FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Feedback is the process of taking a part of the output and feeding it back to the input.
The input gets constantly corrected by the output so as to get desirable effects on the
output. Nowadays it is almost impossible to think of an amplifier without some sort of
feedback.

General Structure of a Feedback Amplifier:

Source Xs Xi Xo
Load
+ A
-

Xf
β

Fig. 1 Feedback amplifier

The feedback amplifier comprises of: source, linear amplifier, load, feedback network
or β-network.

The gain of the amplifier with feedback can be derived as:

xi = xs − xf
xo = Axi = A( xs − xf )
xo = Axs − Aβxo
xo (1 + Aβ) = Axs
xo A
∴Af = =
xs 1 + Aβ

Consider a simple voltage amplifier with no feedback applied:

+ +
Vi A Vo
- -

Fig.2 A basic amplifier

The voltage gain of the amplifier is given as:
 vo
A= (2)
vi

In this amplifier, the input is unaware of what is happening at the output. If due to some
reasons the gain of the amplifier increases, the output will also increase and it may be
distorted. The input to the amplifier remains unaffected. There is no in-built arrangement
for modifying the input signal so that the output does not change randomly. Such a
system of amplifiers is known as open-loop or non-feedback system.

+ A +
Vi Vi’ Vo
- -

- Vf +
β
βVo’

Fig. 3 Feedback introduced in the amplifier

In Fig. 3, because of the signal vf fed back in the input circuit, the input to the basic
amplifier gets modified to vi’. As a result, the output too gets modified to vo’. Here, all
the time the input knows what the output vo’ is. Such a system is called a closed-loop or
feedback system

Types of Feedback

There are many ways of classifying the type of feedback employed in an amplifier:

1. To see whether the feedback increases or decreases the gain of the amplifier. As in Fig.
1, mixing can be done so that the effective input signal to the basic amplifier decreases,
that is, xi = xs – xf. This would definitely decrease the effective gain of the amplifier.
Such a mixing is called degenerative, inverse, or negative feedback. The other way of
mixing is such that the effective input to the basic amplifier increases, that is , xi = xs +
xf. This would increase the effective gain of the amplifier. Such a feedback arrangement
is called regenerative, direct, or positive feedback.

The application of positive feedback in an amplifier to increase gain brings a lot of

troubles. On the other hand, though the negative feedback decreases the gain, it brings in
many desirable features. Therefore, in practice almost always negative feedback is
employed in amplifiers.

2. To see if the feedback signal xf depends on the output voltage or output current.
Thus, we have either a voltage feedback or a current feedback. In practical circuits,
however, a combination of both the voltage and current feedback may be present.

3. To see whether the feedback signal is connected in series or in shunt (parallel) with the
input signal. Thus, we have either a series feedback or shunt feedback.
Therefore, there are four types of negative feedback amplifiers, each having its own
application:

(a) Series-voltage feedback

(b) Series- current feedback
(c) Shunt-voltage feedback
(d) Shunt- current feedback

A
A Vo’ RL

Signal
source β β

A A

β β

Fig. 4. The four types of negative feedback amplifiers

Fig. 4 a and c are voltage feedback circuits and Fig. 4b and d are current feedback
circuits. Note that Fig. 4a and b are series-feedback circuits, while Fig. 4c and d are
shunt-feedback circuits.
The input resistance Ri and the output resistance Ro are two very important parameters
of an amplifier. The purpose served by an amplifier depends upon the values of these
parameters. For example, if Ro is low compared to the load resistance Rl, the amplifier
behaves nearly like an ideal voltage source to the load. Similarly, if Ri is high compared
to the signal source resistance, nearly all the signal voltage reaches the input of the
amplifier. We can say that the voltage at the input is controlling the output of the
amplifier. But, if Ri is low, it is the current at the input that controls the output of the
amplifier.
Based on whether Ri and Ro are low (ideally zero) or high (ideally infinite), as shown in
Table 1, there can be the following four types of amplifiers:

(a) Voltage-controlled voltage-source (VCVS) or voltage amplifier

(b) Voltage-controlled current-source (VCCS) or transconductance amplifier
(c) Current-controlled voltage-source (CCVS) or transresistance amplifier
(d) Current-controlled current-source (CCCS) or current amplifier

Table 1: Four types of amplifiers

Fig. Ri Ro Input Output Transfer Name of
function amplifier
4.a High Low v v Av Voltage
4.b High High v i gm Transconductance
4.c Low Low i v rm Transresistance
4.d Low High i i Ai Current

The four types of basic amplifiers are shown in Fig 5.

