Materials Real

Arrangement of Atoms
Atomic
arrangements
Molecular Crystal Amorphous

structures structures structures
Structure of Pure Metals
• Limited number of • Atoms have repeated • Short range order
atoms strongly patterns in 3 but no long range
bonded together. directions. order.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Bonds with other • Long range order. • Liquids or non-
similar groups are crystalline solids.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Atoms fixed on space
weak. lattice. • eg soot.
• eg CO2, H2O. • eg diamond, metals.
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2012
Types of Crystal Structure Types of Crystal Structure
Body centred cubic Face centred cubic
Features: Features:
• no. of atoms = 9. • no. of atoms = 14.
• high strength. • high ductility and
• moderate ductility. malleability.
• examples: Cr, V, • examples: Ni, Cu,
Mo, W, Nb,  - Fe. Al, Ag, Au, Pb,  - Fe.
Types of Crystal Structure Solidification of Metals
Hexagonal close-packed Metals solidify in 3 dimensions as dendrites.
Features: Directions of
dendrite
• no. of atoms = 17.
growth
• low plasticity follow
• examples: Ti, Zn, directions of
Mg, Be, Zr. c heat
dissipation.
1-1
Grain structure Grain Structure
Crystals of metals are known as grains. Solidification of metals - practical implications
• Grain boundaries.
• Columnar structure of
weld metal.
Grain
Crystal Structure: Point Imperfections Crystal Structure: Linear Imperfections
Perfect lattice Linear imperfections = dislocations

Point imperfections
Interstitials Vacancies
Atoms in lattice
Dislocations Plastic Deformation
Edge Appears due to an extra Movement of dislocations is the mechanism of

plane of atoms. plastic deformation.
DISLOCATIONS
Appears due to a
Screw
step of atoms.
• Dislocations move along planes of high atomic density.

• Dislocation movement leads to plastic deformation.
1-2
Preventing Dislocations Moving Elastic and Plastic Deformation
• When dislocations cannot move it takes more force • Elastic deformation = reversible, small (below yield point).
to deform (yield) the material and the metal has • Plastic deformation = permanent, larger (beyond yield
higher strength. point).
• Yield strength is lower at higher temperatures so
• Dislocations become pinned by flaws in the crystal deformation is easier at higher temperatures.
lattice and stable (low energy) lattice sites.
Elastic Plastic
• Barriers to dislocation motion include:
– Interstitial atoms (eg in solid solution alloys). Yield
point
– Precipitates (eg second phase or inter-metallic
particles).
– Grain boundaries.
– Other dislocations.
Hot and Cold Deformation Strengthening Due to Grain Size
• Hot deformation = above recrystallisation Decreased

temperature. grain size
• Cold deformation = below recrystallisation
temperature.
Increased number of
• Recrystallisation = new grains nucleating and
grain boundaries
growing within the solid.
• Recrystallisation occurs in deformed solid
material above the recrystallisation temperature Increased hardness and strength
eg weld HAZ.
(also increased toughness)
Grain Size Measurement Work Hardening

ASTM E 112 Coarse grains Fine grains • Work hardening is when a material is plastically
deformed in order to increase its dislocation
Increase in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 density and therefore increase its strength.
grain size • During work hardening (or cold work) dislocations
become entangled and their further movement is
prevented – higher strength.
• This is also associated with a decrease in ductility.
• Effects can be reversed by annealing at high
temperature, recovery and recrystallisation, to
reduce the dislocation density.
1-3
Alloys
Alloys are substances with metallic properties

composed of at least two elements, of which at
least one of them is a metal.
Alloys and Phase Diagrams
Why do we need alloys?
• To obtain materials with superior properties.
TWI Training & Examination Services • To match requirements that cannot be
EWF/IIW Diploma Course fulfilled by pure materials alone.
Alloy Systems Solid Solution

A solid solution is a microscopically homogeneous and
Alloy systems
random distribution of atoms of one kind (solute)
throughout atoms of another (solvent).
With total With total With total

solubility in solubility in solubility in
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase
phase (solid and total and partial Substitutional: diameter of solute Interstitial: diameter of solute atom
solution) insolubility in solubility in atom = diameter of solvent atom ± is much smaller than diameter of
solid phase solid phase 15% (eg Ni in Cu). solvent atom (eg C in Fe).
How To Produce A Phase Diagram Alloy Systems

System with total solubility in liquid and solid
phase: Cu - Ni alloy system.
T (°C) T (°C)
Liquid
1455 °C
1085 °C Solid
Phase diagrams can be determined by taking a series of
cooling curves for a system over a range of compositions
Then swap the time axis for composition. 100% Cu 100% Ni
2-1
Using the Phase Diagram Using the Phase Diagram
Determine the phases present at different temperatures Find the temperatures at which solidification starts/ends
T (°C) 100% Liquid T (°C)
Liquid Liquid
phase
T1
Mixture (mush)
of liquid and
solid phase TStart
T3
TEnd
T2 Solid
Solid
100% Solid
phase
100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni

Using the Phase Diagram Using the Phase Diagram

Determine the concentration of phases at a specific Determine the quantity of phases present at a specific
temperature (T) temperature (T) - the lever rule.
Liquid
T (°C) T (°C)
Liquid
T = 1232°C T = 1232°C
Solid
C
solid phase Solid % of solid = A = 66-60

liquid phase C 66-57
57% Cu
66% Cu
100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 66% Cu 60% Cu 57% Cu 100% Ni

Alloy Solidification - Coring Alloy Solidification - Coring

• During solidification, first solid to form 60% Cu
Liquid T (°C)
T (°C)
has a different composition to the last
solid to form.
• Therefore chemical composition and
properties vary through the dendrite. TStart
• The larger the distance between Solid
liquidus and solidus lines, or the TEnd
higher the cooling rate, the larger the
inhomogeneity.
• Can only be corrected by heat
treatment for long time at high
temperature (eg 24 hours @ 1000°C) 100% % Cu at end of % Cu at start of 100%
then slow cooling. Cu solidification solidification Ni
2-2
Alloy Systems Alloy Systems
Alloy systems System with total solubility in liquid phase and total
insolubility in solid phase, eg Bi - Cd alloy system.
T (°C) T (°C)
Liquid 321 °C
271 °C
With total With total With total Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd

solubility in solubility in solubility in 146 °C
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase Solidus line
Eutectic
phase (solid and total and partial
solution) insolubility in solubility in Eutectic + Bi Eutectic + Cd
solid phase solid phase
100% Bi 40% Cd 100% Cd
Eutectic Alloy Features Solidification in Bi - Cd Alloy System
• It is a mechanical mixture between two Crystals of

Liquid
pure Cd T (°C)
components at a specific concentration. T (°C)
• It has the lowest melting/solidification point 321 °C

TStart
among all the alloys. 271 °C Liquid
• Solidification occurs at a fixed temperature. Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd

• Usually it consists of 146 °C
Solidus line
a lamellar structure.
• An alloy system can
Liquid phase Solid phase
possess more than composition composition
one eutectic alloy.
100% Bi 80% Cd 100% Cd
Eutectic Reaction in Bi - Cd Alloy System The Eutectic Alloy in Bi - Cd Alloy System

T (°C) T (°C) Liquid 146 °C Eutectic (Bi + Cd)
T (°C) T (°C)
Liquid 321 °C
Liquid 321 °C
271 °C
271 °C
Liquid + Cd
Solidus line 146 °C

146 °C Solidus line
Crystals
of pure Cd
Eutectic
Bi + Cd
Eutectic Bi + Cd
100% Bi 80% Cd 100% Cd

100% Bi 40% Cd 100% Cd
2-3
Alloy Systems Alloy Systems
System with total solubility in liquid phase and partial solubility in
Alloy systems solid phase: Cu - Ag alloy system T (°C)
1085°C
Liquid
962 °C
Liquid + 
Liquid + 
T (°C) 
with total with total with total  780 °C
Solidus line
solubility in solubility in solubility in
8% Ag 91% Ag
Eutectic
liquid and solid liquid phase liquid phase
+
phase (solid and total and partial
solution) insolubility in solubility in
solid phase solid phase
100% Cu 72% Ag 100% Ag
Solidification in Cu - Ag Alloy System Eutectic Reaction in Cu - Ag Alloy System

Crystals of  Liquid T (°C) T (°C)
T (°C) T (°C) 1085 °C
1085 °C Liquid 962 °C
Liquid + 
TStart Liquid 962 °C
Liquid +  Liquid + 
  780 °C
Liquid +  Solidus line
 Eutectic  + 
 780 °C
Solidus line
Crystals of 
Solid phase Liquid phase

composition composition
100% Cu 30% Ag 100% Ag
780 °C
100% Cu 30% Ag 100% Ag Liquid Eutectic ( + )
Partial Solubility in the Solid Phase Age Hardening
• Insolubility of one element in the solid phase Single phase - 

of the other means that particles of one solid (uniform solid solution)
phase will precipitate in the other solid α
phase.
• Needs slow cooling (equilibrium conditions).
α+ Normal
• Precipitates tend to nucleate on existing
βsec cooling
grain boundaries.
Grain
• Second phase precipitates can age harden
boundary
the alloy.
precipitates
Range of age hardening alloys
2-4
Precipitate Size vs. Temperature Practical Implications of Age Hardening
• Increased hardness and tensile strength.

• Size of precipitates become coarser as the
ageing temperature is increased.
• Ageing temperature controls distribution of
the second phase as well as size.
• Many fine and uniformly dispersed
precipitates are more effective than few coarse
precipitates.
• If heating is too prolonged/excessive, the alloy
re-softens.
Solid State Phase Transformations The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

T (°C) Liquid T (°C)
• Iron-Carbon diagram can be broken down into
several smaller phase diagrams:
• Peritectic reaction.
– Liquid to solid transformation, occurs at high temperature
 about 1495°C and low carbon (<0.5%).
+ + • Eutectic reaction.
 – Liquid to solid transformation, occurs in cast irons at

greater than 2.1% carbon at 1148°C .
Eutectoid
+ • Eutectoid reaction.

– Solid to solid transformation, occurs at low carbon (0.02-
2.1%) and at 727°C. The most important part of the phase
100% A 100% B diagram for predicting the phases in steels in service.
Eutectoid: similar to eutectic, but solid to solid phase change
Phases in Iron Iron-Carbon Peritectic and Eutectic Reactions
• Liquid, L (melting point of steel is between 1147-

1550°C).
• Delta iron, δ, a bcc high temperature iron phase.
• Austenite, γ, fcc phase, stable from 723-1447°C.
• Ferrite, α, bcc iron phase, stable down to room
temperature.
• Iron carbide, Fe3C, a higher carbon compound
also called cementite, which along with α forms
pearlite (a lamellar eutectoid).
2-5
Iron Carbon Eutectoid Reaction Iron Carbon Phase Diagram
Steel Microstructures Phase Diagram - Advantages

• One diagram is valid for an entire alloy system.
• At a specific temperature, can determine:
– phases present and their composition.
– percentage of each phase for various alloy
compositions (lever rule).
• Determination of melting/solidification points of all
alloys.
• Offers information regarding solubility.
• Determine phase changes that occur with a change in
composition and/or temperature.
Hypoeutectoid steels Hypereutectoid steels • Useful for determining heat treatment temperature.
Phase Diagram – Disadvantages

• Takes into consideration only two elements.
• Does not indicate the structural arrangement
of the phases ie lamellae, globules, films.
• Does not indicate the structural distribution
of the secondary phases ie either distributed
within grains or deposited at grain
boundaries.
• Shows only the equilibrium (slow cooling)
state, not representative of production or
welding.
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2-6
Iron Ores
Magnetite
• Fe3O4.
Steel Manufacture • Greyish black or iron
black colour.
• Magnetic.
• Contains approximately
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72% Fe.
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Iron Ores Iron Ores
Siderite
Haematite
• Fe CO3.
• Fe2O3.
• Greenish grey or brown
• Reddish grey or blackish grey colour.
red colour.
• Contains approximately 63% Fe.
70% Fe.
Iron Ores Blast Furnace
Limonite
• Fe3O(OH) - hydrated
iron oxides.
• Yellowish brown colour.
48% Fe.
3-1
Blast Furnace - Input and Output Blast Furnace Reactions
Input: • Coke burns to form carbon monoxide (CO).

• Iron ore. • CO reduces iron ore to molten iron.
• Coke  carbon.
• Limestone decomposes into lime (calcium
• Hot air  oxygen.
oxide).
• Limestone.
• Lime combines with silicon in the gangue to
• Firebrick lining.
form slag (calcium silicate).
Output:
• Pig iron. • Molten pig iron and slag tapped at bottom of
• Slag. furnace.
• Waste gases. • Waste gases emitted from top of the stack.
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)

Pig Iron Properties
Process Stages
Steel scrap
• High carbon content - ~ 4.5%. Molten pig iron
O2
• High level of impurities - S ~ 0.06%, P ~ 1%.

