellitus, chronic recently updated their joint guidelines on
66 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 71 • NUMBER 1 J A N U A RY 2 0 0 4
perioperative cardiovascular evaluation in TA B L E 3
patients undergoing noncardiac surgery.35
As in past guidelines, cardiac stress testing Risk factors for postoperative
and optimization of cardiac function are rec- pulmonary complications
ommended for patients with acute symptoms Smoking
such as unstable coronary syndromes, uncom- Poor exercise tolerance
pensated heart failure, or symptomatic Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
arrhythmias. However, most patients do not Surgical site
have acute symptoms at the time of the pre- Upper abdominal, thoracic
operative evaluation. Lower abdominal
The new ACC/AHA guidelines offer a Surgery longer than 3 hours
shortcut to the decision regarding noninva- General anesthesia*
sive cardiac stress testing that emphasizes the
patient’s functional status (TABLE 2). In general, *Most studies have identified regional anesthesia as safer in regard to
the history and physical examination usually postoperative pulmonary complications, but there are conflicting data.
determine the patient’s risk profile. If the risk
profile is unclear, then noninvasive cardiac
stress testing should be performed. Noninva- monary disease, general anesthesia, impaired
sive cardiac stress testing should also be per- sensorium, cerebral vascular accident, blood
formed if the patient is thought to be at high urea nitrogen level, transfusion, emergency
risk, to further stratify the risk. surgery, long-term steroid use, smoking, and
Most patients whose risk profile is unclear alcohol use.
will need a pharmacologic stress test. In many Unfortunately, the clinical usefulness of
instances, either stress perfusion or stress this index is uncertain, since its predictor vari-
echocardiography is appropriate, as their pre- ables include specific surgical procedures not
dictive values are similar.36 found in many presurgical referral popula-
All patients with cardiovascular risk fac- tions.
tors should receive beta-blockers periopera- The most important predictor of pul- Pulmonary
tively unless strongly contraindicated. monary risk is the surgical site, and that risk risk increases
increases as the incision approaches the
■ PULMONARY RISK diaphragm. as the surgical
The most important modifiable risk factor incision
Postoperative pulmonary complications such is smoking. Although smoking cessation leads
as pneumonia, atelectasis, and bronchospasm to beneficial physiologic effects in only 48 approaches
increase patient morbidity and mortality and hours, the risk for postoperative pulmonary the diaphragm
prolong the length of hospital stay after complications declines only after 8 weeks of
surgery.37,38 preoperative cessation.41
The role for preoperative pulmonary
Pulmonary risk factors function testing remains uncertain. No
Pulmonary risk factors have been identified data suggest that spirometry identifies a
(TABLE 3),39 but there has been no well-accept- high-risk group that would not otherwise
ed tool to predict the risk of perioperative be predicted by the history and physical
pulmonary complications as there is for pre- examination.
dicting cardiac risk.
Arozullah et al40 developed a risk-predic- Steps to reduce pulmonary risk
tion tool for postoperative pneumonia in a Preoperative measures to reduce the risk of
Veterans Administration patient population. perioperative pulmonary complications include
Variables included the type of surgery sched- smoking cessation and aggressive treatment of
uled (abdominal aortic aneurysm repair; tho- active lung disease. Combinations of bron-
racic, upper abdominal, neck, or vascular chodilators, physical therapy, antibiotics, and
surgery; and neurosurgery), age, functional corticosteroids have been shown to reduce the
status, weight loss, chronic obstructive pul- risk of postoperative pulmonary complications
CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 71 • NUMBER 1 J A N U A RY 2 0 0 4 67
PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION MICHOTA AND FROST
TA B L E 4
Preoperative pulmonary risk-reduction strategies
Encourage smoking cessation for at least 8 weeks preoperatively
Treat airflow obstruction in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma
Give antibiotics and delay surgery if pulmonary infection is present
Begin patient education regarding lung-expansion maneuvers
in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary not known, but metoprolol 50 mg twice daily,
disease. Asthma patients should be free of starting 1 week before surgery, closely mirrors
wheezing, and short courses of oral steroids do research experience.35
not increase the incidence of infection.42 By convention, diuretics and angiotensin-
The mainstay of postoperative pulmonary converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are usu-
risk reduction is lung expansion. Lung-expan- ally withheld the day of surgery, although we
sion techniques include deep-breathing exer- have no convincing data supporting the safety
cises, incentive spirometry, and continuous or efficacy of this practice.