Fig. 5 Four types of basic amplifiers

Note that the transconductance amplifier it is preferred to naming it as a voltage-to-
current converter and the transresistance amplifier is named as a current-to-voltage
converter.
By applying appropriate type of feedback to a basic amplifier, its characteristic properties
can be enhanced. Fig. 6 shows how the four types of feedback are applied to enhance the
characteristic properties of the four basic amplifiers.

Fig. 6 Enhancing characteristic properties of a basic amplifier by application of feedback

Why Negative Feedback Is Preferred

Applying negative feedback to an amplifier gives many advantages. The reduction of

gain due to negative feedback can be compensated by increasing the number of stages in
an amplifier system. The advantages of negative feedback are:

1. Improvement in the stability of the gain of the amplifier

2. Increase in the input resistance of the amplifier
3. Decrease in the output resistance of the amplifier
4. Increase in the bandwidth of the amplifier
5. Reduction in the distortion and noise introduced by the amplififier.
Effects of Negative Feedback On Amplifier Characteristics

Negative feedback has the following desirable effects on amplifier characteristics.

1. Negative feedback decreases the sensitivity of the amplifier gain

There exists lack of stability of the amplifier gain A, due to ageing, temperature,
replacement, etc., of the circuit components. A change in power supply voltage or a
change in transistor parameters may change the amplifier gain. This adversely affects the
performance of the amplifier. It would have been ideal if the amplifier gain remains
perfectly stable in spite of these changes. By applying negative feedback, this objective
is achieved to a large extent.

Consider a basic amplifier with gain A. When a negative feedback with a feedback factor
β is applied to it, its gain becomes

A
Af =
1 + Aβ

Suppose that we apply quite a large amount of feedback i.e. β is so large that Aβ >> 1.
The gain of the feedback amplifier then becomes

A 1
Af = =
Aβ β

This means that the gain Af of the feedback amplifier becomes independent of the internal
gain A of the basic amplifier. Now, the gain Af entirely depends on feedback factor β.
Normally, the feedback network is made of passive elements such as resistors whose
values remain fairly constant even when the surrounding temperature or the power-
supply voltage changes. Hence, by applying a large amount of negative feedback, the
gain is stabilized.
Even if the amount of feedback is not large, some improvement occurs in the stability of
the gain as shown below.
Suppose that due to some reason, a certain change occurs in the internal gain A of the
basic amplifier. We can find the corresponding change in the overall gain Af of the
feedback amplifier. This is done by differentiating the Equation

A
Af =
1 + Aβ
with respect to A,

dAf (1 + Aβ ) ×1 − A × β 1
= =
dA (1 + Aβ ) 2
(1 + Aβ ) 2

1
Or dAf = dA (10)
(1 + Aβ ) 2
We can obtain the expression for the fractional change in Af corresponding to a given
fractional change in A, by dividing Eq. 10 by Eq. 6,

dAf dA (1 + Aβ )
= ×
Af (1 + Aβ ) 2
A

dAf 1 dA
Or = ×
Af (1 + Aβ ) A
(11)

Thus, the fractional change is reduced by a factor (1 + Aβ) . This factor is called
Desensitivity, D,

D = (1 + Aβ )
(12)

Note that by applying negative feedback, the gain of the amplifier reduces by the same
factor, D or (1 + Aβ), as does the fractional change in gain A.