• Low tensile strength.
• Very low ductility, high brittleness.
• High amount of dissolved gases.
Oxygen reacts
Molten steel with dissolved
carbon forming
Pig iron typically converted to steel using basic oxygen CO and CO2
steelmaking (BOS) process.
Transfer ladle
The Electric Arc Furnace Ingot Solidification

Metal solidifies from outside inwards
Large equiaxed
crystals
Charging Columnar
(scrap, pig crystals
iron) (anisotropy)
Melting Reduction (add alloy

Oxidation (add
(addition of elements and
flux to remove C,
O2/fuel) reducing slag to
P, N) Chill, fine equiaxed crystals
remove O2 and S)
(high plasticity)
3-2
Ingot Production Continuous Casting
Un-killed steel Semi-killed steel Killed steel

• High amount of • Fewer dissolved • Fully deoxidised by
dissolved gases. gases. additions of Mn, Si
• NOT permitted for • Small additions and Al.
structural of Si and Al. • For concast and
applications. structural
applications.
Continuous Casting Shape Casting
Advantages Liquid metal fills a cavity within a mould and solidifies into
a useful shape.
• Faster than rolling from
ingots - 300 t steel in
45min compared to
12hours.
• Cheaper - no ingot
moulds, handling, etc.
• No piping problems.
Disadvantages
• Impurities segregate at
the centre of the plate.
Rolling Rolling Products
Principle of operation - thickness reduction Stages of rolling

through compression. • Primary rolling - large ingots converted to blooms and
slabs (concasting often avoids this step).
• Secondary rolling - blooms and slabs converted to plates,
Input: Output: sheets, profiles etc.
Ingots, Long length – Slab used to make plate, sheet and pipe. Typical cross-
sectional dimensions: 3000 x 200mm.
other products with
rolled uniform cross – Bloom used to make rolled shapes and I-beams. Typical
section cross sectional dimensions: 150 x 150mm.
products
(blooms, slabs, – Billet used to make bars, rods and wire. Typical cross
billets, plates, sectional dimensions: 50 x 50mm up to 120 x 120mm.
etc)
3-3
Plastic Deformation During Rolling Types of Rolling
Equiaxed Elongated
crystals crystals
Increase in
hardness and Intermediate
tensile strength annealing
Decrease in Rolling below

Degree of plastic deformation ductility recrystallization Cold rolling
temperature
Types of Rolling Effect of Rolling on Steel Inclusions
Stringers
Spontaneous
recrystallization
Rolling above
recrystallization Hot rolling
temperature
Overview of Sheet Steel Production Forging Methods

Forging involves the deformation Open die forging
and shaping of metals under
localised compressive forces
Hammer
Closed die forging Anvil
Upper die
Flash
Lower die Gutter
3-4
Typical forged product Extrusion
Extrusion is used to produce a length of material with

a fixed cross-sectional profile by forcing the material
through a shaped die under high pressure.
Forging lines
Direct extrusion
Die
Ram
Billet
Drawing
Drawing is a process
in which the cross-
sectional profile of a
wire or pipe is
reduced or altered
by pulling through a
drawing die.
Mandrel
3-5
Material Properties
• Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
• Ductility.
• Notch (impact) toughness.
• Fracture toughness.
Materials Testing
• Hardness.
• Corrosion resistance.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Creep resistance.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Fatigue resistance.
• Physical properties (density, thermal
conductivity, etc).
Tensile Test Stress-Strain Curve

• Performed on parent metal or weld deposit.
• Determine YS, UTS, elongation and RoA.
Parallel length
Gauge length
Radius Diameter of the

reduced section
Gripped end
Tensile Test - Definitions Tensile Test - Definitions

• Yield strength - the point at • Elongation - the %
which behaviour changes
from elastic to plastic increase in the original
deformation. gauge length.
• Ultimate tensile strength • Reduction of area
(UTS) - stress corresponding (RoA) - maximum
to the maximum force.
change in CSA
• Proof strength - stress at
which a certain non-
occurring during test
proportional extension is expressed as a
achieved (defined for when percentage of the
there is no yield plateau) eg original CSA.
0.2%.
4-1
Cross Weld Tensile Test Toughness
• Machined across the weld Toughness is the resistance of a material to fracture.

so that parent, HAZ and
weld metal are sampled. Impact toughness tests:
• Weld cap may be ground • Charpy impact test.
off. • Drop-weight nil-ductility test (Pellini).
• Measure UTS and
position of fracture only. Fracture toughness tests:
• 3 areas with dissimilar • CTOD test (crack tip opening displacement).
properties make • R-curve testing (resistance to progressive crack
measurements of yield or extension, implying fracture toughness can change
elongation inaccurate. with crack extension).
Charpy V-notch Impact Test Specimen Charpy V-notch Impact Test
Specimen Pendulum
(striker)
Specimen
dimensions from
ASTM E23 Anvil
(support)
Fracture Toughness Testing Fracture Toughness Testing
• Proportional testpiece.
• May be full thickness of material.
• Contains genuine crack.

• Can target specific microstructure eg HAZ.
4-2
Fracture Toughness Testing Bend Tests
Calculate fracture toughness

from:
• Load at fracture.
• CTOD at fracture
• Bend tests determine the soundness of the

weld zone. Bend testing can also be used to
give an assessment of weld zone ductility.
• There are three ways to perform a bend test,
face bend, root bend or side bend
• Side bend tests are normally carried out on
welds over 12mm in thickness.
Fatigue Testing Hardness
• Apply a cyclic stress range to a • Hardness is the resistance of a material against

specimen and count the penetration.
number of cycles to failure. • Measured by indentation under constant load
• Similar specimens can be used imposed for a fixed time.
to plot a S-N (stress versus no.
of cycles) curve. • Measure hardness in different areas of a weld.
• Parent metals spend a lot of • Used to assess resistance toward brittle fracture,
lifetime initiating fatigue crack. cold cracking and corrosion sensitivity in H2S.
• Intrusions at weld toes mean
most of life is in propagation for
Hardness tests: • Vickers
welds. • Brinell
• (Rockwell)
Vickers/Brinell Hardness Test Machine Vickers Hardness Test
d1  d2
d
2
4-3
Brinell Hardness Test Rockwell Hardness Test
HR = E - e
d d E is a constant, 100 for diamond cone indenter and 130 for steel ball
d 1 2 indenter.
2
e is the permanent increase in penetration depth due to major load.
Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination
Stages in metallographic examination:

• Cutting of the specimen - MUST be performed
mechanically, not thermal cutting.
• Mounting of sample in resin or Bakelite.
• Wet grinding using silicon carbide abrasive paper.
• Polishing using diamond pastes spread onto a suitable
cloth mounted onto a buffing wheel.
• Etching - heavy etch for macro, light etch for micro.
• Examination - up to 10X magnification for macro, 100-
1200X magnification for micro.
Macro examination Micro examination
Metallographic Examination
• Used for detecting weld defects (macro).
• Measuring grain size (micro).
• Point counting the proportion of different constituents.
• Detecting brittle microstructures, precipitates, etc.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
• Material type • Location of examined area
• Etching solution • Weld imperfections (macro)
• Magnification • Phase, constituents,
• Grain size precipitates (micro)
4-4
Heat Treatment
Why?
• Tailor mechanical properties.
• Change microstructure.
Heat Treatment of Steels • Reduce residual stress level.
• Improve machinability.
• Homogenize chemical composition.
TWI Training & Examination Services How?
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Flame oven.
• Electric oven/electric heating blankets.
• Induction/HF heating elements.
Heat Treatment Cycle Types of Heat Treatment

What are key parameters? Equilibrium heat treatments (Ferrite and pearlite)
• Homogenizing.
Heating Temperature? Heating rate?
• Full annealing.
• Normalising.
Soaking Time? • Recovery and recrystallisation.
• Stress relieving
Cooling Cooling rate? Non-equilibrium heat treatment (Martensite)
• Quench and tempering.
Reheating?
Heat treatment following welding (PWHT)
• Stress relieving.
Type of heat treatment? What properties do you want? • Tempering.
Heat Treatments to Produce

Homogenizing
Ferrite and Pearlite (Equilibrium)
oC oC
• Relatively low • High
heating and Hot Working and Homogenizing Temperature in
Acm
cooling rates. austenite
Acm
Austenite • To improve Austenite phase field.
ductility, • Diffusion
A3 Austenite increase Austenite controlled
A3
+
Cementite
toughness, + reduction of
Austenite Austenite Cementite
+ Ferrite reduce residual segregation
+ Ferrite
stresses, (from casting).
Ferrite
Eutectoid A1 and/or improve Eutectoid A1
• Complete
(Pearlite) Ferrite
machinability. (Pearlite) dissolution of
• Adequately precipitates.
Ferrite + cementite Ferrite + cementite
(Fe3C) described by
(Fe3C)
equilibrium
0.008 0.77 2.0 phase diagram. 0.008
0.022 0.77 2.0
Carbon content in weight % 0.022 Carbon content in weight %
5-1
Annealed and Normalised Steel
Annealing and Normalising
Microstructures
oC
Pearlite
Austenite
Acm
910
Normalising –
Air cool Annealing –
A3
Furnace cool
727
A1
Annealing of hypereutectoid steels is carried out in the
austenite + cementite phase field to spheroidize the
carbides and avoid cementite film formation along the grain
boundaries. Ferrite
0.008 0.77 2.0 Annealed Normalised
0.022 Carbon content in weight %
Homogenizing/Annealing and Normalizing Recovery and Recrystallisation

Homogenizing • Cold work increase strength and reduce ductility and
• usually carried out in the early stages of steel processing, prior to toughness.
hot forging or rolling;
• Reversed by recovery and recrystallisation:
• Carried out at high temperatures in the austenite phase field;
• To improve chemical composition homogeneity and dissolve
– But if temperature too high excessive grain growth
precipitates. leads to drop in strength and toughness
Full annealing Normalising • Recovery reduces the stored energy in cold-worked or
deformed (rolled) material.
• Soaking temperature a • Full austenitisation.
function of C-content. • Aimed at obtaining a uniform • Dislocations move and align at heat treatment
• Soft microstructure ideal for fine grained structure temperature (recovery).
further mechanical working. (increase in toughness). • New defect-free grains nucleate from grain boundaries
• Slow cooling in the oven • Faster cooling (air cooling). and grow (recrystallisation).
(max: 20°C/h).
Recovery and Recrystallisation Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching
oC
Austenite
Acm
910
A3
Annealing
727
A1
0.008 0.83 2.0

0.05
Carbon content in weight %
5-2
Non Equilibrium Heat Treatment - Quenching Tempering
• Subcritical (Below A1) heat treatment to tailor
• Heating to annealing heat treatment temperature
hardness/strength of martensite.
range.
• Performed after quenching to reduce the brittleness.
• Fast cooling to increase hardness: • Ductility and toughness are improved.
– Brine (Water and salt) • Removes stresses due to quenching.
Increased quench severity
– Water
– Oil
• Ductility and toughness are drastically reduced.
Hardness
• Usually followed by tempering.
As- 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 oC
quenched
Tempering Heat Treatments Following Welding
Stress relief
• Carried out at lower temperature below A1 to reduce
residual stresses.
Tempering
• Carried out at higher temperature below A1. Not only
relieves stresses, but also softens the hard HAZ
microstructure.
Low C steel (0.12C) After tempering at 700°C for 30

Austenitised, 900°C for 30 minutes; minutes and air cooled.
Water quenched. 245Hv
380Hv
Stress Relief and PWHT PWHT Recommendations
oC
• No phase transformation
• Provide adequate support (low YS at high
• Slow heating and cooling temperature).
(max: 50°C/h). • Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal
Austenite
910 Acm • Soaking time 1hr/inch of
thickest section. expansions.
A3
A1 • Usual temperature for • Control soak time to equalise temperatures.
727 PWHT (C-Mn steel) –
550-650°C. • Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
Tempering
600 • Stress Relief carried out impingement.
after cold work or
500
Stress Relief
welding, at lower • Control cooling rate to avoid new residual stress.
0.022 0.77 2.0
temperatures. • For specific PWHT applications see standards
Carbon content in
weight %
ASME VIII, ASME B31.3, ASME B31.8.
5-3
Iron and Carbon
• Pure iron is not a
structural material.
• Small additions of carbon
Fe–C Steels greatly affect mechanical
properties.
• Steels are ferrous alloys
containing up to 2%
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• Above 2% carbon usually
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only cast iron.
Steels - Terminology Steels Terminology – Other Alloys