positive airway pressure. Preoperative educa-
tion in lung-expansion maneuvers reduces Diabetic medications
pulmonary complications to a greater degree Patients with diabetes should generally not
than instruction that begins after surgery.39,43 take medications such as metformin or oral
Preoperative pulmonary risk-reduction hypoglycemics on the day of surgery. In most
strategies are summarized in TABLE 4. cases involving diabetic patients, elective
surgery is performed as a “first morning case,”
■ MEDICATION RECOMMENDATIONS and patients who take insulin are advised not
to take their morning insulin until they arrive
All patients Which medications should be continued at the surgery center, depending of course on
at risk for perioperatively and which should be held? the time of surgery and the patient’s diabetic
Instructions for preoperative medication use history. It may be appropriate to instruct
cardiovascular are an integral part of the preoperative eval- patients to take half of their total insulin
events should uation, but there is little evidence to guide requirement in a long-acting insulin prepara-
clinicians in this regard. tion (eg, Humulin NPH).
receive In one study, Devereaux et al44 demon-
a selective strated that perioperative recommendations Herbal supplements
beta-blocker for cardiac medication use varied significantly Recently, the American Society of
among medical consultants. The investigators Anesthesiology examined the use of herbal
concluded that these differences may affect supplements and the potentially harmful drug
patient outcomes and highlight the need for interactions that may occur with continued
randomized clinical trials to determine the use of these products preoperatively.45,46
impact of perioperative drug administration These supplements include ginkgo biloba, St.
on surgical outcomes. John’s wort, ginseng, saw palmetto, kava, and
As a general principle, most prescription Echinacea. All patients are requested to dis-
medications should be continued on the continue their herbal supplements at least 2
morning of surgery with small sips of water, weeks prior to surgery.
unless specifically contraindicated.
Drugs that potentiate bleeding
Cardiovascular drugs The use of medications that potentiate bleed-
As mentioned above, all patients at risk for ing needs to be evaluated closely, with a risk-
cardiovascular events should receive a selec- benefit analysis for each drug, and with a rec-
tive beta-blocker. The optimum dose and ommended time frame for discontinuation
length of preoperative beta-blocker therapy is based on drug clearance and half-life charac-
68 CLEVELAND CLINIC JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOLUME 71 • NUMBER 1 J A N U A RY 2 0 0 4
teristics. Typically, patients whose risk of scope of this article. However, as a general
bleeding exceeds their risk of thrombosis rule, the patient may have surgery as long
should refrain from preoperative use of aspirin as the international normalized ratio is less
for 7 to 10 days, nonselective nonsteroidal than 1.5.48
anti-inflammatory drugs for 3 to 5 days, and
thienopyridines (such as clopidogrel) for a full ■ ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
2 weeks before surgery.
Selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) Each surgical patient should be assessed for
inhibitors do not potentiate bleeding and may risk for surgical site infections, bacterial endo-
be continued until surgery. However, caution carditis, and venous thromboembolism.
should be exercised after surgery because of a Depending on the findings, recommendations
theoretical increase in risk of cardiovascular should be made regarding appropriate prophy-
events. laxis against these conditions. Practice guide-
The perioperative management of lines for each of these topics are reviewed else-
patients taking warfarin is beyond the where.48–50
■ REFERENCES
1. Polanczyk CA, Marcantonio E, Goldman L, et al. Impact of age on studies in which patients? Surg Clin North Am 1996;76:11–13.
perioperative complications and length of stay in patients undergo- 17. Velanovich V. Preoperative laboratory evaluation. J Am Coll Surg
ing noncardiac surgery. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134:637–643. 1996; 183:79–87.
2. Hobbs FB, Damon BL. 65+ in the United States. U.S. Bureau of the 18. Goldman L, Caldera DL, Nussbaum SR, et al. Multifactorial index of
Census. Current population reports, special studies, Pub. No. cardiac risk in noncardiac surgical procedures. N Engl J Med 1977;
P23–190. Washington, DC: 1996; Government Printing Office; 1996. 297:845–850.
