MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE FORESTRY AND

FISHERIES

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES

Salt Production and Use in the Post-

Harvest Fisheries Sector

Yin Dara and Lieng Saroeun

Working Paper 10
© 2006 Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Cambodia

Suggested citation: Dara, Y and Saroeun, L (2006). Salt Production and Use in the Post-Harvest
Fisheries Sector. An output from the DFID -funded Post- Harvest Fisheries Livelihood Project.
Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Copyright

All rights reserve

The views and opinions expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the Department of Fisheries and
DFID

ii
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................................i
Acronyms and terms ........................................................................................................................ ii
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................... iii
I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................1
II. METHODS USED.....................................................................................................................2
III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS...................................................................................................4
An overview of salt production, distribution and marketing .......................................................4
3.1 History of Salt Production in Cambodia ...............................................................................4
3.2 Salt production ......................................................................................................................5
3.3 Salt Marketing and Price.......................................................................................................6
3.4 Key Development Issues.......................................................................................................9
3.5 Salt and post-harvest fisheries.............................................................................................11
3.5.1 Salt pans as fishing grounds ..........................................................................................11
3.5.2 Salt and fish processing.................................................................................................12
3.6 Stakeholders associated with salt production, distribution and post-..................................16
harvest fisheries ..........................................................................................................................16
3.6.1 Salt producers and labourers........................................................................................16
3.6.2 Salt Wholesalers ...........................................................................................................18
3.6.3 Salt Refinery Enterprises..............................................................................................18
3.6.4 Salt Retailers ................................................................................................................19
3.6.5 Stakeholders dependent on the production of salted fish products ..............................19
3.6.6 Changes and salted fish products .................................................................................21
3.7 Institutional and policy framework.....................................................................................21
3.7.1 Salt Production/Processing Policy................................................................................21
3.7.2 Relevant public sector institutions involved in salt production and..........................22
processing ...............................................................................................................................22
=Institution responsible for ta x collection ............................................................................23
3.8 Institutional Constraints ......................................................................................................23
IV. CONCLUSIONS.....................................................................................................................23
References.....................................................................................................................................24
Annex 1 Terms of reference ........................................................................................................25
PRA Tools .....................................................................................................................................26
Objective ....................................................................................................................................26
Output.........................................................................................................................................26
Annexe 2: Itinerary and list of key informants .........................................................................28
Annex 3 Salt production process.................................................................................................32

iii
Annex 4 Miscellaneous additional data......................................................................................34
List of Tables

Table 1: Location of salt production sector ......................................................................................5

Table 2: Pric e of refined salt in the refinery enterprise ....................................................................8
Table 3: Salt price for whole sales in the refinery enterprise...........................................................9
Table 4: Price of retail salt in the study areas ..................................................................................9
Table 5: Transportation fees from Kampot to other provinces ........................................................9
Table 6: Summary of the a mount of salt used in fish processing .................................................13

List of Figure

Figure 1: Map of the study location .................................................................................................2

Figure 2: The proportion of salt production in Cambodia ..............................................................6
Figure 3: Generalise market structure of salt trade distribution in Cambodia .................................7
Figure 4: The administrative structure of salt board ......................................................................24

iv
 Acknowledgements
This paper forms part of a larger research project of the Post-Harvest Fisheries Sector,
conducted by CFDO, with financial assistance from DFID. It is a nodal study on the use of Salt
in the Post-Harvest Fisheries Sector - one in a series of proposed research papers written under
the project.

The authors would like to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of many involved
stakeholders in salt production and fish processing such as Government officials, salt production
owners, salt processing owners, salt workers, salt sellers, fish processors, processed fish sellers,
salt users and processed fish users, without whom this study would not have been possible.

The authors are equally grateful to Sem Viryak, Darren Conquest, Ansen Ward and Emma
Whittingham for useful comments.

i
 Acronyms and terms

ADB Asian Development Bank

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DoF Department of Fishery
DoF MP Department of Fishery Management Plan
DOL Department of Labour
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation
GFPTS General Fisheries Plan for Tonle Sap
KAMFIMEX Kampuchea Fishery Import Export Company
IDD Iodine Deficiency Disorders
CDRC Cambodia Development Resource Institute
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IO International Organisation
ILO International Labour Organisation
IPEC International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour
IRMF Improving the Regulatory and Management Framework
MIME Ministry of Industry, Mine and Energy
MoE Ministry of Environment
MOH Ministry of Health
MOSALVY Ministry of Social Affairs, Labour, Vocational Training and Youth
MT Matrix Tones
NaCl Sodium Chloride
NGO Non-government Organisation
NSCIDD The National Sub-Committee for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders
PDIME Provincial Department of Industry, Mine and Energy
PHEAPIMEX Name of the Company (PHEAP Import Export Company co. Ltd)
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PRK People’s Republic of Cambodia (Kampuchea)
SSI Semi-Structured Interview
TSFMD Tonle Sap Fishery Management and Development
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

ii
 SUMMARY
This research paper focuses on salt and its use in post-harvest fisheries in Cambodia. Fieldwork
for the study was carried out in Phnom Penh city, Kampong Chhnang, Kampot, and Kampong
Cham provinces.

There are 180 salt-farm -owner groups located along the bays of Kampot province and Kep city.
These produce solar salt during the dry season (five to six months) from November to April
each year. Although the average annual salt production is estimated to be 70,000 tons, in 2004,
production peaked at 101,600 tons, the highest for five years.

According to salt producers, there are about 3,000 - 4,000 salt workers in the whole country
(including men, women, and approximately 500 children). Furthermore, the channels of salt
farms (Our) provide important fishing grounds for nearby villagers. The catch of fish and
shrimps is used for daily consumption, processed and the excess is sold for additional earnings.

Salt is distributed from production areas by road and water ways. Some is processed and iodised
and sold by retailers to consumers. The remaining salt is sold unprocessed and without the
addition of iodine. Cambodia is self sufficient in salt. Salt is not exported and some salt is
imported from Thailand, Vietnam, India and China. According to UNICEF (1994) the
population of Cambodia requires approximately 3.5 kg of salt per person per annum.

The Government works with UNICEF and other organisations to promote technical support, to
disseminate information on the importance of salt use for human health, and to encourage and
increase iodised salt production.

In Cambodia salted fish products play a very important role in food security as most products
can be kept for a long period and used the whole year round. It is estimated that about 30,000
tons of non-iodised salt is used annually for fish processing. Fish paste, fermented fish and fish
sauce are the most important products, especially for the poor in rural areas, who consume these
products constantly throughout the year. In 2003, the average fish paste consumption was 95 kg
per household, about 15.7kg per person.

According to small scale fish processors, they can process such as dried fish, fish paste, and
salted fish about 15-30 kg of fish per day for profit income of 7,000-15,000 riel. The earned
money is spent on food, cloths, their children’s education, and so on. Most of the workers in
small-scale processing are poor women (widows) and children (students), who are neighbours of
processors in the village. They are paid daily based on the amount of fish processed and can
earn 3,000-5,000 riel per day.

Key Issues
Conflict exists between salt farm owners and shrimp/crab farm owners over the use of sea water.
Salt producers want to drain or pump sea water to fill the salt farms, while the shrimp/crab farm
owners do not want to do that because it disturbs the shrimps or crabs. Conflict between salt
farmers and rice farmers is caused by the seepage of sea water into rice fields affecting
productivity.

During the last three years, the price of salt has dropped. This is because of the high quantity of
domestically produced salt and demand has decreased especially due to the lack of fish for
processing.

iii
Despite the iodisation programme, there is a lack of iodised salt in the country, there is a lack of
awareness of the importance of iodised salt, people prefer non-iodised salt which is relatively
cheap and better for processing fish.

Based on the results of the interviews, there are a number of constraints associated with salt
distribution and trading. Transportation costs are said to be high represent the largest transaction cost.
Normally, truck owners do not want to transport salt due its corrosive properties.

Salt production does not meet international standards in term of quality.

Key institutions in salt production are the Salt Board of the Ministry of Industry, Energy and
Mines, the Ministry of Social Affairs, Labour, Vocational Training and Youth Rehabilitation
(MOSALVY) and the Ministry of Environment. Unfortunately inter-agency cooperation is weak
and although laws exist related to salt production, enforcement of these is poor. There is also a
lack of information sharing.

Agencies concerned, namely CAMCONTROL, Department of Health, and Veterinary

Department, lack of knowledge on the international quality requirements for salt products.
Without this knowledge, the skills to apply this knowledge and the relevant infrastructure, the
sector will not develop efficiently or be able to market products overseas.

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I. INTRODUCTION
The production of salt provides employment for a large number of poor people, especially those
in coastal areas. Salt is very important for consumption and other uses. Besides daily cooking,
salt is used for fish processing, animal food, fertilisers for farmlands, ice or ice cream
production, cow and buffalo skin processing. In Cambodia, fish plays a very important role in
food security and in people's livelihoods. Fresh and processed fish is consumed daily. Besides
rice, fish is the most important food item on which people spend money (Van Zalinge et al.,
2001).

Salt is an m i portant component in fish processing. It helps preserve and prevent microbial
growth in dried fish. Processed salted fish is both a traditional and popular food for the
Cambodian people. For example, poor people in rural areas (upland areas) go to the Tonle Sap
River to buy fish or exchange rice for fish during the dry season. The fish is then processed
using salt into fish paste (prahok) or fermented fish (phaork) which are consumed throughout
the year.

The use of salt in processed fish products is one of the main ways in which people consume salt.
The use of iodised or non-iodised salt in the diet has been identified as having major health
implications for the rural poor. It is considered that, iodine deficiency is responsible for a
number of public health issues including endemic goitre and cretinism, contribution to deaf-
mutism, and impairment of human reproduction (increased rate of abortion, stillbirths,
congenital anomalies, prenatal and infant mortality) (Unicef).

Whilst the production and use of salt is important, a key constraint to the development of the
post-harvest sector in Cambodia is the lack of information on salt production and salt use in
post-harvest fisheries activities. In response, this study aims to:

- describe the salt production, distribution and market structure, and to identify
constraints of these systems;
- describe environmental impacts of land use in salt production;
- identify the contribution of the industry to the employment and livelihoods of the
poor;
- describe the role of salt use in the post-harvest fisheries sector and its importance; to
contribute further to food security and nutrition in the country, especially poorer
consumers;
- identify potential for enhancing the role and contribution of salted fish products for
nutrition and food security.