Carbon steels HSLA
• Plain C steels • Low C.
– Up to 1% Mn. • Micro-alloyed with Nb, V, Ti for grain refinement and
– Specified based on properties and max C content. precipitation hardening.
• C-Mn steels
• Strengths up to 560MPa (80ksi).
– Similar to plain C steels but with Mn contents of between 1 and TMCP
1.65 weight %. • ThermoMechanically Controlled Processed.
Alloy steels • HSLA is TMCP.
• Variant of TMCP is Accelerated Controlled Cooling (ACC) to
• Metastable martensite microstructures to meet strength and
describe steels rapidly cooled following hot rolling.
toughness requirements.
• Microstructures of ACC steels are acicular ferrite and bainite.
• Alloys specified based on element additions to increase
• Strengths up to 560MPa (80ksi).
hardenability to achieve designated strength, ductility and
toughness. • Special processing (Martensite also in microstructure)
strengths up to 825MPa (120ksi) are possible.
• Total alloying content <5%.
Steels Terminology – Other Alloys Weldability: Carbon Equivalent

Others Carbon equivalent is used to rank steels according to their
weldability, with reference to the resistance to fabrication
• Austempered, Martempered, maraging, creep resistant,
DP, TRIP, TWIP and ballistic hydrogen cracking:
C > ~0.11C
Mn Cr  Mo  V Ni  Cu CEIIW ≤ 0.4
CEIIW  C    Good weldability
6 5 15
CEIIW ≥ 0.5
C < ~0.11C Poor weldability
Si Mn  Cu  Cr Ni Mo V
p cm  C       5B
30 20 60 15 10
Alloying additions less of an issue at lower C levels
6-1
TTT and CCT Diagrams TTT and CCT Diagrams
TTT = Time Temperature CCT = Continuous Cooling 900
Advantages:
Transformation diagram Transformation diagram Ac3 • Include effects of all
Start
Ac1 alloying elements
Austenite phase field Austenite phase field 700 Ferrite
• Show transformations that
Temperature (0C)
Pearlite
Temperature (0C)
Finish occur under non-equilibrium
Phase transformations measured Bainite conditions
under continuous cooling conditions 500
Disadvantages:
Ms
• Are specific to one alloy
300
Phase transformations measured Martensite composition.
under isothermal hold conditions Ferrite and
Most applicable to welding Mf Bainite Ferrite and
Time (s) Time (s) 100
Martensite Pearlite
Show transformation products of austenite under non-equilibrium conditions Time
CE and CCT Diagrams Weldability of C-Mn Steels: CE<0.4

900
• Low susceptibility to hydrogen-assisted cracking.
Ac3 Start • Preheat generally not required.
Ac1
700 Ferrite
Pearlite
• Low hardenability means weld and HAZ
Finish
hardened zones not severely hard, even if rapidly
500
Bainite
cooled.
>CE
Ms
• Easily welded with arc, gas or resistance welding
300
processes.
Martensite
• Use low-alloy filler metal matching parent metal
Mf
100
mechanical properties.
Time
Weldability of C-Mn Steels: 0.4<CE<0.5 Weldability of C-Mn Steels: CE>0.5
• Weldability is still good when using low hydrogen • Risk of formation of hard martensite in the HAZ.
welding process or consumables. • Weld metal and HAZ are susceptible to
• Some risk of hydrogen-assisted cracking due to hydrogen-assisted cracking and low toughness.
increased hardenability, especially thicker • Low hydrogen welding processes must be used.
sections. • Preheat at 150-250°C, depending upon carbon
• For thickness >25mm preheat at 40-75°C. content, maintain interpass temperature >150°C.
• Maintain interpass temperature >100°C. • Slow cool and PWHT.
• PWHT thick sections or if high joint restraint.
6-2
Interpass Temperature Summary of Heating Requirements
• A temperature, specified as minimum and/or maximum
for the deposited weld metal and adjacent base metal
before the next pass is started. Carbon Preheat Interpass PWHT
equivalent temperature (oC) temperature (oC) temperature (oC)
• Steels which require preheat, must be kept above
minimum interpass temperature between the weld
passes. CE ≤ 0.4 Not required Not specified Not required
• Heat input is often adequate to maintain the interpass 0.4 ≤ CE ≤ 0.5 40-75°C 100-200°C 525-650°C
temperature, depending on plate thickness. (thick section) (thick section)
• Maximum interpass temperatures are imposed to limit CE ≥ 0.5 150-200°C 150-300°C 550-650°C
grain coarsening, or to ensure transformation from
austenite between passes.
6-3
Micro-alloy(HSLA) Steels
• Micro-alloy/high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels have
high strength (up to 700MPa) with <0.12% carbon.
• Good weldability from low carbon equivalent.
Fine-Grained • High toughness.
• Obtain strength and toughness from fine grain structure.
Micro-Alloyed Steels
• Use micro-alloying.
• And/or thermo-mechanically controlled processing
TWI Training & Examination Services (TMCP) or quenching and tempering (QT).
EWF/IIW Diploma Course • Used for structural applications, pressure vessels,
pipelines.
Grain Size Measurement Micro-alloyed Steels
ASTM E 112 Coarse grains Fine grains • Usually alloyed with V and Nb (max. 0.10%) and Ti
(up to 0.025%).
Increase in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 • Nb controls recrystallisation during rolling.
grain size
• Additional precipitation hardening effect from Nb and
V.
• Fine grains and precipitates give high strength and
toughness.
• Ni, Mo for higher strength or thicker sections.
• Low C content gives excellent weldability.
• Heat input & preheat limited to avoid grain growth.
TMCP Steels TMCP Steels - Manufacturing

• Thermo-mechanically controlled processed (TMCP) steels
– high strength and toughness with low carbon content.
• Manufactured by:
– Rough rolling – Fairly high temperature deformation of
austenite gives rapid recrystallisation and fine austenite grains.
– Finish rolling – Lower temperature rolling below region of rapid
recrystallisation. Deformation bands act as sites for
subsequent austenite transformation.
– Accelerated cooling – Typically between 5-15°C/second
between 800-500°C, followed by air cooling from 500°C.
Strengthening from refinement of ferrite grains and enhanced
precipitation hardening in micro-alloyed steels.
7-1
Weldability and Application of HSLA Steels Steel Grades
Advantages Pipe line steels
• Low carbon/IIW CE means lower danger of cold cracking • API 5L/ISO 3183 eg X52, X60, X65, X70, X80
and little or no preheat required. • 52 is the yield strength in ksi.
• Compared with carbon steels, thinner sections are Structural steel (buildings, bridges)
required to carry same load. • EN 10025, EN 10113, EN 10137 eg S355N,
Disadvantages S550A.
• Narrow range of heat input to prevent grain growth so • S means structural steel, 355 is yield strength in
accurate setting of parameters essential. MPa, N, M or A is delivery condition (normalised,
• Use overmatched filler metal so risk of weld metal cold TMCP or annealed).
cracking.
• Risk of lower strength and toughness on fusion line.
• PWHT temperature limited.
Steel Grades
Pressure vessel steels
• EN 10028, EN 10149, EN 10225, EN 10210 (replace
BS4360:1990).
• eg P355N, P means for pressure purposes.
Thermomechanically rolled steels
• EN 10025-4.
Quenched and tempered steels
• EN 10025-6:2004+A1:2009, DefStan 02-736 Part 1
[Q1(N)], ASTM A514, A517.
• Used for submarine hull construction, earth moving
equipment, cranes and offshore oil and gas wells.
7-2
Structure of the Weld
Structure of The Welded Joint
TWI Training & Examination Services Welds contain three

EWF/IIW Diploma Course regions; parent metal,
HAZ and weld metal.
Heat Input Heat Effects in Welding
Heat input = volts x amps x thermal efficiency (beware units) • Expansion and contraction → residual stresses.
travel speed • Changes in chemical composition by diffusion and dilution
affect mechanical properties.
High heat input welds:
• Cooling from melting temperature down to room
• Single pass welds.
temperature → HAZ.
• Large weld bead.
• High dilution.
• Slow cooling → grain growth in HAZ → low toughness.
• Deep narrow arc weld may lead to solidification cracking.
Low heat input welds:
• Multi pass welds.
• Smaller weld bead.
• Fast cooling = risk of hard brittle zones in HAZ.
• Control heat input or use preheat.
Cooling Time Between 800-500°C Formation of Molten Pool
• Important because it covers the temperature at

which austenite transforms during cooling.
• Influenced by the heat input and the heat sink
(thickness and initial temperature).
• Characterises the microstructures formed in the
weld and HAZ.
8-1
Stages in Weld Pool Solidification Dilution
Square butt Single bevel V groove with backing

(two runs high (multi-run strip (used for metal
dilution). medium dilution) testing, low dilution)
Solidification of Weld Metal Typical MMA Weld Metal
SEM picture of a weld showing dendritic growth

Pro-eutectoid Ferrite Solidification of Weld Metal
Note that:
• Columnar grains follow the heat dissipation path.
• Solidification starts from fusion line towards centre of
weld.
8-2
HAZ Regions Grain Coarsened HAZ
Grain Coarsened HAZ Grain Refined HAZ
Intercritical HAZ Subcritical HAZ
8-3
Multi-run HAZ Microstructure Multi-pass HAZ Regions
Refined HAZ Multi-pass Refining Effect
Effect of larger MMA

weld bead on multi-
pass refinement (due
to higher heat input
from larger electrode
diameter).
Multi- vs Single-pass Welding

• Reheat thermal cycle of subsequent passes re-
austenitises/refines parts of microstructure in the
previous weld bead  improved toughness.
• Tempering effect of subsequent runs  reduced
residual stresses.
• Low heat input per pass  limited grain growth.
• Less dilution  better control of weld composition.
• Preheat effect  reduced hydrogen level.
• BUT, lower productivity from larger number of
passes.
8-4
Hydrogen (Cold) Cracking
Cracking Mechanisms
TWI Training and Examination Services

EWF/IIW Diploma Course HAZ hydrogen cracking Weld metal hydrogen
cracking
Factors for Cold Cracking Sources of Hydrogen

• Welding consumables:
• Presence of hydrogen. – Flux coated rods (MMA).
• Susceptible – Flux shielding (SAW).
microstructure/high – Shielding gases.
hardness • Rust, grease, dirt or oil surface
>350HV (C-Mn steel low H contamination.
consumable).
• Atmosphere - particularly in warm and humid
• High tensile stress
conditions.
>0.5 YS. • Hydrogen in weld metal measured in
• Low temperature millilitres of dissolved hydrogen per 100g of
~<150°C. weld metal (ml H/100g).
Microstructure Temperature Effect on Cold Cracking
Hard microstructures at greater risk. • Hydrogen (cold) cracking occurs if hydrogen is still
• Some factors affecting microstructure hardness: present once material has cooled to <300°C and more
– Fast cooling = Hard microstructure. likely, <150°C.
• Low heat input gives fast cooling. • Hydrogen cracking can be avoided by keeping material
• Preheat slows cooling rate. warm for sufficient time to allow hydrogen to diffuse out.
• Thicker section = Faster cooling. • Preheat slows cooling – enhances diffusion.
• Maintain interpass temperature and then post heat before
• Higher carbon, higher alloy steels at greater risk: joint allowed to cool.
Mn Cr  Mo  V Ni  Cu
• Hydrogen cracking can also take time to occur.
CEIIW  C    C≥0.18 – Welds often left to cool for 24 or 48 hours before inspection is
6 5 15 carried out, so that any hydrogen cracking will be detected.
Si Mn  Cu  Cr Ni Mo V
pcm C      5B C<0.18
30 20 60 15 10
9-1
Cold Cracking Avoidance Benefits of PWHT
• Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of Hard microstructures at greater risk
welding process/consumable.
• If hard microstructures cannot be avoided during
• Use dry shielding gases. welding, PWHT is necessary.
• Clean joint from rust, grease and solvents. • PWHT directly following welding and joint not allowed
• Apply preheat. to cool.
• Maintain a specific interpass temperature. • Reduces microstructure hardness.
• Reduces residual stress.
• Apply post heat on completion of welding.
• Allows H to diffuse out.
• Control heat input.
• Use multi-run instead of single-run technique.
• Use a temper bead or hot pass technique.
Note: Some alloys become stronger during PWHT, while others lose
• Reduce residual stress, blend weld profile. toughness.
Location of Hydrogen Cracks Summary - Cold Cracking