2. Negative Feedback Increases the Input Resistance of the Amplifier

If the input resistance of a voltage amplifier is high, it will not load the preceding stage or
the input signal voltage source. Therefore, it is desirable for a voltage amplifier to have
high input resistance. This feature can be achieved by applying negative series-voltage
feedback, as shown in Fig. 7.

a Ii c
+ +
Vi Vi’ A Vo’
-
b d -

- Vf +
β
βVo’

Fig. 7 A negative series – voltage feedback increases the input resistance

For the overall feedback amplifier, the input voltage is Vi and input current is Ii.
Therefore, its input resistance as seen across terminals a – b is given as
V
Rif = i
Ii
Due to the negative feedback, the net input voltage to the basic amplifier across terminals
c – d becomes

Vi ' =Vi −βVo '

The input current to the basic amplifier is the same as Ii. Hence, the input resistance of
the basic amplifier as seen across terminals c – d is

Vi '
Ri =
Ii

Since Vo’ = AVi’

Then Vi ' =Vi −βVo ' =Vi −βAVi '

Or Vi =Vi '+AβVi '

Dividing by Ii, we get

Vi Vi '
= (1 + Aβ )
Ii Ii

∴Rif = Ri (1 + Aβ)

Thu, the input resistance of the amplifier is increased by a factor (1 + Aβ) on applying
negative series-voltage feedback.

3. Negative Feedback Decreases the Output Resistance of the Amplifier

A good amplifier should have as low input resistance as possible. It can then deliver
power (or Voltage) to the load without much loss. Such a desirable feature can be
achieved by applying negative series-voltage feedback in an amplifier.
 Fig. 8 A negative series-voltage feedback decreases the output resistance

In Fig. 8, the input terminals a – b have been shorted. Across the output terminals c – d,
we connect a voltage source Vo. The output of the β – network becomes βVo. Since the
input terminals are shorted, the input Vi’ to the basic amplifier works as a voltage source
at its output terminals, the output circuit of the basic amplifier can then be represented by
voltage source AβVo in series with a resistance Ro. Assume that the input resistance of
the β – network is very high, so that it does not load the output of the basic amplifier.
Therefore, applying KVL to the output loop;

AβVo +Vo − IoRo = 0

Vo (1 + Aβ) = IoRo
Vo Ro
=
Io 1 + Aβ

Vo
= Rof
Io
But Ro
Rof =
1 + Aβ

The output resistance of the amplifier is decreased by a factor (1 + Aβ) on applying

negative series-voltage feedback.

4. Negative Feedback Increases the Bandwidth of the Amplifier

On applying negative feedback to an amplifier, its gain decreases by a factor (1 + Aβ), its
input resistance increases by (1 + Aβ), and its output resistance decreases by the same
factor. Besides these changes, the negative feedback also affects the cutoff frequencies of
the amplifier. The lower cutoff frequency is decreased by (1 + Aβ), and the upper cutoff
frequency is increased by the same factor. The cutoff frequencies of the feedback
amplifier are now given as

f1
f1 f =
(1 + Aβ )

And f 2 f = f 2 (1 + Aβ)

The bandwidth, BW = f2 –f1. However, f1<<f2, therefore, the magnitude of the bandwidth
is normally taken same as that of the upper cutoff frequency f2. Hence, we have

BWf ≈ f 2 f = f 2 (1 + Aβ )

Or BWf = BW (1 + Aβ )

Thus, on applying negative feedback to an amplifier, its bandwidth is increased by the

factor (1 + Aβ). This sometimes proves to be a very desirable feature. The amplifier can
be made to amplify a large range of signal frequencies by applying negative feedback.
This makes the amplifier a truly Hi – Fi. This desirable feature is achieved at the cost of
reduction in gain by the same factor (1+Aβ). In fact, for an amplifier, the product of the
gain and bandwidth, called gain-bandwidth product (GBP), remains the same. We can
trade one for the other. If a larger bandwidth is required, then the gain is sacrificed.

5. Negative Feedback Reduces Distortion and Noise

An amplifier introduces some harmonic distortion in the signal while amplifying it. This
is due to the nonlinearlity in the transfer characteristics of the amplifier. The larger the
signal handled, the larger is the distortion content in the output of the amplifier. By
applying negative feedback, the distortion content in the output is reduced by a factor
(1 + Aβ).