This study was commissioned by the Community Fisheries Development Office of the
Department of Fisheries as an activity of the DFID Cambodia Post -Harvest Fisheries
Livelihoods Project, which identified the need for such a study during the development of the
Cambodia Post-Harvest Fisheries Overview (CPHFO). The CPHFO is an overarching study that
presents an understanding of the role of post-harvest fisheries in terms of national development
objectives, change and impact of change, institutions and intervention.

This report initially describes the method used by the researchers. It then provides an overview
of salt production and the use of salt in post-harvest fisheries. An overview of key private sector
and institutional stakeholders is then presented. The terms of reference for the study are given in
Annex 1.

1
II. METHODS USED

The methodology used for this study combined a review of secondary data with primary
research which focussed on interviews with key stakeholders. Anne x 2 provides an overview of
the study itinerary.

Secondary Data
Secondary data, related to salt production and use in the post-harvest fisheries sector, were
collected mostly in Phnom Penh from various sources and through the review of existing
information such as books, reports, journals, documentations from Ministry of Industry, Mine
and Energy, national and international organisations, and documents from the libraries of CDRI
and the Department of Fisheries.

Primary Data
Primary data were collected from field surveys in Phnom Penh, Kampong Chhnang, Kampot,
and Kampong Cham provinces. Kampot is a main of salt productivities province and the other is
a main of post-harvest fisheries product (see Figure 1), using adaptive methods such as Semi-
Structured Interviews (SSI) and other PRA tools such as seasonal calendar, trend line, problem
analysis, and venn diagram as shown in Annex 1. Checklists were developed to accompany each
PRA tool.

Key informants were selected from different sets of involved stakeholders. For interviews, there
were government officials, who are knowledgeable and active in salt production, salt producers,
salt distributors, salt retailers, salt enterprises (iodised salt production), and fish processors.
Interviews were also carried out with labourers/poorer stakeholders (labourers in salt
production, processing, transport or trade). Annex 2 shows the different stakeholders
interviewed in the different field work locations.

Interviews with key informants were necessary to gather more extensive information on salt
production and its use in the post-harvest fisheries sector. During the process of the study, there
were more than 70 checklists/questions used to accompany each PRA tools (four PRA tools
used) and also more than 70 people were interviewed in the four targeted areas. The informants
were randomly selected for interview when the research team met in the field and interviewed in
where they were working, producing, processing, and using salt and fish. The information was
summarised and crossed checked.

2
Figure 1 Map of the study locations

The study areas

3
III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
An overview of salt production, distribution and marketing

3.1 History of Salt Production in Cambodia

Salt production is centred on Kampot Province. Historically, during the 1960s salt farms were
privatised to rich businessmen in the province. During the Khmer Rouge regime, 1975-1979,
salt was produced by co-operatives. The majority of the workers were women.

Following the Khmer Rouge period, 1979-1989, all of the sa lt farms were put under the state
collectivised system, directly controlled by the provincial Department of Industry, Ministry of
Industry of the People’s Republic of Cambodia.

During 1990, when the free market economy started, all of the salt farms were privatised again.
Therefore, some rich people and those with
experiences in this industry tried to buy the salt
farms from the department. Also some people
who used to work with the department during the
(PRK) People Republic of Cambodia and have
the necessary skills, also then joined the business.
There were many villagers being the salt farm
workers under the government payroll, but the
local authority did not provide the farmlands to
them. After the privatisation took place, they did Salt farms at Kampot province: Sea water drained in
not have rice lands for survival and do not either to salt farms for sunlight evaporation.
have pension.

During 1998-1999, the price of salt became very high, this was due to heavy rainfalls and
flooding and low salt production. So the government entered into a joint-venture contract with
Ouk Nha Kong Triv, PHEAPIMEX co. Ltd, and Ouk Nha Lao Ming Khim (Ouk Nha Kong Triv
49% and Ouk Nha Lao Ming Khim 51%) in order to ensure supply and stable the price.

This joint-venture company had the exclusive rights to sell all salt produced in Cambodia and to
import salt from other countries, such as China, Vietnam, Thailand, and India. So, salt producers
were not allowed to sell their salt themselves. They had to sell to the company at a fixed price.
The business failed after approximately one year because the price of salt fell so drastically.

In late 2000, the joint-venture company transferred the rights to privatised salt producers to run
their businesses in a free market. But over the next few years the price of salt dramatically fell
even lower. This was due to the large quantity produced and the competition of selling in an
open market.

On the 17th of May 2004, all the salt producers met and discussed to establish a salt producer’s
community, in order to protect and stabilise the price of salt, to develop infrastructure on the salt
farms, and to help vulnerable and heavily indebted salt farm owners.

In Cambodia, there are 180 salt-farm-owner groups which have a total production area of 4,098
hectares. All the farms are divided in to 7 sections, 6 sections located along the bay in Kampot
province (3,035 hectares) and 1 section located along the bay in Kep city (1,063 hectares). The
name and the number for each sector are included in Table 1.

4
Table 1: Location of salt production sector 1
No. Sector name Number of Area in ha Production Distance from
owner groups (tons) Kampot
1 Boeung Tuk sector 10 320 5,000 8 km
2 Traey Koh sector 70 990 24,000 7 km
3 Boeung Roung I & II 57 1,271 20,000 3 km
sector
4 Ses Sor sector 17 300 7,000 6 km
5 Kampong Trach 4 540 14,000 45 km
(Louk) sector
6 Kep sector 22 677 6,000 25 km
Total 180 3,098 76,774

Usually, there are one to ten skilled workers at each salt farm (based on the size of the farm).
They permanently stay in the fields to look after the farms and supervise 15-100 other normal
workers (unskilled workers). The skilled workers have experience in the salt industry for many
years. They are usually old people with the salary ranking from 180,000-400,000 riel per month
(based on small or big farm). According to Mr. Neing Heng, a 63 year-old salt farm owner, there
are about 3000-4000 workers working in salt farms throughout Kampot province and Kep city.
Most of them are women.

3.2 Salt production

The average annual salt production is around 70,000 tons (UNICEF, 2003). In 2004, however,
the total salt production of around 101,600 tons was higher than those in the previous five years
(see Figure 1). That includes 86,600 tons produced in Kampot province and 15,000 tons
produced in Kep city2.
According to UNICEF (1994) the population of Cambodia requires approximately 3.5 kg of salt
per person per annum. According to PDIME statistics (1999), the daily consumption of salt per
capita is estimated to be 10 grams. It is estimated that Cambodia’s annual demand for salt is
about 85,000 tons including 45,000 tons per year used for human consumption, 30,000 tons used
for fish processing and other enterprises and 10,000 tons used as animal feed.
Most of the salt produced is classified as salt quality two or three. Salt quality one is normally
produced by refining (boiling down) salt quality two or three.
a) Salt Quality Number 1: White salt, with a humidity level of less than 4%. It is
produced by salt farms or by refining (boiling down) from salt quality number two or
three. Normally, the salt number one is produced by wholesalers with a small industry.
Iodine can be added to salt for better human health.
b) Salt Quality Number 2: Salt quality number two is defined as having a humidity level
of less than 5.77%. This type of salt is produced in Kampot province and Kep city. This
salt is used for consumption and fish processing.

c) Salt Quality Number 3: Salt quality number three is grey colour and big gravel (Kroush
Thom). It is not used for consumption, but use d for fish processing and as fertilisers in
farmlands and industries.

1
Source: Provincial Department of Industry, Mine and Energy, Kampot 2004
2
Data collected from key informant 2004

5
Figure 2: The proportion of salt production in Cambodia 1

The solar salt production for last five years

120,000
101,600
100,000
Production in MT

80,000 72,000

60,000 50,000
36,000
40,000 25,000
20,000 11,000

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Salt is produced in Cambodia and it is also imported from Thailand, Vietnam, India and China.
During 1999-2001 it is understood that about 10,000-20,000 tons of salt was illegally imported
annually. Salt production in Cambodia uses ancient and conventional methods. Most salt
produced is solar salt, produced by evaporating sea water. Salt farms need sea water as the input
for salt production. Salt can be produced only dur ing the dry season, around five to six months
from November to April based on weather conditions.

Sea water is drained from the sea to the salt farms along channels; sometimes, it is drawn out by
a pumping engine (according to condition of land, height in relation to sea level). If the farms
are located close to the coast, the owner is able to make use of the tide to get sea water. The
seawater is held in various different enclosed areas and gradually the water is evaporated away
using the heat from the sun until only salt remains. Adjacent to the salt farms, there are two or
three warehouses to store salt. According to the responses from the interviews with salt
producers, the yield per hectare is approximately 25-30 tons per hectare, if it is a good weather
condition (i.e. no unseasonable rain). A more detailed description of the salt production process
is given in Annex 3.

3.3 Salt Marketing and Price

Salt products are transported by roads to Phnom Penh and provinces nearby Kampot province
such as Takeo, Shihanouk ville, and Kandal province. It was reported that most of the salt
products were directly transported to Phnom Penh city by trucks and by boats from Kampong
Cham province to Stung Treng province.

In general, middlemen/traders purchase salt from salt producers and sell to either processing
enterprises or salt wholesalers. Salt refinery enterprises or wholesalers process, package or
iodise salt before they then sell to retailers. Last but not least, the retailers sell directly to the end
consumers (see Figure 2).

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Figure 3 : Generalised Market Structure of Salt Trade Distribution in Cambodia

Salt production
Kampot and Kep

Middlemen/traders

Salt Refinery Enterprise Wholesaler

White salt and iodized salt

Retailer
Enterprise
Fish sauce, Ice production

Fertilizer

Other Consumer Fish Processing Animal Feed

Salt price changes according to the quantity of salt

produced and the seasons. The prices normally rise in the
rainy seasons or when flooding occurs and when
production is low, and are lower during the dry season (in
line with varying scale of production in different seasons).
In the last few years, the price has gone down sharply
because salt production has increased and at the same time
the demand has decreased.