Carbon steels High plate Low amperage, Contaminated, Rich hydrogen
thickness high travel speed dirty surface filler
HSLA steels
Low heat No preheat,
High
input low interpass Hydrogen
CE
contamination
Fast cooling rate
Hydrogen
Poor joint design
diffusion
Hard, brittle and/or fit-up
martensitic
structure High stress Hydrogen trapped in
martensite lattice
Parent IIW CE > Weld IIW Weld IIW CE >> parent IIW CE
CE cracking mainly in HAZ Cracking may occur in weld metal COLD CRACKING
Solidification Cracking Solidification Cracking and Composition
• Weld metal composition influence on susceptibility to

cracking (Unit of Cracking Susceptibility).
UCS= 230C + 190S +75P +45Nb -12.3Si - 5.4Mn -1
UCS<10 less susceptible, UCS>30 more susceptible

• Higher C increases solidification temperature range.
• Sulphur forms low melting point eutectic with Fe.
• Manganese addition improves resistance to hot cracking.
– MnS less of a problem than FeS
9-2
Solidification Range Solidification Cracking and Joint Design (Fillet)
°C
>C Liquid (L)

1538
L
1495
Delta ferrite ()
L+
+
1394
Austenite ()
0.25 0.5 %C
Solidification Cracking and Joint Design (Fillet) Solidification Cracking and Travel Speed
Depth to width ratio of weld bead affects

solidification pattern and hence cracking
susceptibility.
• W > d gives tendency for surface
cracks.
• W < d gives tendency for centreline
cracking.
• W/d ~3/2 promotes sound welds. CAUTION: speed = productivity = cracking risk
Solidification Cracking and Dilution Solidification Cracking: Austenitic Alloys

• Filler metals often formulated to resist hot cracking. Austenitic solidification greatly
increases risk of solidification
• Avoidance of high dilution welding conditions or joint cracking:
geometries associated with high dilution, is advisable. • S and P have very low
solubility in austenite.
• S and P form low melting point
eutectics with Fe, Cr and Ni.
Ferrite plus austenite
solidification and low S and P
content greatly reduce
susceptibility:
• S and P have greater solubility
in ferrite.
• Grain refinement from duplex
solidification.
9-3
Summary - Solidification Cracking Causes Summary - Solidification Cracking Avoidance
High thermal Poor weld profile Reduce Add Mn Reduce heat
stress Sulphur forms a (deep, narrow) restraint input to avoid
eutectic at grain coarse grains
Excessive boundaries Decrease Mn forms inclusions
travel speed travel speed Improve joint fit-
Poor joint fit-up with sulphur before Fe
up
(wide gap) can react (higher
High dilution temperature reaction)
Reduced grain Reduce heat Reduce dilution
Primarily Poor weld bead input to lower (e.g. avoid rutile
boundary shape (concave)
austenitic cohesion dilution electrodes)
solidification
Coarse grain Low S steel
Wide freezing structure Change joint Increased hot
range design ductility Reduce C%
HOT CRACKING AVOID HOT CRACKING IN STEEL

Liquation Cracking Liquation Cracking Mechanism

• Liquation cracking occurs at high temperature,
due to shrinkage strains.
• Forms between grains near the fusion line.
• Caused by:
– High level of impurities in weld/parent metal.
– Poor cleanliness on joint prep.
– High level of restraint.
• Can occur in steels. • Phase 1 - as a result of heat cycle, liquid films of (Fe + FeS)
• Prevalent in Al alloys, Ni eutectic appear near fusion line.
• Phase 2 - during cooling, liquid films of (Fe + FeS) eutectic
alloys and stainless steels. are subjected to tension leading to cracking.
Lamellar Tearing Segregation
Rolling direction
Causes of lamellar tearing:

• high level of through-thickness strain.
• weld orientation (fillet and tee butt welds).
• material susceptibility (contains elongated inclusions).
9-4
Reduction of Area in Short Transverse
Reheat Cracking
Direction (for 12.5-50mm Thick Plates)
A low value of the
short transverse
reduction of area
gives a high lamellar
tearing risk.
See:
BS EN 1011-2:
2001, Annex F and
T. G. Davey, The
Welding Institute
Research Bulletin,
1979, 20(6), 169-
171.
Reheat Cracking Avoiding Reheat Cracking

• Intergranular cracking in creep resistant alloys containing • Careful control of steel composition
>2 of: Cr, Mo, Nb or V.
• Usually occurs in the coarse grained HAZ , but can occur • ∆G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V – 2.
in (2.25%Cr-1%Mo-0.25%V) weld metal. – ∆G < 0
• Reheating (PWHT, service), causes dissolved • ∆G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C – 2.
precipitates to form and grow which strengthens the grain – ∆G1 < 2
and lowers creep ductility of the grain boundary. • PSR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V + 7Nb + 5Ti – 2.
• Reheat cracking along grain boundary forms at 350- – PSR < 0
550°C. • K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm).
• Can occur either during PWHT or prolonged service in – K < 1.5 (for weld metal)
350-600°C temperature range.
Avoiding Reheat Cracking
• Careful control of steel composition (%V < 0.1).

• Use optimum heat treatment procedures (ie the exact
soaking time, temperature and heating/cooling rate);
temper at 650-700°C followed by rapid cooling to
redistribute impurities inside the grains.
• Reduce residual stress (preheat); reduce stress
concentration by grinding the toes; avoid backing strips
and partial penetration welds; sharp notch defects not
allowed.
• Low heat input and multi-pass welding to reduce grain
growth.
9-5
Definition
The deterioration of a metal due to chemical or (very often)

electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Common types of
corrosion
Corrosion
TWI Training & Examination Services General Galvanic Crevice

EWF/IIW Diploma Course corrosion corrosion corrosion
Stress
Intergranular Pitting corrosion
corrosion corrosion cracking
Reactions During Corrosion REDOX
For example rusting of iron or steel. • Oxidation is electron loss.

• Reduction is electron gain.
Iron + water + oxygen Rust
• Corrosion is a balance of reduction and oxidation –
Fe + H2O + O2 Fe(OH)2 REDOX.
• REDOX potential is a measure of the affinity of a
• Chemical or electrochemical reaction of iron with substance for electrons compared with that of hydrogen.
oxygen and water = exchange of electrons. • REDOX potential of Hydrogen (H) is set at 0 volts.
• Iron is said to be oxidised. • Substances capable of reducing have negative potentials.
• Substances capable of oxidising have positive potentials.
• Water and oxygen are said to be reduced.
Galvanic Series Types of Corrosion 1 - Galvanic Corrosion

Relative potentials in seawater: Practical implications of the galvanic series:
• Platinum. • The more anodic metal (more negative REDOX
More positive REDOX
• Gold. potential) will corrode.
potential
• 316 Stainless steel. • The farther apart the two metals, the faster will be the
• Titanium. Least active, increasingly corrosion rate.
• Nickel. inert  cathodic
• Electrically insulate dissimilar metals and/or eliminate
• Copper. the electrolyte to protect against corrosion.
• Tin.
• Mild steel. More negative REDOX
potential
• Cadmium.
• Zinc. Most active  anodic
• Magnesium.
10-1
Types of Corrosion 2 – Types of Corrosion 3 –
General Corrosion Intergranular Corrosion
• Corrosion attack proceeds uniformly over the entire • Corrosive attack is localised at and adjacent to grain boundaries.
surface. • Occurs in stainless steel due to chromium (Cr) carbide precipitation
(sensitisation); for welded stabilised grades (eg 321, 347) can take the
• Uniform loss of wall thickness (mm/year). form of knife line corrosion in the HAZ.
• Eg steel in seawater, stainless steels in acidic or strong • Resistance against this type of corrosion is improved by lowering the
alkaline solutions. C content, controlling the welding procedure or by addition of Ti or Nb
(stabilisation).
• Corrosion allowance (mm) may be specified in design.
Types of Corrosion 4 – Types of Corrosion 5 –

Pitting Corrosion Crevice Corrosion
• Highly destructive non-uniform attack due to localised breakdown of • Attack occurs in narrow crevices filled with liquid and where the
passivity (the pit becomes the anode whilst the surface becomes the O2 level is very low (differential aeration).
cathode = effect of differential aeration).
• Results in holes in the metal.
• Eg gasket surfaces or under bolt/rivet heads, weld toes .
• In stainless steel occurs most commonly in chloride-containing • Under-deposit corrosion = when corrosion occurs under non-
environments or oxidising salts. metallic deposits or coatings on the metal surface.
• Resistance against this type of corrosion is improved by increasing Cr • Materials resistant to pitting corrosion are also resistant to
and Mo content; N has also a favourable influence. crevice corrosion.
Types of Corrosion 6 –
SCC Main Contributing Factors
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Material employed Environment,
(microstructure) temperature and
exposure time
SCC
• Occurs when metal subjected to tensile stress and exposed to a
corrosive environment  material can remain unattacked while fine
branched cracks progress through it (cracking can be either
intergranular or transgranular).
• In austenitic stainless steels occurs in chloride or halide containing
Level and
solutions; risk increases with increasing salt concentration, tensile distribution of
stress and service temperature (seldom found below about 60°C). tensile stresses
10-2
Common Corrosion Protection Techniques Pickling and Passivation
Coatings: A very thin layer of chromium oxide naturally grows on the

• Paints, plating, weld cladding, anodising, metal spraying. surface of stainless steels = passive layer.
Inhibitors:
• Add suitable chemicals to control the environment. 1. Pickling involves applying highly corrosive acids to a
metal or alloy to remove areas of lowered corrosion
Cathodic protection: resistance eg weld oxide.
• Impressed current or sacrificial anodes (eg galvanised 2. Passivation involves immersion in nitric acid to regrow
steel). the passive layer by oxidation.
Anodic protection:
• Passivating stainless steel. • The passive state has a higher redox potential than the
active state (active state is when corrosion is occurring).
Corrosion Testing
Ranking tests:
• Relative corrosion resistance of materials in an
environment
• ASTM G48 etc.
Electrochemical tests:
• Critical Pitting or Crevice Temperature
• Pitting Potential
• ASTM G150 etc.
Don’t necessarily represent service conditions; as-
received or as-welded metal, environment, temperature.
10-3
Summary
• What makes stainless steel stainless?

• Crystallographic structures.
• Elements contained in stainless steels.
Welding of Stainless Steels
• Five types of stainless steel.
• Mechanical properties.
TWI Training & Examination Services • Potential issues with welding stainless steels.
What Makes Stainless Steel Stainless? What Makes Stainless Steel Stainless?
• European definition: A steel that contains at least Passive layer, explanation:

10.5% chromium.
• Metal in air produces metal oxide = chromium
• Chromium = essential element to give corrosion
resistance.
oxide (in the case of stainless steels).
• Very thin (approximately10nm).
• The passive layer (protective film):
• Stable and not porous=protect from further
Self forming/repairing oxidation.
Passive film Surface damage passive film • Affected by chemical environment and
temperature.
• No stainless steel resists all environments.
Why Use Stainless Steel? Crystallographic Structures
• Excellent corrosion resistance. • Depending on chemical composition, 3 possible major

• Excellent formability. phases: austenite, ferrite and martensite.
• Very good weldability. • Phase = specific atomic arrangement.
• Non-magnetic (austenitic) or magnetic (ferritic). • Ferrite: body centred cubic (bcc).
• Oxidation resistance up to 1150ºC.
• High temperature strength.
• Austenitics: good impact toughness at temperatures as
low as -273ºC.
• Wear resistant if work hardened. Iron atoms
• Ease of cleaning, hygienic.
• Wide range of surface finishes.
11-1
Crystallographic Structures The Elements Contained in Stainless Steel
• Austenite: face centred cubic (fcc). Ferrite stabilisers:
• Iron (Fe).
• Chromium (Cr): corrosion resistance.
• Molybdenum (Mo): pitting and crevice resistance.
• Tungsten (W): pitting and crevice resistance.
• Titanium (Ti): Intergranular corrosion resistance in weld
HAZs.
• Niobium (Nb): Intergranular corrosion resistance in weld
• Martensite: body centred tetragonal (bct). HAZs.
• Each phase has specific properties. • Vanadium (V): creep resistance.
• Silicon (Si): high temperature oxidation resistance.
• Properties of the steel dependent on the phase(s) it
contains.
The Elements Contained in Stainless Steel The Elements Contained in Stainless Steel
Austenite stabilisers: • Chemical composition used to predict the phases

• Carbon (C): adds strength, but reduces the in the steel.
weldability.
• Nickel (Ni): ductility, toughness, resistance to stress • Creq = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5x%Si + 0.5x%Nb.
corrosion cracking. • Nieq= %Ni + 30x%C + 0.5x%Mn.
• Manganese (Mn): strength. • Creq and Nieq are plotted on the Schaeffler
• Nitrogen (N): resistance to pitting and crevice diagram to predict the microstructure formed from
corrosion, strength. rapid cooling from liquid metal, such as in a weld-
Neutral: pool.
• Sulphur (S): machinability.
The Schaeffler Diagram Five Types of Stainless Steel
• Austenitic stainless steels.