Fig. 9 The negative feedback reduces distortion

Assume that the basic amplifier with gain A introduces a distortion D in its output. After
negative feedback is applied, the gain of the amplifier becomes Af and the distortion in
the output becomes Df but because of the feedback, a portion βDf of the distortion Df is
fed back to the input.
This part is amplified A times by the basic amplifier so as to become AβDf . This
distortion gets added up (in reverse polarity because of the feedback being negative) to
the original distortion D to make the net distortion Df.

D f = D − AβD f

D
Df =
(1 + Aβ )

The distortion is reduced by the same factor as the gain.

An amplifier besides amplifying a signal, also generates some electrical noise voltage.
The noise generated has no relation to the input signal. Even when the input signal is
zero, the output of the amplifier contains some noise voltage. The noise voltage may be
generated just at the input of the amplifier. The noise is then amplified by the same
amount as the signal voltage. Though the signal is amplified, the signal – to noise (SNR)
at the output remains the same as at the input. In such cases, there will be no
improvement of SNR by applying negative feedback. However, there are some types of
noise voltages that appear inside the active device of the amplifier. This noise does not
get amplified by the same amount as the input signal. In such cases, when negative
feedback is applied, the SNR at the output of the feedback amplifier is much improved.

TYPICAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS WITH NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Practical amplifier circuits almost always use negative feedback. Depending on the
requirement, we can choose the type of feedback needed. Some practical circuits of
feedback amplifiers are:

1. FET Amplifier Using Series – Voltage Feedback

In Fig. 10, the ac signal output voltage Vo’ is available across the load resistance R L. The
feedback network consists of the resistors R1 and R2, both having large resistance values
so that the output of the amplifier is not loaded. That is connecting these resistors does
not much affect the ac load resistance of the amplifier.
Fig. 10 FET amplifier using negative series-voltage feedback

Resistors R1 and R2 form a potential divider. The feedback signal is the voltage Vf
developed across resistor R1, and is given by

R1
Vf = Vo '
R1 + R2
Since the feedback signal Vf is proportional to the output voltage, and is connected in
series with the input voltage Vi, the circuit has series-voltage feedback. For this
feedback network, the feedback factor is

R1
β=
R1 + R2

Let us now determine if the feedback is positive or negative. It is known that in a single-
stage common-source FET amplifier, the output voltage Vo’ and the input voltage Vi are
opposite in phase. The feedback voltage Vf (which is a part of the voltage Vo’) is also out
of phase with the input voltage Vi. The effective input voltage Vi’ (= Vi-Vf) is, therefore,
reduced. Hence, the feedback is negative.

2. RC-Coupled Amplifier Without Bypass Capacitor

Fig. 11 is the circuit diagram of a BJT RC-coupled amplifier. The transistor is used in CE
mode. The emitter resistor RE is bypassed by a large-value capacitor CE. This effectively
grounds the emitter terminal of the transistor for ac signals. It means that the ac signal
voltage drop Vf across RE – CE combination is zero. For a transistor amplifier, the ac
signal appearing across its base and emitter is its effective input voltage Vi’. In the
circuit, the signal source voltage Vs becomes the effective input Vi to the amplifier.

Fig. 11 (a) A BJT RC-coupled amplifier; (b) The same circuit with CE removed

Let now capacitor CE be removed, the situation becomes quite different. The effective
input voltage to the amplifier no longer remains the same, i.e. Vi ' ≠ Vi . The emitter is
not grounded for ac signals. Consider what happens when the signal source voltage Vs
increases during its positive half cycle. Since the transistor is NPN, the forward bias at
the base-emitter junction also increases. This increases the collector current iC ( = i E ) .
The ac component of emitter current (Ie) also increases in the direction shown in the
figure. An ac signal voltage Vf with polarity as shown in the figure, is developed across
the emitter resistor RE. This voltage comes in series with the input voltage Vi, and works
as a feedback voltage. The voltage Vi and Vf have opposite polarity, and hence the
effective input voltage Vi’ is reduced (Vi ' =Vi −V f ) . Thus, it is seen that this circuit
has negative feedback. Note that the feedback voltage Vf is proportional to the output
current (Ie or Ic), and it is fed back in series with the input voltage Vi. Hence, it is a case
of current-series feedback.