During 1998-1999, salt price to producers was very high

around 20,000-40,000 riel per sack because of the low
production caused by flooding and heavy rainfall caused.
This year (2004), the prices are very low compared to the
previous 3 years at between 1,500-3,000 riel per sack (70-
Salt warehouse at Kampot province: Salt
workers putting salt in the sacks for
distribution to the market

7
80 kg per sack) depending on the quality and the transportation costs. Wholesalers buy salt from
Kampot province at about 4,000-4,500 riel per sack including transportation costs to take the
salt from the salt farm to the provincial town. They then resell at about 5,000-6,000 riel per sack
(salt quality number 2 and 3). Table 2 provides an overview of salt price in different locations.

Table 2: Price of refined salt in the refinery enterprise 3

Price in Price in P. Penh Price in Kg. Cham Price in Kg. Chhnang
Type of salt Kampot (Riel per Kg) (Riel per Kg) (Riel per Kg)
(Riel per Kg)
Crystal 40-50 150 170-180 150-170
(salt grain grind)
Refined salt 100 200 200-220 350-400
Iodised salt 200 300 320-350 350-400
(Crystal salt)
Iodised salt 70-75 250 N/A N/A
(salt grain grind)

In Phnom Penh city, wholesalers buy salt products from middlemen at about 4,000-6,500 riel
per sack and resell at about 5,500-8,000 riel per sack. In Kampong Chhnang, the price is about
7,000-9,500 per sack, while in Kampong Cham province the price is higher at around 9,000-
10,000 riel per sack (see Table 3).

Normally, the amount sold and the price increases during fish paste processing seasons
(December to January). It is usually about 8,500-9,000 riel per sack. However, it was reported
that in the last few years during this period salt did not sell out due to the lack of fish products
and the high price of fish, such that people were not able to buy fish for processing.

Table 3: Salt Price for wholesales in the Study areas

Type of salt Price in Price in P. Price in Kg. Cham Price in Kg. Chhnang
Kampot Penh ( per sack) (per sack)
( per sack)
Salt number 1 5,500-6,000 R 7,500-8,000R 9,500-10,000R 8,500-9,500R

Salt number 2 5,000-5,500 R 7,000-7,500R 9,200R 7500-8500R

Salt number 3 4,000-4,500R 5,500-6,000R 9,000R 7,000-7,500R
The retail price of salt varies from province to province based on transportation costs. In Kampot
province, the retail price ranges from 100-450 riel per kilogram, the price also differs by the type of
salt. In Phnom Penh city, the price is about 200-500 riel per kilogram. Between Kampong Chhnang
and Kampong Cham provinces, the price is not significantly different, about 250-500 riel per kilogram
(see table 4 below).

3
Source: data collected from informants at Kampot, PNH, Kg Cham, Kg Chhnang,2004

8
Table 4: Price of retail salt in the study areas 4
Type of salt Price in Price in P. Penh Price in Kg. Cham Price in Kg.
Kampot (Riel per Kg) (Riel per Kg) Chhnang
(Riel per Kg) (Riel per Kg)
Crystal 100-150 200-250 250-300 200-300
Crystal (salt 150-200 200-250 300-350 300-350
grain grind)
Refined salt 250-300 300-350 350-400 400-450
Iodised salt 400-450 400-500 450-500 450-500
(refined salt)
Iodised salt (salt N/A 250-300 300-350 N/A
grain grind)
The transportation costs vary among the different locations of provinces, from about 2,300 riel to
6,000 riel per sack, depending on the distance of the provinces (for example, from Kampot province to
Phnom Penh or from Kampot to another provinces). The transportation costs by trucks are the highest
over long distances, and especially because of the high price of gasoline, as from the salt farm of
Kampot province to Banteay Meanchey and Siem Reap province. Transportation costs drop
significantly over shorter distance such as the low transportation fee from Kampot province to Takeo
province (see table 5 below).
Table 5: Transportation fees from Kampot to other provinces 5

Name of destination Transport cost

(Riel per sack)
Kampot to Takeo 1,700
Kampot to Phnom Penh 2,300
Kampot to Kandal 2,300
Kampot to Kg. Chhnang 4,000
Kampot to Kg. Cham 4,500
Kampot to Pursat 4,500
Kampot to Battom Bang 5,000
Kampot to Banteay Meanchey 6,000
Kampot to Siem Reap 6,000

3.4 Key Development Issues

Salt production in Cambodia does not yet meet international quality standards. The requirement
to meet international quality standards is to have a humidity level of less than 4%. The quality of
solar salt produced in Cambodia does not meet the required international standard for export.
This is mainly due to salt producers lacking in knowledge of, or not following, the correct
methodology of crystallisation according to the accepted general procedure used by salt
producers in other developed countries. So in the future, if salt production is over produced for
exporting, they need to be improved quality in order to meet international standard.

So far, processed fish products and salt use are not properly controlled or monitored by the
Health Department or the CAMCONTROL agency in te rms of international quality for health
care.

4
Source: data collected from key informants, 2004
5
Source: Data collection in Kampot, salt enterprise owner, 2004

9
Unseasonable rains may occasionally harm production. In that case, productivity can be reduced
to only 17-20 tons per hectare. The salt production also differs between the new and the old
farms. A new salt farm can produce about 10-15 tons per hectare.

According to fish processors and fish sauce enterprise owners, the demand for salt in the country
is declining due to the lack of fish products for processing. The amount of salt produced has
increased in the last few years, which are the main issues that lead to the decrease in salt price at
present.

The Cambodian government is cooperating with NGOs, IO’s and donor agencies to push salt
iodisation for consumption. In order to have an effective salt iodisation programme, all salt
required for human and animal consumption need to be iodised. If the iodised salt is only for
human consumption, then the non-iodised salt, which is relatively cheaper than iodised salt, can
also be available in the market for animal consumption. These lead many people, particular the
poor families in the rural areas to purchase the cheaper non-iodised salt for their use as well. The
availability of the two types of salt also causes major problems to the law enforcing agencies, as
they cannot take action against sellers of the non-iodised salt, which is intended to be used only
for livestock consumption.

The surveys at the four targeted provinces show that most of the consumers still do not use
iodised salt because they do not know the difference between iodised and non-iodised salt in
term of quality and useful. They mentioned that the iodised salt smelt, changed the colour to
violet, and was low quality when it is used to process salted fish (e.g. salted fish become spoil).
Anyway, the big gap between price and lack of disseminated information about the importance
of iodised salt is also one of the reasons leading to consumers, especially fish processors, not
encouraged to use iodised salt for processing fish.

At present, distribution channels of salt and especially iodised salt in Cambodia are under-
developed. The salt producers are producing iodised salt and selling it based on market demands
and profitability. Here are the shortcomings found in the distribution systems in Cambodia: 6

- No systematic distribution
- No sales unit in the production area
- No sales unit at the provincial level
- No checkpoint in the outlet
- No monitoring by the health department at the provincial level
- Middlemen are getting more profit
- Different prices in the same province
- Prices are not proportionate to distance
- Most of the consumers do not know the difference between iodised and
non-iodised salt
- Limited awareness raising of salt.

Salt distributors (middlemen/traders and wholesalers) face many problems in storage, maintenance,
and transportation. Based on the results of the interviews, the key trading constraints include high
transporting costs. The transportation costs represent the largest transaction cost (from 50-70 percent of
salt prices). Normally, truck owners do not want to transport salt, as their trucks corrode from the
action of salt.

6
Source: Key informant, 2004

10
The traders have to pay unofficial fees to police or army officials permanently stationed on the bridges
or at the border to each province. On average, at each place they pay 3,000-5,000 riel. Additional costs
include payment for tax, hiring of labour, materials, etc. The labour costs are one of the important costs
paid for truck loading and unloading.

It was assumed that, there were about 20% of salt is lost during distribution because of long
transportation caused to break the sack and high of humidity level made salt be come salt water
and dropdown.

Salt production has had an impact on the environment of the coastal zone. The government
officials reported that in the past there was a serious destruction of mangrove, for the expansion
of salt farms. These activities were reduced after the government took measures by adopting
new relevant laws and strictly enforcing the laws. During the period of the high salt price (1997-
1999), there were about 471 hectares of land expanded for salt farms.

There were also some farmers who converted their rice field into salt farms in Boeung Roung
sector and Kg Trach sector. It should be noted that, once land is converted to salt farms, it can
only produced salt, and cannot be used for any other agricultural purposes because of the high
salt concentration in soil.

Salt farms are mostly located near rice fields or shrimp/crab farms; thus, conflicts can occur.
The conflict between salt farm owners and shrimp/crab farm owners are over the use of sea
water. The salt producers want to drain or pump sea water to fill the salt farms, while the
shrimp/crab farm owners do not want that because it disturbs their shrimps or crabs. Moreover,
there is a conflict between salt farms and rice fields. The salt water can seepage into the rice
fields and negatively affect the rice growing because the lands become high in salt concentration
and become poor in quality. This leads to conflicts between salt producers and rice farm owners.
Normally, the conflicts were solved by negotiation between the two parties, but sometimes they
need to be mediated by involved stakeholders such as the local authorities, commune police, or
local court hearings, etc.

3.5 Salt and post-harvest fisheries

3.5.1 Salt pans as fishing grounds

The channels of the salt farms (Our) are an important fishing ground for people living in nearby
villages, especially the poor. According to the interviews with fish processors and fishers, about
50-70 percent of villagers, most of whom are children living around the salt farms, are involved
in fishing activities in the salt pans. The fishermen are advised by the farm owners to maintain
the channels and ensure that everything is stable and secure in the salt farms before going
fishing.

Those fishing normally use small-scale fishing gears such as small shrimp traps, cast net, small
forks for catching shrimps, and Anchorng (mosquito net with two handles). During the peak
periods from November to December, fishers can catch about 0.5 to 2 kilograms of shrimps and
5-10 kilograms of fish, daily. Normally, they can catch mostly fish, about 3 – 7 kilograms/day,
which are small fish species (Trey Mreach). The catch is used for daily consumption and the
excess is sold for additional income. Small fish, are processed into fermented fish for
consumption and sales in the market. 1,200-1,500 riel per kilogram of semi-fermented fish (salt
and roasted rice are put into small fish to make fermented fish). Shrimps are sold for about
3,000-6,000 riel per kilograms (small shrimp).