3. Hoffman C, Rice D, Sung HY. Persons with chronic conditions: their 19. Detsky AS, Abrams HB, McLaughlin JR, et al. Predicting cardiac com-
prevalence and costs. JAMA 1996; 276:1473–1479. plication in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. J Gen Intern
4. Inouye SK, Schlesinger M, Lydon T. Delirium: a symptom of how hos- Med 1986; 1:211–219.
pital care is failing older persons and a window to improve quality 20. Detsky AS, Abrams HB, Forbath N, et al. Cardiac assessment for
of hospital care. Am J Med 1999; 106:565–573. patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. A multifactorial clinical risk
5. Selzman CH, Miller SA, Zimmerman MA, et al. The case for beta- index. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146:2131–2134.
adrenergic blockade as prophylaxis against perioperative cardiovas- 21. L’Italien GJ, Paul SD, Hendel RC, et al. Development and validation
cular morbidity and mortality. Arch Surg 2001; 136:286–290. of a bayesian model for perioperative cardiac risk assessment in a
6. Wallace A, Layug B, Tateo I, et al. Prophylactic atenolol reduces post- cohort of 1,081 vascular surgical candidates. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;
operative myocardial ischemia. Anesthesiology 1998; 88:7–17. 27:779–786.
7. Fischer SP. Development and effectiveness of an anesthesia preoper- 22. American College of Physicians. Guidelines for assessing and manag-
ative evaluation clinic in a teaching hospital. Anesthesiology 1996; ing the perioperative risk from coronary artery disease associated
85:196–206. with major noncardiac surgery. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127:309–312.
8. Fischer SP. Cost-effective preoperative evaluation and testing. Chest 23. Campeau L. Grading of angina pectoris [letter]. Circulation 1976;
1999; 115:96S–100S. 54:522–523.
9. Parker BM, Tetzlaff JE, Litaker DL, et al. Redefining the preoperative 24. Eagle KA, Brundage BH, Chaitman BR, et al. Guidelines for perioper-
evaluation process and the role of the anesthesiologist. J Clin Anesth ative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery. Report of the
2000; 12:350–356. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task
10. Pollard JB, Zboray AL, Mazze RI. Economic benefits attributed to Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 1996; 93:1278–1317.
opening a preoperative evaluation clinic for outpatients. Anesth 25. Gilbert K, Larocque BJ, Patrick LT, et al. Prospective evaluation of car-
Analg 1996; 83:407–410. diac risk indices for patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Ann
11. Starsnic MA, Guarnieri DM, Norris MC. Efficacy and financial benefit Intern Med 2000; 133:356–359.
of an anesthesiologist-directed university preadmission evaluation 26. Lee TH, Marcantonio ER, Mangione CM, et al. Derivation and
clinic. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9:299–305. prospective validation of a simple index for prediction of cardiac risk
12. Reilly DF, Marguerite JM, Doerner D, et al. Self-reported exercise tol- of major noncardiac surgery. Circulation 1999; 100:1043–1049.
erance and the risk of serious perioperative complications. Arch 27. Kaplan EB, Sheiner LB, Boeckmann AJ, et al. The usefulness of preop-
Intern Med 1999; 159:2185–2192. erative laboratory screening. JAMA 1985; 253:3576–3581.
13. Hlatky MA, Boineau RE, Higgenbotham MB, et al. A brief self-admin- 28. Narr BJ, Hansen TR, Warner MA. Preoperative laboratory screening
istered questionnaire to determine functional capacity (the Duke in healthy Mayo patients: cost-effective elimination of tests and
Activity Status Index). Am J Cardiol 1989; 64:651–654. unchanged outcomes. Mayo Clin Proc 1991; 66:155–159.
14. Morris CK, Ueshima K, Kawaguchi T, et al. The prognostic value of 29. Mangano DT, Layug EL, Wallace A, et al. Effect of atenolol on mor-
exercise capacity: a review of the literature. Am Heart J 1991; tality and cardiovascular morbidity after noncardiac surgery. N Engl J
122:1423–1431. Med 1996; 335:1713–1720.
15. Roizen MF, Kaplan EB, Schreider BD, Lichtor LJ, Orkin FK. The relative 30. Urban MK, Markowitz SM, Gordon MA, et al. Postoperative prophy-
roles of the history and physical examination, and laboratory testing lactic administration of beta-adrenergic blockers in patients at risk
in preoperative evaluation for outpatient surgery: the “Starling” for myocardial ischemia. Anesth Analg 2000; 90:1257–1261.
curve of preoperative laboratory testing. Anesthesiol Clin North Am 31. Khuri S, Daley J, Henderson W, et al. The National Veterans
1987; 5:15–34. Administration Surgical Risk Study: risk adjustment for the compara-
16. Marcello PW, Roberts PL. “Routine” preoperative studies: which tive assessment of the quality of surgical care. J Am Coll Surg 1995;