• Ferritic stainless steels.
• Duplex stainless steels.
• Martensitic stainless steels.
• Precipitation hardened stainless steels.
11-2
Five types of Stainless Steels- Five types of Stainless Steels-
Austenitic Grades Austenitic Grades
• Most commonly used grades. Pros (continued):
• Composition: 18-27%Cr and 8-22% Ni. • Can be surface hardened.
• Exceptional corrosion resistance, because highly
• AISI grades: 304, 316, 321, 347, 308 and 309. alloyed.
• Pros: Cons:
– Formable: excellent for stretch forming because very • Very susceptible to price variations, because rich
ductile. in nickel.
– Weldable: even thick sections. • Very expensive, because highly alloyed.
– Good fracture toughness, even at low temperature. • Low thermal conductivity.
– Non-magnetic. • High thermal expansion.
– Can be strengthened by cold work. • Difficult to machine, because tend to harden
when cold worked.

Austenitic Grades Ferritic Grades
• Welding austenitic stainless steels. Typically contain: 13-30%Cr.
– Hot cracking: cracking due to the formation of low Pros:
melting point interdendritic films in the weld metal. • Formable.
– Formation of delta ferrite in the weld: • Cheaper than austenitic grades.
• Helps reduce the risk of hot cracking. • Price more stable than austenitic grades.
• Risk of precipitation of sigma phase. • Similar thermal properties to carbon steels.
• Virtually all welding processes: MMA, TIG, MAG, Cons:
FCAW and SAW. • Not weldable in thick sections.
• Rutile electrodes can be used. • Not as stretch formable as the austenitic grades.
• Low heat inputs. • Not heat treatable.
• Poor toughness at low temperature.

Ferritic Grades Duplex Grades
• Typically 50% ferrite and 50% austenite.
Welding ferritic stainless steels:
• Typically contain: 20-25% Cr, 3-8% Ni, 0.1-4% Mo
• Main problem = grain growth at high
and 0.05-0.4% N.
temperature.
• Pros:
• Loss of fracture toughness. – High strength (higher than austenitic grades).
• Crack sensitivity during welding. – Moderate toughness at low temperature.
• Poor weldability, maximum 3-5mm thick – Weldable in thick sections.
sections. – Exceptional corrosion resistance, including stress
• Low heat input. corrosion cracking and pitting.
• Austenitic fillers (for better toughness). – Less susceptible to price variation than austenitic.
– Can be cold worked.
11-3
Five types of Stainless Steels-
Five types of Stainless Steels- Duplex Grades
Duplex Grades
Cons: Welding duplex grades:
• Not as easily weldable as the austenitic. • Filler metals have higher Ni content than the
• Not easily formed. parent metals.
• More difficult to machine than austenitic.
• Become brittle when exposed to temperatures
above 475ºC.
• Suffer from sigma phase precipitation at
temperatures above 540ºC.

Martensitic Grades Martensitic Grades
• Typically contain 11.5-18%Cr and 0.03-0.3%C. Cons:
• Martensite obtained by quenching. • Not readily weldable, except for low C grades.
• Pros: • Poor toughness at low temperature.
– Heat treatable. • Process route more complex than for austenitic.
– High strength. • Limited corrosion resistance.
– Moderate toughness at room temperature. Welding martensitic stainless steels:
– Good high temperature strength (up to 500ºC). • Cold cracking: embrittlement due to martensitic
– Not susceptible to price variations, because low structure.
Ni. • Preheat at 200-300ºC.
• Post weld heat treatment at 650-750ºC.
Five types of Stainless Steels-

Mechanical Properties
Precipitation Hardened Grades
Three types: martensitic, semi-austenitic and Values given in a certificate:
austenitic. • Room temperature tensile properties:
Pros:
• Very high strength. – 0.2% proof stress (what gives the material
• Better toughness and corrosion resistance than permanent deformation): Rp0.2 or σ0.2, MPa.
martensitic. – Ultimate tensile strength (what breaks the
Cons: material): σUTS or RM, MPa.
• Quite expensive and complex manufacturing – Elongation: El, %.
route.
• Not easily weldable. • Hardness: Vickers HV, Brinell HB or
• Not formable. Rockwell HR.
• Service limited to below 310ºC. – Impact toughness, Joules (J).
11-4
Mechanical Properties-Stress-Strain Curve Mechanical Properties-Toughness/Strength
Stronger Example of a glass bottle:

• Very difficult to pull it apart: that is strength.
• Very easily broken with a sharp blow: that’s (very
poor) toughness.
Toughness of stainless steels vs temperature:
• Austenitics: toughness decreases steadily with
temperature.
• Ferritics, duplex and martensitic: ductile to brittle
transition temperature (DBTT) = sudden drop of the
toughness in a narrow range of temperature.
More ductile
Mechanical Properties- Potential Problems with

Toughness vs Temperature Welding Stainless Steels
• Duplex and ferritics: high temperature grain
coarsening.
• Martensitic and PH: cold cracking.
• Austenitics: hot cracking (solidification cracking).
• Ferritics, duplex and austenitic welds that contain
some ferrite: sigma phase embrittlement at elevated
temperature.
• Austenitics: Weld decay (sensitisation).
• All: heat tint/weld oxide leads to lowered corrosion
DBTT resistance so use backing and shielding gas.
Potential Problems with Potential Problems with

Welding Stainless Steels- Weld Decay Welding Stainless Steels- Weld Decay
• Also called sensitisation or inter-crystalline corrosion.
• Susceptible temperature range: approx. 500-850°C so no
preheat/PWHT.
• Carbon diffuses to grain boundary and combines with Cr
to form carbides.
• Leaves a Cr-depleted layer along grain boundary which is
susceptible to corrosion.
• Corrosion or cracking along grain boundaries in HAZ.
• Avoid by using low carbon grades, eg 304L.
• Or add elements to combine with carbon eg 321 (contains
Ti), or 347 (contains Nb).
11-5
Potential Problems with Welding Stainless Potential Problems with Welding Stainless
Steels- Sigma Phase Embrittlement Steels- Sigma Phase Embrittlement
• Sigma () phase is a high chromium brittle inter-metallic
phase.
• Precipitates between about 500 and 1000ºC depending
on steel composition.
• Forms more readily in ferrite than in austenite.
• Affects toughness and corrosion resistance.
Sigma phase
• Grades containing Mo require less time for  phase
precipitation.
• Avoid by using no preheat or PWHT and low interpass
temperature.
11-6
Why do we need Overlays and Coatings?
• Surfaces often need to resist wear, corrosion, or heat

degradation.
• Materials that resist these surface degradation
mechanisms are usually unable to provide the required
Surfacing bulk strength and toughness.
• They are often also too expensive to be used for the entire
component.
• Using them for the entire part can also be costly or
TWI Training & Examination Services impractical from a manufacturing point of view.
Why do we need Overlays and Coatings? Types of Weld Surfacing
• Hence overlays and coatings are used to achieve the Build-up and repair:
required surface properties, whilst maintaining the • Worn or damaged surfaces can be replaced by building up the
surface with a weld metal which approximates the composition and/or
strength and toughness of the base material at a mechanical properties of the parent metal, in order to restore the
reasonable overall manufactured cost. original component dimensions.
• There is a wide variety of surfacing techniques available, Hardfacing:
ranging in thickness from 5μm (0.005mm) to about 5mm • A softer material is given a wear, abrasion or erosion resistant
or more. surface using a hardfacing alloy with high wear resistance, such as
high-carbon CoCr alloys (eg Stellite®), tungsten carbide, Cr-Mo
• This course focuses on weld overlays and also touches on steels, or martensitic steels.
the welding of galvanised steel components. Cladding:
• Cladding provides a corrosion or oxidation resistant surface on a less
corrosion resistant material. An example is the deposition of a
stainless steel (309, 316) or nickel-based layer (625, 825) on a
carbon steel base.
Welding Before or After Galvanising Clad Pipes

Before:
• Use a filler metal that matches the silicon content of the base steel.
The Si content of a steel has a dramatic effect on the thickness of the
galvanised zinc layer.
• If, for example, the weld filler metal has a higher Si content than the
steel, the galvanised assembly will have a visibly thicker Zn coating on
the weld area.
• Hot dip galvanising of welded structures can cause Liquid Metal
Embrittlement of the structure at areas of stress concentration, such as
dramatic section changes or badly prepared weld finishes.
After:
• Care is required when welding galvanised steels. Zn vapour may
cause porosity in the welds with high speed welding processes such
as GMAW or laser.
• Breathing in of metal oxides such as zinc and copper can lead to an
acute flu-like illness called metal fume fever. Read the MSDS and use
breathing apparatus.
12-1
Cladding Methods – Overview Clad Steel Features
Cladding Parent plate

Methods
T
(10-20%)T
Cladding
Fusion Laser Solid State
Welding Welding Welding
• Corrosion/abrasion resistance provided by the cladding.
• Mechanical strength provided by the parent plate.
Roll • Lower cost compared to alloyed plate.
Explosive bonding Mechanical
Arc welding ESW
cladding (metallurgical cladding
cladding) Full thickness
T < 10 mm
Required alloy plate
material
MMA GTAW GMAW SAW FCAW PTAW
thickness (T)
T > 10 mm Clad steel plate
Arc Welding Surfacing Techniques I Arc Welding Surfacing Techniques I

Manual metal arc (MMA): Gas metal arc welding (GMAW); submerged arc welding
• MMA is a common hardfacing process, and uses coated (SAW):
electrodes. Due to its low cost and the ease of transporting the • Consumable hardfacing wire (which can be a cored wire)
equipment, this flexible process is ideally suited to repair work. is fed continuously from a spool through the welding torch
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): into the arc, where it is melted and transferred to the work-
• In GTAW welding (TIG welding) the hardfacing material is fed in piece. SAW can also use a flat strip consumable.
(usually by hand) in the form of a rod. Hot wire TIG can increase
deposition rates to match those of the GMAW/MAG process but
with a GTAW quality deposit.
• Advantages of the GTAW process include simple manual
operation and good control of the welding arc. The process can
also be mechanised, in which case a manipulator is used to
move the work-piece in relation to the welding torch and the
hardfacing rod or wire.
• Welding rods used for GTAW Welding can also be used for
hardfacing with the oxy-acetylene welding process.
Arc Welding Surfacing Techniques II Strip Cladding (SAW and ESW)

Plasma transferred arc welding • Similar to conventional welding, but using strip instead of wire filler
(PTAW): metal. Strip widths commonly 15-240mm; thickness 0.5mm.
• The PTAW process is easily
• Deposition rate (for 60mm strip) up to 36kg/hr for ESW and 20kg/hr
automated, providing a high degree
of reproducibility of the weld for SAW.
overlays. • Used for relatively large and thick components; eg internal surfaces
• Because of the highly concentrated of pressure vessels and large diameter pipe; reclamation of steel
heat source, this has high deposit mill rolls.
rates and can achieve a very low • Therefore: need manipulation to enable welding in the flat position.
level of dilution in the overlay. • ESW: Reduced dilution:  single layer cladding possible (SAW may
• Because the hardfacing materials are need two layers).
in powder form, it is possible to • Very slow cooling rates produces a coarse grained HAZ 
produce overlays from many different The PTAW Process
(Image © Deloro Stellite Inc., used with hydrogen cracking is not a problem but there is a risk of underclad
materials (and combinations of permission) (reheat) cracking.
materials) with a wide range of
hardness and other properties. • Flux must be electrically conductive in ESW.
12-2
Submerged Arc Strip Cladding (SAW) Submerged Arc Strip Cladding
Range of application including weld hard facing and corrosion
resistant alloy cladding.
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB

Electroslag Strip Cladding (ESW) Laser Weld Deposition

Laser weld deposition:
• Workpiece heated with a laser beam.
• Powder hardfacing material fed into the laser beam and melted.
Advantages:
• Narrow heat-affected zone.
• Fast cooling rate.
• Low heat input.
• … therefore;
An almost stress free overlay.
A significantly finer microstructure.
A higher hardness (usually).
A word of caution:
• Usually, the fast cooling leads to a higher hardness; but in some
hardfacing alloys that rely on time-dependent carbide growth during
solidification for their wear properties, it can lead to unexpectedly poor
wear resistance.
Courtesy of ESAB AB
Explosive Cladding Explosive Cladding

Advantages:
• Solid state welding.
• Ability to join a wide variety of dissimilar metals.
• Parent plate is stationary.
• Can join components of a wide range of sizes.
Disadvantages:
• Geometric configuration must allow a uniform
progression of the detonation front.
• Limited to flat plate, cylindrical and conical structures.
• There are some safety issues (use of explosives).
12-3
Roll Bonding (Metallurgical Cladding) Mechanical Cladding
Metallurgically clad (roll bonded) pipes: • Mechanically clad pipes.