11
3.5.2 Salt and fish processing
Salting is probably one of the earliest preservation techniques. It is often used in combination
with drying and smoking. The action of salt removes water from fish flesh. At the same time
the flesh absorbs salt. The removal of water limits bacterial growth and enzyme activity, thus
preserving fish. A high salt content in salted fish flesh also prevents the growth of normal
spoilage microflora, which cannot survive for long in salt concentrations above 6 to 8 %.

In Cambodia salted fish products play a very important role in food security as most products
can be kept for a long period and used the whole year round. Table 8 provides a list of the
different salted fish products produced in Cambodia and an indication of the amount of salt used
in processing. Fish paste, fermented fish and fish sauce are the most important for the people
especially the poor in rural areas, who consume these products constantly throughout the year.
Most of informants reported that normally they at least have some fish paste or fish sauce
cooked, or mixed into soups as their daily meals. In 2003, the average fish paste consumption
was 95 kg per household, about 15.7kg per person. 7 The peak consumption period occurs
during rice transplanting and harvesting seasons.

Table 6: Summary of the amount of salt used in fish processing 8

No. Type of processed fish Amount of Salt used

compared to fresh
fish weigh (%)
1 Salt-dried fish 20
2 Fish paste (prahok) 30
3 Fermented fish (Mum and Phaork ) 20
4 Fish sauce (teak trey) 50
5 Shrimp paste 25
6 Dried shrimp 15
7 Salted crab 35-40
8 Fermented shrimp (yao hei) 25
9 Steamed fish (trey chom hoy) 20-30
10 Ice production 35-40

The following is an overview of the different salted fish products.

3.5.2.1 Salt-Dried Fish

In the year 2000 the Department of Fisheries recorded a total production of salted fish of 1,855
mts.There are many types of fish species that are used to make salt-dried fish such as the
following:

1 Pangasius djambal, Pangasius Krempfi (ngiet pra sam yong)

2 Wallogo attu (ngiet banghoeum trey sandaii)
3 Channa micropeltes (ngiet chdor)
4 Boesemania microlepis (ngiet prama)
5 Channa striatus (ngiet ros)
6 Cyprinidae (ngiet trey srakar )

7
Bruce McKenney., et al, 2004
8
Source: data collection from key informants, 2004

12
 7 Mystus singaringan, Henterobarus bocourti (ngiet kanh chos)
8 Trichogaster pectoralis (ngiet kanthor)
9 Carinotetraodon lorteti (ngiet Kam Pot)
10 Parambassi wolffi (Ngiet trey kantrang preng).

The most expensive species are Channa striatus, Channa micropeltes, Pangasius spp.,and
Wallogo sp.

Salt-dried fish is produced on both small and medium scales. The fish production generally uses
a low level of technology. Firstly, the fish is cleaned, scaled (scaly fish only), beheaded,
eviscerated, cut into pieces and salted. Then there are two steps of salting stage. Step 1, it is
salted and kept about one and a half hour, then it is cleaned in fresh water. Step 2, it is salted
again and dried under sunlight on the ground or on tables.

According to fish processors, the salt used in salted dried fish is equivalent to about 15 – 20% of
the total fresh fish weight. There are two types of salted dr ied fish: one is salted dried fish
processed with salt only and the other one has some sugar contents. The latter type is called
sugar dried fish, which is processed with about 2% of sugars and about 1% of potassium. Fish
bought for processing are mostly dead and cheap, at about 3,800-4,000 riel per kilogram for
Channa striatus and 2,500-3,000 riel per kilogram for Pangasius. Normally, 1 kilogram of fresh
fish can produce 0.6 kilogram of salt-dried fish.

3.5.2.2 Fish Paste (Prahok )

Fish paste (prahok) is a common food for the people of Cambodia as well as for exports. In
general, there are two types of fish paste, bony and boneless. The bony one is made from many
kinds of fish species, while the boneless one is made mainly from one defined species such as
Trichogaster microlepis (trey kampleigh) or Channa striata (trey ros).

People eat fish paste and fish sauce the whole year round especially when there isn’t enough
fresh fish. According to Touch Seang Tana (1993), Ahmed et al (1998), the total volume of fish
paste produced by subsistence level fishers is an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year.
There are about 300,000 to 400,000 families involved in fish processing throughout the country
and the amount of fish paste consumed averages about 50 kg/yr . According to Touch Seng
Tanna (1993), the total amount of fresh fish used to make fish pastes is approximately 15,000
tonnes per year, valued at about 1,500-3,000 million riel. Cost of salt used for fish paste
production is estimated at 719 million riel per year (about 4,793 tonnes of salt).

According to interviews with fish processors, small white fish are bought at about 100-200
riel/kg (the price varies by seasons), salt price is about 100-110 riel/kg, and labour input at 100-
200 riel per kg of fres h fish to be processed (cleaning, scaling, beheading, eviscerating). Most
labourers are women and children. The amount of salt required is about 30% of total fresh fish
weight (salt price is 150 riel/kg). It was reported that about 2 kg of fresh fish can make 1kg of
bony fish paste, and about 2.5 kg of fresh fish can make 1 kg of boneless fish paste.

3.5.2.3 Fermented Fish

Fermented fish is referred to in Khmer as Mum and Phaork . Mum can be thought of as semi-
final product of paste fish. It is processed from many different small fish species - the fish are
cleaned, scaled, beheaded, eviscerated, cut into pieces and salted before being stored in jars or
containers for long term use. Usually, Phaork is produced from a number of large species such
as Cyprinidae, Leptobarbus, puntius, and siluridae. Fish are cleaned, eviscerated, chopped into

13
pieces, then salted before being stored for several months in an earthen jar. About 20% of yeasts
and other ingredients are mixed with the salty fish to give more flavour and to encourage
fermentation. Fermented fish is sometimes converted into fish paste, mostly for domestic
consumption. Most of the labourers involved are women and children (students).

According to interviews with fish processors, normally the ingredients for fermented fish
include about 0.2 kilograms of salt and 1 kilogram of fresh fish (i.e. 20% salt is required, 130-
150 riel/kg); and 1 kilogram of fresh fish will yield 0.6 kilogram of fermented fish. According to
Touch Seang Tana (2000), the total cost of salt used in fermented fish processing is about 133
million riel per year.

3.5.2.4 Fish Sauce

Fish sauce is produced with both inland and marine fish species. Most fish sauce production is
by medium and small scale (family) operators. According to Touch Seang Tanna and Todd
(undated), it is estimated that household production of fish sauce is around 300-400 million
litres each year.

For Cambodian people, fish sauces are traditional products made at the family level by salting
small fish and holding this in containers for long time periods until a clear brown liquid is
produced. As a traditional way to add to food, fish sauce is used as a substitute for salt.

Based on the results of interviews with fish sauce enterprises, small white fish species are used.
Those species include Henicorhynchus cryptopogon, Henicorhynchus siamensis,
Henicorhynchus caudimaculatus, Thynnichthys thynnoides, Scaphiodonichthys acanthopterus,
Poropuntius laoensis, and Commerson’s anchovy

The price of inland fish is about 80 to 250 riel per kilogram during peak period (December-
January), brought from Dai fisheries and Kampong Chhnang province. Normally, they buy fish
around 140-280 tons per year for fish sauce production. In 2004, fish processors bought 2,520
sacks (5,000 riel per sack) of salt for processing in fish sauce production.

For fish sauce production, normally salt of 30% of the fresh fish weight is needed. The salted
fish are put into wooden jars for 45 to 50 days, or until fat floats to the top of the brine and is
removed. They then flow the fish sauce with salted water into the bottom of the jar and keep it
one part and then put about 2000 litres of boiled salted water into the wooden jar which has a
capacity of 10 tonnes of fish. After that the water fish sauce that had been flowed for the first
time is also put into the jar again. They do this 3 – 4 times per year; and at the end of the year it
become good - smell and taste. They keep it for long period until a clear brown liquid is
produced.

3.5.2.5 Shrimp Paste (Kapik or Ki)

Shrimp paste is traditionally produced by the people living in the coastal areas. This product is
mainly produced during July to September, when fishers collect brine shrimp at night with push
nets and sell to processors at a price of about 3,000 riel per kilogram.

Shrimp paste is made by mixing the shrimp with salt and pounding to produce a paste. Normally
fresh shrimp are mixed with salt at about 25% of shrimp weight. A few days later, the shrimp
paste is stored in a jar for long term consumption or for distribution to the market. According to
fish processors’ reports, about four kilograms of fresh shrimps, with 25% of salt, can make one
kilogram of shrimp pastes. The price of shrimp paste is about 6,000 riel/kg. According to Touch
Seang Tanna (2000), the total value of shrimp past in year 2000 is estimated at 138 million riel.

14
3.5.2.6 Dried Shrimp (Bangkeir Kram)
Dried shrimp is an important product for small scale processors in the costal areas. The
processors buy small shrimps from fishermen or middlemen at about 1,300 riel per kilogram.
The shrimps are boiled in salty water, then dried or grilled over a wood fire or on mats put on
the ground.

Salt is used in dried shrimp production. Normally 1 kilogram of fresh shrimp needs 0.15
kilogram of salt (15% of salt of the total weight). It is estimated that, 10 kilograms of fresh
shrimp can produce 1.3 kilograms of dried shrimp. The price of dried shrimp is about 13,000-
30,000 riel/kg. It is important for domestic consumption and can also be exported.

Dried shrimp sold in Kampot province

3.5.2.7 Salted Crab (Kdam Prai )

Salted crab is a traditionally produced product for
Cambodian people. Most salted crabs are produced
by medium or small scale enterprises. Salted crabs
are produced using both inland and marine crabs.
Marine crabs include Violet vinegar crab (kdam
choir) and mangrove crab, while fresh water crabs Salted crabs at processing place in Kampot province
are common (in Khmer it is called kdam sreir).

The processor buys crabs from fishers or middlemen. In general, 1 crab is about 100 to150 riel.
Crabs are cleaned and then put (still alive) into concentrated brine (35-40% of salt) for about 24
hours. One salted crab is sold in Kampot market at about 150 to 200 riel. Labour cost is cheap
because it is very easy to process. Salted crab is a very important food for the rural people, since
they are cheap and easy to produce. The people can preserve it for long period consumption
especially when the fish are rare.

3.5.2.8 Fermented shrimp (Yao Hei)

Fermented shrimp is also a traditional food product for
Cambodian people living in the coast. Most fermented
shrimp products are produced by medium or small
scale enterprises. The processors buy fresh shrimp
from fishermen or middlemen, with the price of 5,000-
7,000 riel/kg (shrimp number two) and 3,000-5,000
riel (shrimp number three).

Fermented shrimp sold in Kampot market

15
Shrimp are cleaned, beheaded and salted, using about 25% salt to the total fresh shrimp weight.
There is about 5% of yeast, 20% of sugar and other ingredients mixed with the salted shrimp to
give more flavour, aroma and to aid to the fermentation. 1 kilogram of fresh shrimp can make
around 0.6 to 0.7 kilogram of fermented shrimp. Labour cost 200 riel/kg of fresh shrimp. Most
of the labours are poor women (widows) and children (students), who are neighbours of the
processors. They can earn around 3,000-5,000 riel per day (and/or based on the amount of
production).

Fermented shrimp is important for domestic consumption, mostly also rich people. This type of
food is mostly afforded by middle or high class people as it is expensive, about 10,000-13,000
riel/kg. Besides being sold in the coastal provinces, it is distributed to other provinces such as
Takeo, Phnom Penh, and Kandal.

3.5.2.9 Steamed Fish (Trey Chom Hoy)

Steamed fish is a traditional product that is preferred by both coastal and inland people. It is
produced from marine pelagic species such as mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta and
Rastrelliger brachysoma) and scads ( Atule mate, Decapterus mariadsi). The peak period for
mackerel and scad landings is from August to February.

There are 14 steamed fish processors, six located in Shihanouk Ville, five in Kampot province
and three in Thmor Sor, Koh Kong province. The procedure used by the larger producers is as
follows: landed fish are washed (but not eviscerated or beheaded), then arranged in bamboo
baskets before boiling in brine water about half and hour. The salt used is about 20-30 % in
water for boiling fish. About half the weight of the fish remains after processing, because the
brine draws water by osmosis from the tissues of the fish. The fish, still in the covered bamboo
baskets, are then stored in mosquito nets to avoid flies, before being transported by pickup truck
to temporary cold storage place until final distribution to various markets throughout the
country. Price varies sharply from 1,000 riel/kg during the peak seasons to 3,000 riel/kg during
the scarce period (March to October).

3.6 Stakeholders associated with salt production, distribution and post-harvest fisheries
This section provides an overview of the different private sector stakeholders involved in salt
production, processing, distribution and salted fish processing.

3.6.1 Salt producers and labourers

There are 180 salt farm owner groups in Kampot province and Kep city. They have different
size of salt farms based on their living conditions (from 7.5 to 100 ha). Most of them are
experienced and used to be salt farm workers under the government payroll.

The salt producers normally sell their products to middlemen/traders at the farm gate. Salt
producers spend for labour fees while middlemen/traders spend for transportation fees. Salt
producers mentioned that, in the last three years, they earned no profit in the business because
salt price was very low, while labour fees and gasoline/oil price (used for produced salt) were
high.

Salt production contributes to employment among the poorest people. According to salt
producers’ estimates, there are about 3,000 - 4,000 workers in the whole country (including
men, women, and children). There are about 500 children aged 10-17 working on the salt farms.

16
They work as field clearers, salt harvesters, and loaders of salt to truck. Normally, most of salt
field clearers are women and children (temporary), while technicians or skilled workers
(permanent), loading and unloading of salt are for men (temporary).

Five categories of salt workers were found during the study:

1. Technicians or skilled workers: from Kampot province only. They mostly work in
the field and take responsibility on salt farms.
2. Settled workers: permanently live in nearby villages surrounding the salt fields
3. Migrant workers: from different provinces such as Takeo, Prey Veng, Kampong
Cham. They are provided accommodation during the salt production season,
normally a 6-month period from November to April.
4. Oldest children of households who are under age of 17: left their families to work in
the salt industry and who return home for farming or fishing when the salt production
season ends.
5. Truck loaders: who load salt from farms or warehouse to the truck mostly from
Kampot province only. Some of them load salt from the truck into the market or
wholesalers’ house or customers in Phnom Penh and other provinces as Kandal, Kg
Chhnang, and Kg Cham et cetera. They get to work by motor taxi from different
provinces.

Skilled workers permanently stay in the fields to look after the salt farms. These skilled workers
have experience in the salt industry for many years. They are usually older people with the
salary ranging from 180,000-400,000 Riel per month (based on role, responsibility and size of
the farm).

Migrant of floating workers do not have a fixed salary. They are paid based on their work
results. Most of them are women and children. Normally, they work during the intense seasons,
from December to March, to move the salt into piles in the warehouses, prepare small soil
bounds (Kechn), and clean the salt farms. The workers can work as groups and then share the
money among them. Groups are paid around 2,500-4,000 riel for each field cleared or harvested
for salt to stock in the warehouse. For preparing a small soil bound (Kechn) around the salt
farms and the cleaning job, they get 100-200 riel per meter. Some farm owners prefer to pay
3,500-4,000 riel per day per worker (working 7 hour per day).

Truck loaders load and unload the truck for transportation. There are about 300 loading workers
on the salt farms. 9 They receive cash every day for salt loading; and the secondary occupations
include motor taxis, farmers and fishers. All of them
are men who always rotate from place to place (in the
salt farm), if any salt farm owners need them. The
labour fee for loading and unloading the truck is 200
riel per sack. If they put salt in sack and load truck,
the labour wage is 500 riel per sack. Normally, they
can earn about 5,000-12,000 riel per day per person.

Usually, motor taxi and/or tricycle (cyclo) drivers

nearby the site are called to work as loading workers
Salt loading worker loading the truck at salt
to load or upload salt from the truck into the market farm of Kampot for distribution to the market
or wholesalers’ house or customers (somewhere in
Phnom Penh and other provinces). Loading cost is

9
Key informant, 2004

17
around 100 – 200 riel per sack.
On average, the monthly income of salt production workers is about $30 per person during low
production period, and around $60 during busy months (key informants). The money earned is
spent for food, cloth, medicine, and other family needs. Families that regularly save money
during busy months in anticipation of low production periods are less likely to face food
shortages than those who do not. Other family strategies to cope with low income during low
production period and/or slack times include increased activities in foraging. Those activities
include collecting wood for use as cooking fuel and fishing, catching crabs, fish, and shrimps
along the channel of salt farms, etc. Girls usually collect wood and fish during mornings when
salt work is not available. Boys fish nearly every night by using small scale fishing gears such as
small shrimp trap, cash net, small fork for catching shrimp, and small Anchorng (mosquito net
with two handles). Some other settled family are more likely to have other sources of cash
income (usually small businesses such as selling fish, vegetables or small merchandise). Settled
families are also able to raise livestock because land and vegetation is available in their villages,
but the migrant workers usually have limited abilities to raise any livestock in the salt field
because there is not enough water for them.

3.6.2 Salt Wholesalers

Wholesalers usually buy salt from middlemen, traders or salt enterprises. Most of them are not
salt processors. They stock salt products in part of their warehouse and sell to retailers or
consumers. In Kampot province, some producers act as salt wholesalers. They transport sa lt
from their warehouse located in the farm to stock in their store at the town and distribute to
customers. For wholesalers in the provinces, most of their customers come from districts,
communes, and villages. In Phnom Penh city, most of the customers come from Kandal, Takeo,
Kampong Speu, Kampong Chhnang, Pursat, Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, Siem Reap,
Kampong Thom, Kampong Cham, Prey Veng, Svay Rieng, Kratie, Stung Treng.

The wholesalers complained that they could not sell out because this year’s supply of salt
products from Kampot province was far above demand, which reduced the salt price. Most
consumers or retailers like to buy directly from the salt producers in the farm.

3.6.3 Salt Refinery Enterprises

Salt refinery enterprises always buy salt from middlemen/traders to produce grinding salt. Salt
price varies from place to place. If it is far from the salt farms, the price is higher because of the
transportation fees and labour wages. The price of salt at salt processing enterprises in Kampot
province is about 2,500-3,500 riel per sack, while at the salt processing enterprises in Phnom
Penh it is about 5,000-6,500 riel per sack.

There are 30 refinery salt enterprises throughout the country. These enterprises produce refined
salt and iodised salt products for domestic consumption. There are 11 salt refinery enterprises in
Phnom Penh, 5 in Kandal, 5 in Battambang, 4 in Kampot, 3 in Kampong Chhnang, 1 in
Kampong Speu, and 1 in Siem Reap (see table 4.8). All of those 30 enterprises are supported by
UNICEF who provide free iodine for them to add in the salt production.

Salt processing enterprises produce salt that is a refined salt or crystal (salt granules) in order to
meet the demand of fish processors and consumers. The white salt is usually produced by
refining (boiling down) salt quality number three. The salt is broken down into smaller pieces
mostly are salt number one and two. Normally, these kinds of salt becomes iodised for human

18
consumption. After processing, the iodised salt is packaged into packets, ranging in weight - 0.4,
0.5, 0.8, and 1 kilogram. The small-pieces salt is put into sacks (1 sack weighing 50 kilograms).
According to the interviews
with owners of salt refinery
enterprises within the study
area, a modern enterprise in
Kampot province (with a
processing machine bought
from China, not boil) can
produce 5 tons of iodised salt
per hour (8 hours per day) and
they sell about 20-30 tons per
day. Normal enterprises
(refining by boiling) mostly
located in Phnom Penh can
Salt refinery enterprise at Kampot province: Iodized salt put in sack for
produce only around 15 tons distribution to the market
per day and sell about 11-12
tons per day. However, the sales can increase during fish paste processing seasons (December to
January). These kinds of salt are used for consumption and fish processing.

3.6.4 Salt Retailers

Retailers usua lly buy salt from salt processing enterprises and wholesalers to resell directly to
consumers. They normally buy about 200-250 kilograms at a time. Salt refinery enterprise owners
always transport salt to supply directly to salt retailers in the markets in Phnom Penh city, but in other
provinces, some the retailers transport by themselves (from wholesalers’ house/store to theirs
house/shop). And some salt retailers buy from middlemen who come through their house/shop. The
daily amount that retailers sell is about 10-100 kilograms (Phnom Penh, Kampot, Kg. Cham, and Kg.
Chhnang). According to the interviews with many salt retailers in Phnom Penh, Kg. Cham, and Kg.
Chhnang, during fish paste productions (December to January) they can sell about 300-400 kilograms
per day.