• Are manufactured by hot rolling the plates of the different – Prepared pipe package.
materials together to produce a metallurgical bond – Corrosion-resistant liner inside the low-alloy steel pipe.
between them. – Expanded by high internal pressure inside a special
• The advantages compared with overlay welding are that tool.
there is no dilution from the base material. • The spring-back effect of the ferritic outer pipe is
The advantages compared with explosive cladding are: greater than that of the inner pipe, when the pressure
• Higher bonding quality. is released.
• Reduction of weld length due to larger dimensions. • This results in residual compressive stress on the
inner pipe of ca. 50-100MPa, which provides a
• Use of thinner clad material is possible.
homogenous contact.
Weld Dilution Welding Clad Steel Plate
Base metal dilutes the weld metal: Some weldability problems for clad steels are:
• 40-50% adjacent to the fusion line. • Maintaining the continuity (ie corrosion resistance) of
• Drops to around 5-25% in subsequent passes. the cladding.
– Depends on weld method, technique, parameters.
• Difficulties with dissimilar metal welding.
– For example, for thin as-machined deposits, PTAW can
provide lower dilution than GTAW. • Mismatch of the bore diameters.
• NDT and access restrictions.
Disadvantages:
• Thermal fatigue.
• Affects the corrosion resistance, hardness and wear
resistance of the deposit.
 Can use nickel alloy (alloy 625) to weld clad steel.
• Most standards and specifications specify the acceptable
dilution level at the as-machined weld overlay thickness.  Or use a buttering layer (eg 309 SS) between clad layer
and carbon steels.
Welding Clad Steel Plates – Single Sided Welding Clad Steel Plate
Weld metal - 309
type stainless steel Butt welding if both sides accessible - six stage process.
or Inconel
Weld metal
(carbon steel)
Stainless steel
No root face on
cladding - 304
carbon steel Cladding
(316) type
Step 1 - Faces bevelled
Step 3 - Welded from C steel side only
min. 1.6 mm
Step 1 - Faces bevelled
from carbon steel side Step 3 - Weld from
carbon steel side
2.5-3.2 mm No gap
Step 2 - Fit-up
Step 2 - Fit-up
12-4
Welding Clad Steel Plate Welding Clad Steel Plate
Step 4 - Root gouge Butt weld from both sides – alternative method.
Gouge from
stainless steel side
Step 6 - Protective plate welded No root face on

on (optional) carbon steel Cladding 2.5-3.2 mm
Step 5 - Weld from stainless steel side
Step 1 - Faces bevelled Step 2 - Fit-up
Root run - 309 Fill runs - 308 Stainless steel Stainless steel
(309Mo) type (316) type Weld metal - 309 Weld metal - matches
protective plate fillet weld type or Inconel
stainless steel stainless steel stainless steel
Step 3 – Weld from C steel side Step 4 – Clean root and weld from SS side
Welding Clad Steel Pipe – Single Sided
Cladding 2.5-3.2 mm
Step 1 - Faces bevelled and carbon Step 2 - Fit-up
plate cut back to expose cladding
3rd run - extra Fill runs -
Weld metal - 309
Root run - 308 low carbon carbon
type or Inconel
or 316 type steel filler steel filler
2nd run -
309 type
or Inconel
Root run - 308

or 316 type
Step 3a - Welded with stainless
steel/Ni base filler only Step 3b - Welded with stainless + C steel filler
12-5
What is Creep?
• Slow, time dependent deformation of a material under a
constant load.
• Extent of the deformation a function of:
– Temperature.
Creep-Resistant Steels – Time.
– Stress.
• Threshold temperature, for a given material, below which
creep is not of concern.
TWI Training & Examination Services • For most metals, creep occurs at around 0.3-0.4 melting
EWF/IIW Diploma Course point.
– High temperature problem.
• Creep failure occurs by void formation, developing into
intergranular cracks.
High Temperature Steel selection Creep Fracture Micrograph
For long duration, high temperature service, also need

to consider.
• Oxidation and corrosion resistance.
• Microstructural stability (carbide precipitation, sigma
phase formation (in stainless steels).
• Temper embrittlement.
Creep crack surfaces are generally heavily oxidised

Creep Curve Creep Test

Creep occurs in three stages, primary (initiation), secondary Apply
(steady state) and tertiary (accelerating). constant
Strain () load
Primary Secondary (steady- Tertiary
creep state) creep creep Fracture
High
temperature
Measure
strain
0 Time (hr)
13-1
Use of Creep Data Creep-Related Terms
• Design life >20 years. • Creep rate: Slope of time/strain curve (rate of
• Creep data generally <11 years (100,000 hours). deformation).
• Extrapolated data generally unreliable. • Creep strain: Time-dependent strain at elevated
• Instead, test using equivalents of time at temperature, temperature.
eg Sherby-Dorn, Larson-Miller or Manson Haferd • Creep stress: Stress produced by a constant load
parameters. which leads to creep.
• Creep strength: The stress to cause a given creep
strain, in a given time, in a given environment.
Creep-Resistant Materials Creep-Resistant Materials
• Low alloyed ferritic steels.

Requirements for
• ½Mo steel.
materials used at
• ½Cr ½Mo ¼V steel.
elevated temperatures
• 1Cr ½Mo steel.
• 2¼ Cr 1Mo (V) steel.
Retention of strength Resistance to Microstructural • 5Cr 1Mo steel.
at working oxidation and stability • 9Cr 1Mo steel.
temperatures scaling • 9Cr 1Mo (mod) steel.
Also used for very high temperature (>800°C) service:
• Austenitic stainless steels (304H, 347H).
Alloy with Cr Alloy with Mo, • Nickel base alloys (Ni-Cr Inconels, Ni-Cr-Fe Incoloys).
V, W, Nb, B • Refractory metals (Tungsten, zirconium, hafnium etc).
Creep Temperature Limits Creep-Resistant Steels Features

Steel type Oxidation resistance Creep limit
• Greater tensile and creep strength at elevated
temperatures compared with carbon steels.
C-Mn steel 500°C 425°C
0.5Cr 0.5Mo 550°C 510°C
• Increased hardenability due to Mo and Cr alloying.
1Cr 0.5Mo 565°C 560°C • Cr improves resistance to oxidation.
2.25Cr 1Mo 580°C 595°C • Depending upon Cr content, structure can be pearlitic,
bainitic or martensitic.
9Cr 1Mo 600°C 600°C
• Mo stabilises Cr carbides and increases strength at
9Cr 1Mo (mod) 625°C 625°C
elevated temperatures; also impedes carbide coalescence
at elevated temperatures.
What is high temperature for one material may not
be high for another. • V and Nb harden by forming fine scale nitrides.
13-2
Welding Creep-Resistant Steels Welding Creep-Resistant Steels
Main problems: Recommendations:
• HAZ cold cracking - use low hydrogen consumables.
• Apply preheat (guidance given in codes); as Cr content
• Loss of toughness in GCHAZ. increases, preheat temperature increases.
• Reheat cracking.
• Use low hydrogen welding process and consumables.
• As alloy element content increases, hardenability increases,
weldability decreases. • PWHT is normally essential, as Cr content increases,
• Loss of creep strength in HAZ (Type IV cracking). PWHT soaking temperature increases.
Welding processes: • Reduce restraint, and clean thoroughly weld joint area, in
• Common welding processes: MMA, TIG, MAG, FCAW and order to avoid hot cracking; avoid deep narrow profile
SAW. weld runs.
• Near matching filler materials are generally used to provide
proper service performance characteristics.
Reheat Cracking Avoiding Reheat Cracking
• Careful control of parent steel and welding consumable

composition.
• Use optimum heat treatment procedures, ie exact soaking
time, temperature and heating/cooling rate.
• Reduce residual stress; reduce stress concentration by
grinding toes; avoiding backing strips and partial
penetration welds; sharp notch defects not allowed.
• Intergranular cracking in CGHAZ at elevated
temperature. • Low heat input and multi run welds to reduce grain growth
– but risk of cold cracking.
• Occurs in steels alloyed with 2 or more of Cr, Mo, V, Nb.
• Either after PWHT or prolonged service at 350-600°C.
Reheat Cracking Sensitivity to Reheat Cracking
Influence of weld position on reheat cracking sensitivity ∆G = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V – 2

∆G < 0 implies the material is not susceptible
∆G1 = Cr + 3.3Mo + 8.1V + 10C – 2

∆G1< 2 implies the material is not susceptible
PSR = Cr + Cu + 2Mo + 10V +7Nb + 5Ti – 2

PSR < 0 less susceptible to reheat cracking
K = Pb + Bi + 0.03Sb (ppm)
K < 1.5 to achieve freedom from reheat cracking
Flat position - high degree of Horizontal position - low
HAZ refinement. degree of HAZ refinement.
13-3
Sensitivity to Reheat Cracking –
Temper Embrittlement
Alloy Composition
• Reduction in notch toughness when steel heated 375-
Increased sensitivity to reheat cracking 575oC.
• Segregation of impurities (P, Sb, Si and As) to grain
boundaries.
5Cr 1Mo 2.25Cr 1Mo 0.5Mo B 0.5Cr 0.5Mo 0.25V
• Assess by ductile-brittle transition temperature before
and after heat treatment eg step cooling heat treatment
assessment in ASTM A387
Temper Embrittlement Creep Cracking

• Remove temper embrittlement by heating above 600oC
and rapidly cooling to below 300oC. • Oxidised crack
• Mitigate by controlling composition: • Surrounded by
X = (10P + 55Sb + 4Sn + As)/100 in ppm applicable to voids .
weld metal.
J = (Mn + Si)(P + Sn) x 104 in wt% applicable to weld
metal and parent metal.
X<20 or J<180 means low risk.
• Crack formed by
linking of voids
Type IV Cracking Creep – Type IV
• Accelerated rate of void formation in the grain • Fine-grained

refined/intercritical regions of the HAZ. weld HAZ
• Over-tempering compared to the parent steel, leading to
• Precipitation
coarsening of carbides, which subsequently provide
sites for void nucleation. hardened
• The type IV region is held between the stronger parent steels (eg
material and coarse-grained HAZ regions, resulting in CrMoV).
concentration of damage and premature failure. 80MPa, 630°C, 2436 hours
• Reduced creep life.

• Allow for by reducing design stress.
13-4
Creep Damage Assessment Damage Levels
• Risk-based inspection. Estimate

Damage of
• NDT – voids initially too small to be detected. level
Observed damage
elapsed
life, %
• Replication to assess microstructure. A Absence of lenticular creep voids 0
• On-site hardness techniques potentially B Voids widely distributed, but not aligned 30
useful if have initial measurements for C Voids aligned, but not linked 50
comparison. D Microcracks resulting from the interlinking of 75

aligned voids. The microcracks do not reach the
mid-wall thickness. They occupy limited sectors of
the weldment.
E Cracks that approximate or exceed the depth of 100
2/3 of the wall thickness. The cracks occupy a
major part of the perimeter of the welded joint.
13-5
Cryogenic Steels
• Cryogenic steels are used for low temperature

applications.
• Often critical components.
Cryogenic Steels • Require low temperature fracture toughness.
– From composition and microstructure.
• Need good weldability.
• Selection of composition depends upon the
lower temperature limit.
Cryogenic Steels Application of Cryogenic Steels

Fine grain Liquefaction Recommended
Gas temperature (°C) material
Al-killed steels • Can be used down to -60°C.
• Low IIW CE; can be normalised, QT or Propane (LPG) -45.5°C Fine grain Al-killed
steel
TMCP.
Fine grain Al-killed steel
• Small additions of Al and Ti. Propylene -47.7°C or 2.3% Ni steel
Steels for
cryogenic • Four classes depending on the Ni CO2 -78.5°C 3.5% Ni steel
applications content: Ethane -88.4°C
– Ni = 2.3%  minimum Tservice = -60°C.
Ethylene (LEG) -103.8°C 5-9% Ni steel
– Ni = 3.5%  minimum Tservice = -104°C.
– Ni = 5%  minimum Tservice = -130°C. Methane (LNG) -163°C
– Ni = 9%  minimum Tservice = -196°C. O2 -182.9°C
Ni-alloyed
cryogenic Ar -185.9°C
steels N2 -195.8°C Austenitic SS
9% Ni Steels Features Effect of Ni on the TTT diagram
• Very good toughness down to -196°C. Temperature • Ni increases hardenability