3.6.5 Stakeholders dependent on the production of salted fish products

Key stakeholders in salted fish processing are the processors (those that run the business) and
their labourers. Processors are classed as modern or industrial, medium scale and small or
family scale. Women play an active role in fish processing and in both wholesale and retail sale
of fish. Children also provide labour.

According to small scale fish processors, they mostly can process dried fish, salted fish, and
some kind of fermented fish around 15-30 kg and
get daily income at about 7,000-15,000 riel. The
earned money is spent on food, cloth, their
children’s education, and so on. For small-scale
fish processors (family scale), most of workers
are poor women (widows) and children (students),
who are neighbours of processors in the village.
For labourers working with family scale and
middle scale fish processors, they were daily paid
based on the amount of fish processed. They
Children working as fish processing labours
normally can earn around 3,000-5,000 riel per

19
day. Payment is based on the outcome of work.

For the big fish processing enterprises, normally process dried fish, steamed fish, and fish sauce.
The labourers usually stay with fish processors. They get a salary around 80,000-100,000 riel
per month, three meals per day, place for stay, a set of clothes per year, medicine, and
transportation fees when they need to go back home for the farming season. The labourers
working with enterprise/industrial fish processors are provided with more facilities such as three
meals per day, accommodation, one unit of clothes per year, medicine, and transportation fees
when they need to go back home during the farming season.

Most of the fish processors and workers that have been interviewed have a low level of
education. The migratory labourers from provinces mostly have primary school education.
Those interviewed during the study have never attended any training courses on fish processing
techniques or methods of salt use in fish processing. They have learned from fish processing
owners. Moreover, there are some students, learning at primary and secondary school, working
as fish processing labourers during their spare time. They normally work with small scale family
fish processors who are living nearby their homes.

The children of fish processors also help to process fish during their free time. After coming
back from school, some of their children also help in fish processing such as cleaning,
eviscerating, and chopping fish into pieces. However, the processors interviewed said that even
though they are poor and have a low level of education, they always send their children to
school, particularly primary and secondary school because they understand that education is the
most important for them.

Fish processing labourers are not only dependent on fish processors but also on a combination of
natural resources especially fish and salt products. Processors, as well as stakeholders (involved
workers) still live in poverty and are vulnerable to changes in the price of fish or salt. If there is
plenty of fish, and the price of salt is cheap, it means that the poor people are provided with
more jobs and they could generate more income through their works (key informants).

From the interview and observation, there are two main types of fish processing, traditional and
modern/industrial processing. The traditional processing refers to small scale (family scale) and
middle scale fish processors, most of them are poor. They use very simple equipments for fish
processing (knife, big flat and dried it under the sunlight on the mats put on the ground or on
tables) to process dried fish, salted fish, some kind of fermented fish and so on. For
transportation means, they use motor taxis at a cost about 1,500-3,000 riel per day. Some
processed fish are sold to retailers in the market and some are sold directly to consumers by the
processors themselves. They mostly do not have selling stalls in the market, they normally sell
along the street or around the market (about 15-30 kg per day). Modern or industrial processors
are mostly wealthy people. By and large they produce dried fish, steamed fish, and fish sauce.
They have bigger house, warehouse, motor bike, and even car for transporting processed fish
and distributing to the market.

Almost all fish processors in Phnom Penh who buy fish from wholesalers or middlemen do not
pay immediately, they will pay a few days later when they have sold the processed fish and get
more fish for processing. However, in Kampot, Kampong Cham and Kampong Chhnang
provinces, fish processors pay cash immediately when they buy fish from fishermen. They are
also in debt for a few days, when they buy fish from middlemen and wholesalers.

20
3.6.6 Changes and salted fish products
During 1998-2001, the price of salt became very high, about 400 to 600 Riel per kg, which was
due to heavy rainfalls, flooding and low salt production. Although fish prices remained stable
and cheap, the people could not afford to process fish. It affected people’s livelihoods at that
time, especially the poorer families in rural areas who were depending on fish processing as
main income generation. It also affected to poor families who are always process fermented fish
for whole year consumption especially during farming season.

During the last three years, the price of salt has dropped. This is because of the high quantity of
domestically produced salt and the demand has decreased especially due to the lack of fish for
processing. It is about 150 to 250 riel per kilo. In 2004, salt price sharply decreased to only
about 100 to 150 riel per kilogram. Although a drop in the price of salt helped mitigate the
impact of higher fish price in 2002 and 2003, in 2004, fish price is dramatically increased
because of the lack of fisheries products (see Figure 2), which makes it unaffordable for people
to buy fish for processing. This appears to have a negative impact on food security to the people.
The declining amount of fish is a problem for fish processors and labourers. They are worried
about their business in the future because it will affect the income generation of both fish
processors and their labours.

3.7 Institutional and policy framework

3.7.1 Salt Production/Processing Policy

The Government works with UNICEF and other organisations to promote technical support, to
disseminate information on the importance of salt use for human health, and to encourage and
increase iodised salt production. To achieve this objective, to increase supply of iodised salt
throughout the country, 10 modern iodised salt refinery machines have been provided to salt
producers in Kampot province. The government has also set policies to reduce and eliminate
non-iodised salt use/consumption in the country. UNICEF has provided free iodine and other
relevant raw materials to all refinery enterprises and salt farms.

In order to promote the production and use of iodised salt the Royal Government of Cambodia
has set forth salt production policies as follow:

§ The sub-decree on the management of iodised salt exploitation, number 69 Or Nor

Kro Bor Kor, dated on 20 October 2003.
§ The declaration on the methodology to manage iodised salt exploitation, number 30
Kor Cho Or Cho , dated on 24 February 2004.
§ The Deka on the implementation of sub-decree on the management of iodised salt
exploitation, number 178 Dor Kor, dated on 19 April 2004.
§ The draft of regulation of the public health related to iodised salt is under
consultation.

Despite this there are still a limited supply and use of iodised salt in the country. Salt quality is
still poor. There are no strict rules and regulations on salt quality control such as on universal
salt iodisation, and iodised salt production. There is also a lack of awareness of the importance
of iodised salt. As salt is produced using ancient and conventional methods, the quality does not
yet meet the international standard in term of quality.

The government wishes to maximise the contribution post-harvest fisheries makes to national
development objectives such as employment, food security and generation of foreign exchange.

21
In line with this one of aims of the ADB/FAO Tonle Sap Fisheries Management and
Development Project 2005-2009 is to increase the value of fish and fisheries products by
provision of harbours and improved fish marketing facilities; and expand employment and
income-earning possibilities by developing aquaculture and improved fish processing.

3.7.2 Relevant public sector institutions involved in salt production and

processing
This section provides an over view of key public sector institutions involved in salt production
and processing.

= Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME): The salt sector is directly controlled
by the Salt Board, established in 1994 under the MIME (see Figure 3). The MIME has 56
employees under the Director of Salt Producers group to control and oversee the salt production
activities. All salt products are marketed through help of the Salt Cooperative Department.
There are 16 employees engaged in the cooperative office to handle the marketing of salt. The
Government provides a permit to the cooperative for a period of three years with an annual fee
of 140 million riel; and the payment is made on a monthly basis. The two offices and both
directors of Salt Board and Cooperative are located in the same building in Kampot provincial
town. The MIME cooperates with UNICEF to disseminate information on the importance of
iodised salt in human health and provide to free iodine to add to salt.

= Ministry of Social Affairs, Labour, Vocational Training and Youth Rehabilitation

(MOSALVY): The MOSALVY is involved with salt workers. The Ministry works in
cooperation with International Labour Organisation ‘International Programme on the
Elimination of Child Labour (ILO/IPEC-Cambodia) and UNICEF organisation to oversee the
salt workers, issues related to labour rights, child labour, gender issues, and help observe the
income generation and the level of work of the workers. These are done through conducting an
assessment on the situatio n that children work in the salt fields of Kampot province.
Figure 4. The administrative structure of the Salt Board

Provincial Director
Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy

Director Director
Salt Producer Group Salt Traders Cooperative

Planning Technical Admin Finance Admin Finance Planning

= Ministry of Environment (MOE): The Ministry of Environment is involved with the

environmental issues associated with salt production. The Ministry of Environment cooperates
with the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, NGOs, and development agencies to control
salt exploitation activities in order to ensure that they do not affect the environment. The MOE

22
aims to prevent water pollution, destruction of beaches and bays, the clearing of mangrove
forest for salt farm expansion, and any activities that cause harm to rice farming and growing.

= Institution responsible for tax collection

Salt production is a source of government revenue. The government charges a 2 % tax rate on
salt produced. A tax revenue equal to 50% of the national tax revenue on salt production is paid
to the Provincial Tax Office. The Provincial Tax Office also collects from 35,000 to 100,000 riel
per salt producer and 100 riel per sack from middlemen. In addition, the mineral royalties are
charged at the rate of 1 riel per kilogram and 100 riel per sack of salt is also paid as a
contribution to the Provincial Tax Office.

= Ministry of Health (MOH): The MOH has cooperated with MIME to help disseminate
information on the importance of using salt/iodised salt for human health and the negative
impacts which are affected by using non-iodised salt. The public health professionals including
medical professionals are also involved in this sector to provide advice and recommendations on
how to produce good processed salt and how to effectively use salt for human health.

3.8 Institutional Constraints

Institutions in salt production are not good at cooperating to develop the sector in terms of law
enforcement; there is a lack of information sharing, lack of transparency, and poor governance.

The agencies concerned, namely CAMCONTROL, Department of Health, and Veterinary

Department, do not have the sufficient knowledge on the international quality requirements for
salt products. They should be trained. Without this knowledge, the sector will not be able to
market the products overseas. The quality control facilities are also needed to be equipped.

IV. Conclusions
Cambodia produces sufficient salt for domestic demands. Since late 2001, there have been no
significant salt products imported into the country, except some provinces nearby the border still
use some imported salt from Vietnam or Thailand because the problem of transportation mean
leading to the costs are high; thus, the salt price is also increasing. Now, domestic salt products
are not exported. This is due to the poor quality of local salt products, compared to those of
other countries. Iodised salt products are relatively expensive if compared to non-iodised salt.

The solar salt producers are still using ancient and conventional methods. Modern technology is
needed to address this in order to optimise solar salt production capacity and improve quality for
future salt export. The resources and facilities required are available in Cambodia to
manufacture solar salt and to produce quality iodised salt. At present, these resources are not
properly organised or put in place to achieve the maximum output and desired quality.

For the future plan, we should introduction of modern technologies and improved managerial
and technical capacity of relevant personnel through training and motivation, the industry could
flourish to meet the country’s demand for better quality salt, especially the demand for iodised
salt. Furthermore, this industry has the potential to play an important role in the country’s
economy by way of earning foreign exchange through salt exports.

There needs to be development of national policies, law, and the regulatory framework. Salt
iodisation has to be promoted in a broader context throughout the country for use in domestic
consumption and in fish processing. Awareness and education should be raised via
dissemination of information through media such as TV, radio, newspapers, and education
through the classrooms.

23
 References
DANIDA, January 2000. Case study on Salt Farm in Kampot province and Kep city.

Sedara KIM, IDRC 2004. Qualitative observation, Kampong Thnot, Kampot

Province.

UNICEF (1994) Report prepared by two NSCIDD meeting, one national workshop
and consultation with the relevant government and concerned (Salt
Iodisation for the elimination of iodine deficiency by M.G. Venkatesh
Mannar).

Mr. P. Ehamparam, FSNPSP, 23rd June-13th July 2003. Technical consultancy on

situation analysis of universal iodisation production, distribution and
marketing in Cambodia.

Working paper of Child labour, migration and salt production

The sub-decree on the management of iodised salt exploitation, number 69 Or Nor

Kro Bor Kor, October 2003.

The declaration on the methodology to manage iodised salt exploitation, number 30 Kor Cho Or
Cho, February 2004.

The Deka on the implementation of sub-decree on the management of iodised salt exploitation,
number 178 Dor Kor, dated on 19 April 2004.

Yim Chea and Bruce McKenney October 2003. Working Paper on Fish Export from
the Great Lake to Thailand.

Department of Fisheries, Royal Government of Cambodia, Fisheries Statistic 2003, Phnom

Penh.

24
Annex 1 Terms of reference
Nodal study 11: Salt Production and Use in the Post-Harvest Fisheries Sector

Background

One of the main ways in which people consume salt is in the production of many fish products,
which is also key to the fish consumption. The use of iodised or non-iodised salt in the diet has
been identified as having major health implications for the rural poor.

The production of salt is also believed to provide employment for a considerable number of poor
coastal people especially woman and migrated (traveling) farmers. Salt production also has
environmental implications for coastal habitats and may be in compe tition for land for coastal
aquaculture. At the present, we know little of the development of the salt production industry in
the country - its current status or its potential. Likewise we know little about the features of the
industry that impact upon the livelihoods of the people who work in, or use the product of, the
sector.

In Cambodia, salt is very important for people livelihood and fish processing. The people use
salt for any kind of fish processing such as dried fish, fish sauce, fermented fish, and especially
fish paste, which is very important for rural people. The price fluctuations of salt affect people’s
daily consumption. If the price of salt is high, the people cannot afford to buy for fish
processing.

Aim of study

The aim of the study is to describe the current salt production, distribution and consumption in
the post -harvest sector:
- To assess the environmental consequences of that production
- To assess the contribution of the industry to employment among the poor
- To describe the role of salt in salted fish products in the diet of consumers, especially
poorer consumers, and
- To assess how salted fish products can contribute further to food security and
nutrition in the country.

Key Questions to be Answered

Key questions that need to be answered by the study include the following:
Ÿ What is the current status of salt production within the fisheries sector in Cambodia -
where is it produced, how much is it produced and how is it distributed?
Ÿ What are the key constrains of salt productio n and distribution within the fisheries
sector?
Ÿ How does salt production contribute to the employment among the poor?
Ÿ What are the impacts of salt production on the environment – in terms of natural habitat
conversion, pollution, etc.?
Ÿ What are the impacts of salt production on land use patterns?
Ÿ How is salt production affected by other land use demands, e.g. aquaculture?
Ÿ How is salt used within the post- harvest fisheries sector – for what kind of processes
and with which fish species?

25
 Ÿ What is the role that salted fish products play in the diet of consumers, particularly poor
consumers?
Ÿ What contribution do salted fish products make to food security, generally and
particularly for the poor?
Ÿ How are the role and contribution of salted fish products changing? And what are the
causes and consequences of the change?
Ÿ What are the potentials to enhance the role and contribution of salted fish products to
nutrition and food security in the country?

Approach

Secondary Data

Secondary data will be collecte d through review of existing information from books,
reports, journals, Ministry of Industry, Mine and Energy, national and international
organizations and documents related to salt production and salt use for salted fish production
from the libraries of the Department of Fisheries.

Primary Data

The primary data will be collected from the field survey by using adaptive methods such
as Semi-Structure Interview (SSI), group discussion by using PRA tools, complemented by
checklists. The study will be conducted with Government officials and other knowledgeable key
informants, salt producers, fish processors, salt distributors, retail traders; groups of poor
stakeholder (e.g. labourers or traders in salt production, processing, transportation). PRA tools to
be used in field survey include:

No PRA Tools Objective Output

1 Seasonal calendar
To know the use and consumption Salt distribution, use,
patterns of salted fish products, consumption patterns of salted
product and employment of salt by fish products, employment of
month. salt production by month
2 Trend line To know the change of salt The change of salt price,
production and use in different production, employment in
times and to understand the causes different times.
and impacts of the change.
3 Problem analysis To identify problems of using salt Problems related to salt
in fish processing, salt price production and salt use.
fluctuation and employment of the
poor people in Cambodia.
4 Venn diagram To identify the relationship Knowing the relevant
between stakeholders and salt stakeholders for salt
consumption. production and consumption.
The data collected during an interview with informants from the field will be
summarised and crosschecked for information verification purposes.

26
 Sources of information Place Number of Time available (days)
interviewees
Secondary data review Phnom Penh 5 days (1person)
Government officials and other Phnom Penh 10 – 15 4 days (1person)
knowledgeable key informants Kg Chhnang
Kg Cham
Salt producers and land owners Kampot 5– 7 2 days (2 person)
Salt distributors Kampot 2– 5 1 day (2person)
Retail Traders Kampot 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Fish processors Kompot 3– 7 1 day (2person)
Poor stakeholders Kompot 5– 7 1 day (2person)
Salt distributors P hnom Penh 2– 4 1 day (2person)
Retail Traders Phnom Penh 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Fish processors Phnom Penh 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Poor stakeholders Phnom Penh 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Salt distributors Kg.Chhnang 2– 4 1 day (2person)
Retail Traders Kg.Chhnang 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Fish processors Kg.Chhnang 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Poor stakeholders Kg.Chhnang 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Salt distributors Kg.Cham 2– 4 1 day (2person)
Retail Traders Kg.Cham 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Fish processors Kg.Cham 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Poor stakeholders Kg.Cham 4– 7 1 day (2person)
Report writing Phnom Penh 7 days (2person)

Outputs to be produced

The consultants will be expected to provide a report of no more than 10,000 words (not
including annexes) in ele ctronic form using Microsoft Word. The report will be submitted to
CPHFLP in both English and Khmer. Reporting should follow a standard format as laid out in
the guidance notes.

Deadline for submission of draft report: 05 July 2004

The final report will be completed two weeks after comments on the report have been received.

27
Annexe 2: Itinerary and list of key informants

Date Location Salt related activity Key infor- No Key informants Occupation Ethnicity Age
mants intervie name
wees
12 Apr 04 Phnom Primary data collection -MIME 2 Ms. Khun Vary -Deputy director general of MIME Khmer 48
Penh Secondary data collection -Chief of department in charge 37
Mr. Teung Siv Lay iodized salt Khmer 41
-Unicef staff in charge iodized salt Khmer 35
distribution Khmer 43
-UNICEF 1 Mr. Oun Som Eun -Deputy chief of statistic and Khmer 34
planning of DoF Khmer 36
-Chief of Fishery biology division, Khmer 35
-DoF 2 Mr. Thosen Serey IFReDI
Vath Khmer 35
Mr. Deap Leung -Researcher scientist
Mr. Yim Chea
-CDRI
13 May 04 Kampot Primary data collection -Provincial 1 Mr. Chhun Hin -Director Khmer 52
Secondary data collection director of
MIME 2 Mr. Man Hory -Salt exploitation ffice Khmer 34
-MIME Mr.OumChhun Khmer 36
official -Chief of Fishery office
-Provincial 2 Mr. Song Lorn -Deputy chief of fisheries office Khmer 56
fisheries
office Mr. Morn Khmer 58
15 May 04 Kampot Salt producing activities, 5 Mr. Sok Socheata -Salt farm owner Khmer 25
technique Salt Mr. Neang Heng -Salt farm owner Khmer 45
preparing salt farm and producers Mr. Bun Barang -Salt farm owner Khmer 63
market management Mr. Ma Buncheun -Salt farm owner Khmer 50
Ms. May Yeun -Salt farm owner Khmer 47
17 May 04 Kampot Salt producing activities, Skilled 4 Mr. Preing Vichat -Skill worker Khmer 34
technique, and workers Mr. Hai Heun -Skill worker Khmer 31

28
 preparing salt farm Mr. Sok Sorn -Skill worker Khmer 43
Mr. Ho Dong -Skill worker Khmer 51
19 May 04 Kampot Salt traders/Small scale 2 Mr. Nguon Huon Salt trader/small scale industry owner Khmer 50
industry/Marketing Salt refinery Mr. Nun Hon 37
15 Apr 04 Phnom Salt refinery/Iodised/price enterprises 3 Ms. Chba Ampov Salt enterprise owners Khmer 34
Penh Mr. Kao Sambath Khmer 44
Mr. Meng You Khmer 54
20 May 04 Kg cham Salt refinery/Iodised/price 1 Ms. Hoeu Lovny Salt enterprise owner Khmer 58
20 May 04 Kampot Salt distribution/price 2 Ms. Yeay Pu Salt traders/ Middlemen Khmer 45
Ms. Moy Kong Khmer 43