• Lower thermal expansion compared with austenitic stainless
 martensite formation.
steels and Al alloys. • Ni lowers martensite start
• Lower thermal conductivity compared with Al alloys. and finish (MS and MF)
Ni addition points  increases the
• High melting point and high strength at elevated temperature
provide structural integrity under fire conditions – but not ductility.
intended for creep service.
• Ni is the main alloying element.
• Low C content (less than 0.15%).
• Double normalised and tempered ASTM A353.
• Quenched and tempered ASTM A553. Ni addition
Time
14-1
Effect of Ni on Phases in Steel The Impact Toughness Transition Curve
Transition curve features:
• Refines ferrite grain
Energy Upper shelf
size. (J) Low impact energy
→ brittle failure
• Fine distribution of
Improves
carbides.
toughness at low
• Favours bainitic and temperatures.
martensitic structures.
High impact energy →
• Increases resistance to ductile failure
cleavage fracture in
ferrite. Lower shelf
Temperature
(ºC)
Transition range
Effect of Ni on Steel Transition Curve Welding Cryogenic Steels - General

Energy
(J) Applicable processes:
– MMA, TIG, MAG, FCAW and SAW.
Weldability issues:
– Sensitive to hot cracking  limit C, P and S content;
cleanliness; reduce residual stress.
Carbon – Change from pearlitic to martensitic structure as Ni content
Nickel steels
additions increases. Apply preheat and PWHT to avoid cold cracking
(except 9% Ni).
– Use low heat input processes in order to preserve the fine
grain structure (<4.5kJ/mm); in QT grades, use pulsed
Temperature (ºC) welding to avoid softening effect.
Welding 1 - 3.5% Ni Steels Welding 5 - 6% Ni Steels
• Ferrite + pearlite structure. • Ferrite + pearlite/martensite structure (QT steel) 

• Apply preheat (~150-250°C). reduced toughness in the HAZ due to increase in grain
• Avoid cold cracking; exact value depends on thickness, size (layer heated to >850°C)  low hydrogen process
restraint and hydrogen potential (use basic filler essential.
materials). • Use low heat input processes in order to preserve the
• Interpass temperature: max. 350°C for 2.3% Ni; max. fine grain structure (< 4.5kJ/mm); pulsed welding
250°C for 3.5% Ni. beneficial.
• PWHT at 580-620°C may be used. • Interpass temperature max. 250°C; PWHT at 650°C
followed by rapid cooling.
• Near matching filler materials available; Inconel type
(Ni-Cr-Fe) filler can be used for 3.5% Ni. • Filler materials are Ni-based eg Inconel 82, Inconel 625.
• Other weldability issues similar to 9% Ni steel.
14-2
Welding 9% Ni Steels Welding 9% Ni Steels
• Require very low S content (<0.006%) to avoid • Filler materials are only Ni-based: AWS A5.11 ENiCrMo-6 (EN
liquation cracking  no lamellar tearing. ISO 14172 E Ni 6620) or ENiCrMo-3 (E Ni 6625)  under-
• Not sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. matching, high viscosity (sluggish).
• Cleanliness very important to avoid hot cracking.
• Ductile martensitic structure (max. 400HV) + 5%
retained austenite (QT steels)  no danger of cold • Fully austenitic stainless steel filler prohibited due to higher
coefficient of thermal expansion than parent metal and brittle
cracking  no preheat required for thickness up to
martensite formation near fusion line.
50mm.
• Smooth blending between weld face and parent metal is
• Use low heat input to avoid loss of toughness in the required to avoid stress concentration.
high temperature HAZ.
• Strongly ferro-magnetic (and also may have residual
• Interpass temperature 250°C; PWHT not normally magnetism)  arc blow is a common problem; AC current and
required. demagnetisation before welding may be required.
14-3
Aluminium and Its Alloys
Characteristics:
• Light weight.
• Good strength to weight properties.
• Forms a large range of alloys with other elements.
Aluminium and Light Alloys • Alloying elements increase strength.
• High thermal and electrical conductivity.
Types:
TWI Training & Examination Services • Cast alloys.
• Wrought alloys.
EWF/IIW Diploma Course – Heat treatable - strengthened by heat treatment.
– Non-heat treatable - strengthened by alloying or work
hardening.
Alloy Designations and Applications Alloy Designations

For temper designation, a specific letter suffix indicates the
Alloy type Applications
alloy condition.
1xxx: (99% pure Al) Electrical and chemical industry
2xxx: Al-Cu Aircraft industry F - As fabricated - no control on mechanical properties.
3xxx: Al-Mn Heat exchangers, chemical equipment
O - Annealed, soft.
4xxx: Al-Si Castings
H - Strain hardened.
5xxx:Al-Mg Marine alloy, cryogenics, general engineering T - Heat treated to produce stable tempers.
6xxx: Al-Mg-Si Extrusions

7xxx: Al-Zn Aircraft structural components and high-strength
applications
Alloy Designation Welding of Aluminium Alloys
Some examples: • Welding of Al alloys – not like steel welding.

• 1100-O 99min Al+0.12Cu, annealed. • Some special considerations.
– Aluminium oxide surface film.
• 2024-T3 Al-4.4Cu-1.5Mg-0.6Mn, heat treated. • Adheres strongly to surface.
• 5052-H34 Al-2.5Mg-0.25Cr, half hard. • Protects from environmental attack.
• 3003-H14 Al-1.2Mn, half hard. • Can prevent fusion and lead to porosity in weld metal.
– High thermal conductivity.
• Wide HAZ  loss of joint strength.
half hard = partially cold-worked – High thermal expansion.
• Weld distortion.
– Low melting temperature (660oC).
15-1
Porosity in Aluminium Alloys Problems in Welding
Porosity is caused by: Effect of oxide film.

• Rejection of dissolved gases (soluble in liquid, insoluble • Entrapped films may reduce ductility of the weld.
in solid). • Lack of fusion.
• Most important is hydrogen. Removal of Al2O3 layer.
Sources of hydrogen: • Mechanical removal – eg abrasives, burr.
• Chemical removal.
Welding consumables Shielding gases Parent metal − Cleaning solutions – etching solutions eg alkali.
− Flux cleaning – use of welding fluxes.
Filler wires Impurity within Oxide film on the
contaminated with metal surface
• Cathodic cleaning.
gases, moisture in
grease, moisture in plastic carrier pipes absorbs moisture, – Blasts away the oxide coating – half cycle of the AC
electrode coating grease etc current in TIG welding or positive electrode welding.
Solidification Cracking Causes of Solidification Cracking
• Centreline cracking in Composition of the weld metal (alloy composition,

weld cap or root. not just impurities).
• Other names are: • Consider susceptible composition range.
– Hot tearing. • Alloy ranking in terms of hot cracking susceptibility.
– Hot cracking. • Dilution of parent metal with filler.
– Centre-line cracking. Thermal and mechanical effects.
– Hot fissuring. • Initiates at trailing edge of weld pool due to high shrinkage
– Hot shortness. and thermal stresses.
• Joint geometry and restraint.
Hot Cracking Alloy Ranking Filler Metals for Aluminium Alloys
Peak susceptibility to hot • When selecting the filler metal, consider:

tears – Sensitivity to weld cracking (with parent dilution).
High strength – Tensile or shear strength of the weld and ductility.
due to thin liquid Back filling of hot
Total crack length
films tears due to large – Service temperature and corrosion resistance.

quantity of
– Colour match between the weld and the base alloy
eutectic
after anodising.
• 4XXX filler to weld 1XXX, 3XXX, 6XXX, Al-Si
castings.
• 5XXX filler to weld 5XXX, 6XXX, 7XXX, Al-Mg
castings.
Wt % solute
15-2
Some Filler Metals used Welding Processes
Parent metal Filler metal(s) Heat Applications
treatable? • Arc welding processes.
1xxx 1080A No Chemical plant, architecture (4047A
1200 prevents weld metal cracking where – TIG for thinner sections.
4043A there is high dilution)
4047A – MIG for heavier and thicker sections – faster
3xxx 3103 No Buildings, heat exchangers than TIG.
4043A
4047A • Gas welding with neutral flame.
5xxx 5554 No Marine, automotive
5154A • Laser welding.
5356
5556A • Friction stir welding.
6xxx 4043A No Structural, automotive
5356
7xxx 5556A No Aerospace, defence
Titanium Alloys-phases Titanium Alloys- Families

• Depending on temperature and chemical composition, two Four families of alloys:
possible phases: alpha and beta.
• Commercially pure.
• Alpha phase: Titanium atoms
• Alpha alloys.
– Hexagonal close packed (hcp).
– Pure titanium state at room temperature. • Near-alpha alloys.
• Beta phase: • Beta alloys.
– Body centred cubic (bcc). Titanium atoms
– Pure titanium state at 883ºC Titanium alloys have:
and above. • Excellent strength to weight ratio.
• Exceptional corrosion resistance.
BUT
• They are very expensive.
Titanium Alloys Welding of Titanium Alloys

• High strength (as strong as steel). TIG is most commonly used, but also plasma.
• Corrosion resistant. • Adequate gas shielding is required to protect hot weld and
• Light weight (45% lighter than steel). HAZ from atmospheric contamination.
• Use for service from -160-600°C. • Use matching filler.
• Commercially pure Ti and α alloys. Also laser, E-beam, resistance welding.
– Corrosion resistance, low temperature properties. Welding Problems:
• α-β alloys, two phase structure. • Contamination due to atmospheric oxygen and
– Medium to high strength, weldability sensitive to the moisture, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen may result in
ratio of α / β. weld embrittlement.
• β alloys. • Porosity from dissolved hydrogen from contaminants
– Highest strength, toughness from grain refinement. on parent and filler metal surfaces.
15-3
Magnesium Alloys Magnesium Alloys
• Mg is the structural metal with the highest specific Weldability:

strength. • Remove surface oxide by milling/pickling before welding.
• Less dense than Al (approximately 2/3). • 10% Al improves weldability by grain refinement.
• Alloying elements such as Al, Mn, Zn, Zr may result • High Zn alloys are prone to hot cracking, Mg-Zn alloys are
not recommended for welding.
in strengths equal to that of mild steel.
• PWHT may be required to prevent stress corrosion
• Heat treatment and work hardening (as Al).
cracking of welds in salt spray environment.
• High thermal conductivity. Welding processes:
• Low melting point. • Mainly TIG (using AC current).
• High thermal expansion coefficient. • Resistance welding processes.
• Oxyfuel gas welding process.
Applications of Light Alloys
Alloy Applications
Mg-6Zn-3Al Sand castings requiring
good room temperature
strength
Die casting-automotive
applications
99% Ti Chemical and marine uses
Ti-6Al-4V Strong alloy commonly used

in aerospace applications
15-4
Arc Weldability of Dissimilar Metals
General arc
weldability problems
Joining Dissimilar Materials Differences between Metallurgical

physical properties incompatibility
eg melting point, eg undesirable
TWI Training & Examination Services thermal conductivity, microstructures due to
expansion coefficient. mixing parent metals.
Considerations for Dissimilar Welds Types of Dissimilar Weld

Obtaining adequate fusion:
• Difference in melting points. • Between two different ferritic steels.
• Difference in thermal conductivity. • Between a ferritic steel and a stainless steel.
• Risk of lack of fusion flaws. • Between two different stainless steels.
Different thermal expansion coefficients: • Other types of joint:
• May cause distortion. – Two non-ferrous metals.
Metallurgical compatibility: – Steel and a non-ferrous metal.
• Dilution.
• Poor mechanical or corrosion resistance.
• Risks of cracking.
• Selection of filler metal/buttering.
Welding two Dissimilar Ferritic Steels Welding Ferritic to Stainless Steel

• Preheat only if necessary; keep interpass temperature below
• Filler material will normally match weakest 150°C; avoid PWHT; avoid high dilution, select filler metal
parent material strength. carefully.
• Carbon diffusion to higher Cr-containing side when exposed to
• Preheat, interpass and PWHT soaking elevated temperature.
temperature must match requirements for – Carbon depleted zone in the ferritic steel HAZ.
highest alloy material. – Carbide enriched area in the high Cr weld metal  weld
decay.
• Use only basic (low hydrogen) filler materials.
• Martensite formation at the ferritic steel fusion line  risk of
• Clean joint preparation surfaces thoroughly. hydrogen cracking.
• Risk of hot cracking in the (austenitic) weld metal from poor
mixing.
• Difficulties with NDT.
16-1
Welding Other Alloys
• Cast iron.
• Nickel alloys.
Welding Other Alloys • Copper alloys.