16 Apr 04 Phnom Salt distribution/price 4 Mr. Eng Sreang Salt traders/salt enterprise owners Khmer 49
Penh Ms. Khai Vann Khmer 44
Salt Mr. Prak Sok Khmer 51
distributors Mr. Oum Kun Khmer 34
28 May 04 Kg.Cham Salt distribution/price 4 Ms. E. Mouy Salt traders/small scale enterprise Khmer 58
Mr. Seng kaony owners Khmer 56
Ms. Kong Navy Khmer 45
Mr. Kim Heng Khmer 53
05 June 04 Kg. Salt distribution/price 4 Mr. Hong Hoy Salt traders/Small scale enterprise Khmer 38
Chhnang Ms. Teing Kech Khmer 49
Ms. Sok Y Khmer 52
Ms. Bun Sim Khmer 40
21 A 04 Kampot Salt trade/price 4 Ms. Yeay Art Small businesses/Salt retailers Khmer 60
Ms. Sok Ly Khmer 44
Ms. Mao Moeun Khmer 45
Mr. Hoeun
Chamraen Khmer 32
18 Apr 04 Phnom Salt trade/price 3 Ms. Sok Khom Small businesses/Salt retailers Khmer 56
Penh Retail Mr. Seng Keang Khmer 38
traders Ms. Meas Seyha Khmer 54

29
30 May 04 Kg.Cham Salt trade/price 4 Ms. Sok Na Small businesses/Salt retailers Khmer 31
Ms. San Pouv Khmer 33
Ms. Prum Poeun Khmer 40
Ms. Chan Sath Khmer 58
07 Jun 04 Kg. Salt trade/price 4 Ms. Lim Dary Small businesses/Salt retailers Khmer 44
Chhnang Ms. Moy Kong Khmer 57
Mr. Ly Bun Khmer 35
Ms. Kheing Por Khmer 39
22 May 04 Kampot Salt used relate to fish 4 Ms. Lim Leang Fish processors Khmer 38
processing, Ms. Ngov Heng Khmer 42
marking, and Ms. Chu Hout Khmer 54
consumption Ms. Oung Chanto Khmer 37
19 Apr 04 Phnom Salt used relate to fish Fish 3 Mr. Theang Seng Fish processors Khmer 45
Penh processing, processor Ms. Ngieng Tey Vietnam 49
marking and Tae Vietnam 55
consumption Ms Ngieng Liv Vietnam
Ms. Ngeing Teu
01 Jun 04 Kg.Cham Salt used in fish 3 Ms. Pouv Chantha Fish processors Khmer 40
processing, marking and Mr. Kuon Huor Khmer 63
consumption Ms. Meas Sopheap Khmer 36
09 Jun 04 Kg. Salt used relate to fish 4 Ms. Teu Ngeing Fish processor Vietnam 48
Chhnang processing/marketing/ Ms. Lim Hong Khmer 39
consumption Ms. Chea Moy Khmer 35
Mr. Hea Hout Khmer 56
24 Apr 04 Kampot -Salt producing activities/ 5 Ms. Hy Nein labour Khmer 32
farm preparing Mr. Eng Lun labour Khmer 27
-Saltloading/income Mr. Hot Rin salt loader Khmer 36
-Fishprocessing/ Mr. Khai Seilla salt loader Khmer 34
marketing Mr. Yim Map labour of fish processing Khmer 23
-Salt fish consumption

30
20 Apr 04 Phnom -Salt loading/income 3 Mr. Ngi Chay Salt loader Khmer 26
Penh -Fish processing/ Poor Mr. Ngoun Nang labour of fish processing and Khmer 23
marketing stakehol- Mr. Kim Rin labour of fish processing Khmer 35
-Salt fish consumption ders
03 Jun 04 Kg.Cham -Salt loading/income 3 Mr. Seng Thy Salt loader Khmer 34
-Fish processing/ Mr. Sophy labour of fish processing Khmer 25
marketing Mr. Serk Ngoy labour of fish processing Khmer 29
-Salt fish consumption
11 Jun 04 Kg. -Salt loading/income 3 Mr. Kruy Sinat Salt loader Khmer 43
Chhnang -Fish Mr. Sok Tha labour of fish processing Khmer 47
processing/marketing Mr. Heim Ya labour of fish processing Khmer 32
-Salt fish consumption

31
Annex 3 Salt production process
The figure below outlines the salt pr oduction process.

Standard Structure of Salt Production in Cambodia

Sea

Storage field (srei ou)

Evaporating farm (srei hal) I.

Evaporating farm (srei hal)II.

Evaporating farm (srei hal)III.

Evaporating farm (srei hal)IV.

Evaporating farm (srei hal)V.

Salt field Salt field Salt field Salt field Salt field

Warehouse Warehouse

Road

32
 a). Storage field (Srei Ou)

The storage field is used to reserve sea water. Water is pumped or drained into the fields until it
is filled. Storage fields are surrounded by twin channels. The bounds’ height of twin channels
ranges from 0.6 to 1 metres. The bottoms of stocking farms are normally higher than that of the
dry farms so that it is possible to drain water into them.

b). Evaporating Farm (Srei Hal)

Dry farms or evaporation farms are transitional sea water reservoirs for evaporation. Normally
the dry farms have five levels of water evaporating process, which are ranked by order from dry
farm level one to dry farm level five (illustration on next page). The solution of concentrated
brines is also different in density, usually ranking from 7 to 12 to 21 and to 30 degrees. The dry
farm level 5, which has a brine solution concentration of NaCl at about 15%-20% is the last
evaporation stage in the process. It takes about 40 days for the evaporation process in the five
dry farms before draining into planting farm.

c). Salt field (Srei Bandoh)

Planting farms or salt fields are prepared two or three days before seawater is drained into them.
The salt field (Srei Bandosh) is solidly flat in order to hold the water during the process of
evaporation by the heat of the sun. Each plot is about 300-400 squared metres, closed by a small
soil bound (Kenh). The water from dry farms is drained into the planting farm. The salt field is
the last stage of the process of water evaporation and salt production. After 5 to 6 days, the salt
is collected and stored in wooden warehouses located adjacent to the salt farms.

33
Annex 4 Miscellaneous additional data
Salt used in fish processing 10

Kind of Fresh Average of salt used in fish processing Weight of fish

Fish fish Salt grain Salt grain Salt Salt Polished Processing
Processing (Kg) (Kg) grind (Kg) Polished with Remain (Kg)
(Kg) Eyod(Kg)
Fish sauce 10 10 0 30 litres
Fish paste
without 10 3 0 7
bone
Fish paste 10
3 0 5
with bone
Fermented 10 2 - 2.5 0 7–8
Salt fish 10 2.5 0 6
Dried fish 10 1 – 1.5 1 – 1.5 6–8
Dried
10 0.2 – 0.5 0
shrimp
Salt crab 10 0

Activities of salt marsh labours 11

Activities/month Jan Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Salt marsh* 5 5 5 4 2 3 4 5 5
Gathering value** 500 500 500 500 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 500
Collect salt from salt farm* 4 5 5 5 2 2 3
Fishing in salt farm * 1 1 1 1 4 5 5 5 4 3 2 1
Rice Farm* 3 5 5 2 5 4
Salt price in Farm R/Kg** 31 25 25 31 31 31 31 37.5 37.5 37.5 37.5 31
* PRA result of ranking activities (1 less activities, 5 most activities)
** Price

Wholesale and retail price of salt in Kg. Cham province 12

sort of salt Large quantity Retail price Source Destination
price (riel/kg) (riel/kg)
Kampot Kg Cham
Salt grains 125 300 Suong(Kg Cham) Kratie
Stung Treng
Kampot Kg Cham
Salt grain grind 170 300 Suong(Kg Cham) Kratie
Stung Treng
Kampot Kg Cham
Salt polished 220 400 Suong(Kg Cham) Kratie
Phnom Penh Stung Treng
Kampot Kg Cham
Salt polished
320 500 Phnom Penh Kratie
with Eyod
Stoeung Treng

10
source: key informants; Kampot, PNH, Kg. Cham, Kg. Chhnang, 2004
11
source: key informants; Kampot, 2004
12
source: key informants; Kg. Cham province, 2004

34
Wholesale and retail price of salt in Kg. Chhnang
sort of Large Retail Source Destination sell to whom
salt quantity price
price
Kg Chhnang Fish processors
town Ice producers
Kampot
Salt grains 150 180 Rolea phaear Vegetable processors
PNH
Prolay Meas Retailers (In market, horse
Kg Leng cart)
Kg Chhnang
PNH town Fish processors
Salt grain
180 200 Kg Rolea phaear Vegetable processors
grind
Chhnang Prolay Meas Household use
Kg Leng
Kg Chhnang
Salt
300 350 PNH town Household use
polished
Rolea Phaear
Salt
polished Kg Chhnang
400 400 PNH Household use
with town
Iodised

Fish processing in Kg Chhnang:

Kind of fish Species Fresh fish Sell Price Destination Sell To whom
product Price of fish
(Riel/Kg) processing
(Riel/Kg)
Fish sauce Small fish 250 400-2000 Kg Chhnang People in town
Farmers
Fish paste Snakehead 2500-4000 7000-13000 Kg Chhnang People in town Fish
without Kompleanh 400-700 1300-3000 Countryside traders
bone PNH
Fish paste Real 250-500 1000-2000 Kg Chhnang Farmers
with bone Linh 250-500 1000-2000 Countryside Fishers
Krum 300-600 1500-3500 PNH People in town Fish
Kaek 300-600 1500-3500 Vietnam traders
Fermented real 700-1200 2000-3500 Kg Chhnang Farmers
Linh 700-1200 2000-3500 Countryside People in town
Krum 800-1500 2500-5000 PNH
Chveat 800-1500 2500-5000 Kg Cham
Salt fish Kanhchus 1200-1700 3000-6000 Kg Chhnang people in town
Chhlang Ordong
Pra 2000-2600 5000-10000 PNH
Pur
Proma 2500-3000 5000-12000
Sandai 4000-5000 8000-20000
Kes
Dried fish Snakehead 3000-4000 6500-9000 Kg Chhnang people in town
Gain 3500-6000 8500-18000 Ordong Farmers
snakehead PNH
Dried Kg Chhnang
shrimp

35
Department of Fisheries, No 186 Preah Norodom Blvd., Sangkat Tonle Basac, Khan
Chamcar Mon, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. P.O.Box 582.
Tel/Fax (855-23) 210 154.
Email: cfdo@online.com.kh