Cast Iron Composition Ranges
Chemical composition: Cast iron main features: 5

%C+1/3Si = 4.3
• Iron with… • Relative cheap. 4.5
Spheroidal irons
• C (2-7%). • Easy to cast. 3.5

C Content, %
Grey irons
• Si (1-3%). • Readily machined.
3
2.5
• Mn (up to 1%).
White irons
• Often poor weldability. 2
Malleable irons
1.5
1
%C+1/6Si=2.0
Steels
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Si Content, %
Types of Cast Iron Grey Cast Iron
Cast iron • Moderate strength (up to Graphite flakes

275 MPa).
• Excellent machinability.
• Poor ductility and
Grey Nodular Malleable White toughness.
• Can be welded with Ni-Fe
consumables, or Ni
Can be Weldable Can be Unweldable
consumables if the
impurity content is low.
welded welded
Pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-
ferrite matrix
17-1
Nodular Cast Iron White Cast Iron
• Also called spheroidal Spheroidal graphite White cast iron
graphite (SG) or ductile iron.
• Due to rapid cooling, carbon forms Fe3C.
• Obtained by adding Mg or • Very brittle, with poor ductility.
Ce to grey cast iron.
• Highest hardness, good wear resistance.
• Good machinability. • Unweldable.
• Highest strength and
ductility of the cast irons.
• Readily welded with most
consumables.
Pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-
ferrite matrix
Malleable Cast Irons Malleable Cast Irons
• Produced by heat treatment of white cast iron (annealing

above 870°C for more than 60h).
• Whiteheart produced in an oxidising atmosphere
(decarburised surface layer).
• Blackheart produced in a neutral or reducing
atmosphere.
• Irregular shape graphite rosettes precipitate and grow
into a ferrite or pearlitic matrix.
• Good ductility.
• Can be welded, whiteheart easily if the penetration is low
and blackheart more easily than grey irons.
Braze Welding (aka Bronze Welding) Welding Cast Irons
• Parent metal not melted – avoids disadvantages • Welding is a fast cooling process.
of fusion welding. – HAZ microstructures are modified and can be hard and
• Joint does not pick up impurities (P, S) from the brittle (similar to white cast iron).
casting. • High preheat, slow cooling needed to avoid hard
• Soft braze metal controls joint strength and HAZs and subsequent cracking.
service temperature (up to ~260°C). • Cold welding possible, but not with matching
• Poor colour match. composition consumables, Ni-based
consumables may be used.
• Hard to inspect joint for defects.
17-2
Welding Processes for Cast Iron Welding Processes for Cast Iron
MMA Oxy-fuel welding
• Higher heat input  lower preheat required. • Low heat input  requires a higher preheat.
• Deeper penetration, greater dilution. • Low dilution, wide HAZ, slow cooling  softer
• Wide range of consumables. microstructure.
• Used on weld repair jobs. • Slightly reducing flame.
MIG/FCAW • Consumable has slightly higher C and Si than parent to
• Mainly dip transfer. give matching strength weld deposit.
• Achieve high deposition rates.
• Solid wires are Ni, Monel (70Ni-30Cu) or Cu alloys.
• Cored wires are Ni-Fe or Ni-Fe-Mn.
Cast Iron Electrodes Ni Based Electrodes
• Flux coating improves arc stability, reduces • Includes Ni, Ni-Fe, Monel, Ni-Fe-Mg types.
porosity and adds alloying elements. • Widely used to weld cast irons.
• Matching weld deposit (nodular graphite • No preheat required.
structure).
• Sensitive to hot cracking (especially high Ni
• High preheat and slow cooling needed to electrodes) so dilution of the casting into the
encourage graphite formation rather than weld pool needs to be limited.
carbides.
• Welds have generally higher strength and more
• Good colour match with the original casting. ductility than cast iron, but viscous weld metal -
wider bevel angle needed.
Other Electrodes Nickel Properties
• FCC crystalline structure.

Mild steel electrodes:
• Melting temperature = 1455°C.
• Generally result in too hard a deposit, arising
• Thermal expansion approximately equal to that of carbon
from carbon pick-up from the casting.
steels.
• Can be used to weld on the decarburised • Outstanding corrosion resistance at temperatures from -
surface of whiteheart malleable irons. 200°C to over 1090°C.
Copper based electrodes: • Suitable for extreme temperature applications.
• Largely replaced by Ni-based electrodes. • No phase transformation  grain size can be refined only
• Mainly used for bearing surfaces where anti- by cold work followed by annealing.
seizing is important.
17-3
Typical Ni Alloys (Precipitation Hardened and
Typical Ni Alloys (Solid Solution)
Oxide Dispersion-Strengthened)
Adding Cr , Co, Cu, Fe, Mo, W, Nb and V in Ni PPT hardened
Alloy 400 - Ni + 31.5%Cu • Contain Al and Ti, precipitation of the gamma prime or gamma
• Highly corrosion resistant in sea water, H2SO4 and HF double prime phase.
acids. • Alloy X-750 , Ni-Cr-Fe-Ti-Al, postweld heat treatment cracking.
• Alloy 718(N07718) –Ni-Fe-Cr-Mo-Ti-Nb for gas turbines.
Alloy 600 - Ni + 15.5%Cr + 8%Fe
• Waspaloy (Ni + 19.5%Cr, 13.5%Co, 4.3%Mo, 3%Ti, 1.4%Al,
• Resists oxidising and reducing environments and severe 2%Fe) also used for gas turbines.
corrosion at temperature.
AIloy 625 - Ni + 21.5%Cr, 2.5%Fe, 9%Mo, 3.6%(Nb +Ta) OD strengthened
• Excellent strength and toughness from cryogenic to high • Fine insoluble oxide particles added in the master alloy by
temperature; oxidation, corrosion and fatigue resistant. mechanical alloying.
AIloy 825 - Ni + 30%Fe, 21.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 2.25%Cu • Typically mechanically alloying by adding Y2O3 and/or ZrO2.
• Excellent corrosion and pitting resistance and service in • MA6000 Ni-Cr-Al-Ti-W-Mo-Ta-Y2O3.
reducing acids and oxidising chemicals. • MA754 Ni-Cr-Al+Ti(min)-Y2O3.
Welding Nickel Alloys Ni Weldability Problems

Welding processes available for Ni alloys: Solidification cracking
• Arc welding processes: MMA, TIG and MIG. • Due to S (even in very small quantities), Pb, B, P or Bi.
SAW only for solid solution strengthened alloys, not ppt • Mn and Nb additions in filler metals combine with S.
hardened. • Reduce welding speed to improve depth-to-width ratio.
• Power beam welding (EBW, LBW), resistance welding.
• Reduce the grain size to avoid hot cracking.
When welding nickel alloys:
Porosity
• Consider the alloy to be welded (solution or ppt hardened).
• Due to contamination with O2, N2, or H2.
• What is the welding position, service conditions and
environment? • Preheat >20°C to prevent moisture; careful cleaning.
• Preheat at 20°C to avoid porosity, cleanliness important. • Using shielding gases and/or additions of Al, Ti.
• Shielding gases: Ar, He or Ar-He mixtures. – Al and Ti can form small islands/slag spots so interpass
• Use matching filler metal with added de-oxidisers. cleaning is critical.
Ni Weldability Problems
Oxide inclusions
• Oxides have much higher melting temperatures than
the base metal  oxides trapped in the weld pool
form inclusions.
• Surface oxide must be removed by machining or
Copper and Copper Alloys
grinding; wire brush only polishes the oxide.
Lack of sidewall fusion/poor blending

• Molten weld metal is very viscous  increase bevel
angle; accurate weld metal placement is required.
17-4
Copper Properties Copper Welding
• FCC crystalline structure. • Copper is a very effective heat sink.

• Melting temperature = 1083°C. – High heat input, interpass, preheat (for >5mm
thickness).
• Outstanding thermal and electrical conductivity.
– Electron beam welding is useful for very thick
• Extremely tough but very ductile. sections.
• Thermal expansion coefficient 1.3 times than that • TIG and MIG are preferred welding processes.
of steel.
• Inert gas (Ar or Ar-He) shielding gases are
• Good atmospheric oxidation and corrosion used.
resistance.
Copper - Weldability Problems Welding Copper Alloys - Brasses
Brasses (Cu-Zn) and nickel silvers (Cu-Zn-Ni)

• Obtaining fusion, especially in thick sections
because of high thermal conductivity. Low Zn (<20% Zn)
• Weldability varies with grade, tough pitch being Brasses
less weldable than PDO or oxygen-free.
High Zn (30-40% Zn)
• Porosity if cleaning or shielding inadequate.
• Zn volatility is the main problem  use Zn-free filler to
avoid porosity.
• TIG and MIG are preferred welding processes.
• Ar and Ar-He shielding gases are used.
Welding Copper Alloys - Bronzes Welding Copper Alloys – Al Bronze

• 1-10%Sn + up to 0.4% P. • Contain 5-10% Al + small
Phosphor Single phase Fe addition.
• Normally welded with matching alloys
bronze consumables. • Can be susceptible to hot
Aluminium cracking.
Bronze bronze types
types • Contain 12% Al + 5%Fe +
• Tin bronze + <5%Zn + <5%Pb. Two phase Ni and Mn.
Gunmetal • Alloys with high Pb content alloys
• Easier to weld.
considered not weldable due to
hot cracking risk. • Need to disrupt Al2O3 film → TIG and MIG preferred.
• TIG welding - use AC, or DC with He shielding gas.
• Contain 3% Si + 1%Mn.
Silicon • Cleaning is essential to avoid porosity.
• Easiest of the bronzes to
bronze • Preheat not normally required.
weld.
• Matching filler materials to maintain corrosion resistance.
17-5
Welding Copper Nickel Alloys
• Cupronickels contain 5-30%Ni.

• Weldable using TIG, MIG and (to a lesser extent) MMA.
• Thermal conductivity similar to C steels  no preheat.
• Matching filler can be used, although a 70%Cu-30%Ni is
an alternative universal cupronickel filler.
• Filler materials contain 0.2-0.5%Ti to avoid porosity.
• Ar shielding normally used and Ar backing recommended
(especially in pipe welding) to prevent root oxidation.
17-6

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Arrangement of Atoms

Molecular Crystal Amorphous

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Types of Crystal Structure Types of Crystal Structure

Body centred cubic Face centred cubic

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Types of Crystal Structure Solidification of Metals

Hexagonal close-packed Metals solidify in 3 dimensions as dendrites.

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Crystal Structure: Point Imperfections Crystal Structure: Linear Imperfections

Perfect lattice Linear imperfections = dislocations

Dislocations Plastic Deformation

Edge Appears due to an extra Movement of dislocations is the mechanism of

• Dislocations move along planes of high atomic density.

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Hot and Cold Deformation Strengthening Due to Grain Size

• Hot deformation = above recrystallisation Decreased

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Grain Size Measurement Work Hardening

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Alloys are substances with metallic properties

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Alloy Systems Solid Solution

With total With total With total

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How To Produce A Phase Diagram Alloy Systems

100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni

Using the Phase Diagram Using the Phase Diagram

solid phase Solid % of solid = A = 66-60

100% Cu 60% Cu 100% Ni 100% Cu 66% Cu 60% Cu 57% Cu 100% Ni

Alloy Solidification - Coring Alloy Solidification - Coring

With total With total With total Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd

Eutectic Alloy Features Solidification in Bi - Cd Alloy System

• It is a mechanical mixture between two Crystals of

• It has the lowest melting/solidification point 321 °C

• Solidification occurs at a fixed temperature. Liquid + Bi Liquid + Cd

Eutectic Reaction in Bi - Cd Alloy System The Eutectic Alloy in Bi - Cd Alloy System

Solidus line 146 °C

100% Bi 80% Cd 100% Cd

Solidification in Cu - Ag Alloy System Eutectic Reaction in Cu - Ag Alloy System

Solid phase Liquid phase

Partial Solubility in the Solid Phase Age Hardening

• Insolubility of one element in the solid phase Single phase - 

• Increased hardness and tensile strength.

Solid State Phase Transformations The Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

+ • Eutectoid reaction.

Phases in Iron Iron-Carbon Peritectic and Eutectic Reactions

• Liquid, L (melting point of steel is between 1147-

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Steel Microstructures Phase Diagram - Advantages

Phase Diagram – Disadvantages

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Iron Ores Iron Ores

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Iron Ores Blast Furnace

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Input: • Coke burns to form carbon monoxide (CO).

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Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS)

• High level of impurities - S ~ 0.06%, P ~ 1%.

The Electric Arc Furnace Ingot Solidification