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ANGLO-SAXON
POTTERY:
A SYMPOSIUM
FIG. I
R O M A N O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y ( p . 8 ) . SC . 1 / 3
I , 6. Colchester, Essex; 2. Verulamium, Herts. ; 3. Sittingbourne, Kent; 3A. Brundall, Norfolk; 3 B . West
Acre, Norfolk; 3c. Clipsham, Rutland; 4. Richborough, Kent; 5. Lakenheath, Suffolk; 7-8. Caister-by-
Yarmouth, Norfolk; g. Burgh castle, Suffolk
After Dark-age Britain (1956)), fig. 4, by courtesy
noticed, this could be the source of this decorative device on our Romano-Saxon
pottery. We know from Ammianus Marcellinus that a king of the Alemanni with
his people came over and settled in Britain in the mid-fourth century and,
although this precise decoration does not seem to occur among the Alemanni
5 Erin; Dehne (Kr. Minden); Südlengern (Kr. Herford); Liebenau (Kr. Nienburg). An unusual
Anglian example from Süderbrarup (Schleswig) is illustrated by A. Genrich, ‘Formenkreise und Stam-
mesgruppen in Schleswig-Holstein,’ Offa Bücher, x (1954), p. 29, no. 14.
FIG. 2
FOURTH-CENTURY POTTERY FROM WESTPHALIA (p. 9). Sc. 1/3
the second half of the fifth century. This raises the question whether some other
English urns decorated with simple linear designs of this general character may
also precede the elaborately bossed Buckelunen, as is taken for granted in the case
of the parallel continental types. Or are they more likely to mark the decadence
of the Buckelurnen style and thus belong rather to the sixth than the early fifth
century? This problem applies not only to pots obviously related to the Buckel-
urnen, but to a great range of types with simple linear ornament and chevrons.
Plettke put some such types right back in the fourth century, and, if he is right,
we must reckon with a substantial Saxon penetration of England much earlier
than is generally recognized. Even if Plettke’s dates are fifty years too high,
a number of English examples will be nearer 400 than 450. Such urns are
widely distributed in East Anglia, Lincolnshire and Yorkshire–in fact, mainly
in those areas where early settlement might be expected.7 T h e y n o t u n -
commonly occur in close proximity to Roman towns or fortified sites: for example,
all the urns known from Roman Ancaster are of this type,8 and there are others
from the immediate neighbourhood of York, Lincoln, Leicester, Cambridge, and
6
F. Tischler in 35 Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission (1954), p. 50.
7
J. N. L. Myres in L’Antiquité classique, XVII (1948), 453-72.
8
Archaeol. J., CVIII (1952), 96.
FIG. 3
IPSWICH WARE FROM IPSWICH IN IPSWICH MUSEUM (p. 14). Sc. ¼
1. No prov., no. 1920-52-18; 2. No prov., no. 1920-53-50; 3. Carr St. kiln, no. 1935-74; 4. Cox Lane,
pit 8, layer 9; 5. Cox Lane, pit 17, layer 4; 6. Cox Lane, pit II, layer 3; 7. The Walk Tavern St., no.
1938-159; 8. No prov.; 9. Cox Lane, pit II, layer 3
16 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
The dating of Ipswich ware coincides almost exactly with that of the middle-
Saxon period (650-850). There are seventh-century sites at Broomeswell and
Butley in Suffolk24 from which there are hand-made pots with the sagging base
and knife-trimming of Ipswich ware. These show the simple pagan-Saxon forms
in process of developing into wheel-thrown Ipswich ware. Evidence for Ipswich
ware in the seventh century comes from Bradwell in Essex, after 654,25 Burgh
Castle in Suffolk, after 635,26 and Framlingham in Suffolk with a late-seventh-
28
century bronze open-work disc.27 At Thetford in Norfolk there was a sceatta
of the second quarter of the eighth century and at Caister-by-Yarmouth sceattas
of the first half of the eighth century.29 At the other end of the story Ipwsich ware
is shown to last until the middle of the ninth century by the find of a coin of
Egbert (825-36) at Caister-by-Yarmouth and of early-ninth-century imported
Badorf ware at Ipswich.30
Ipswich ware is found at eighteen sites in East Anglia. Since 1956, when
the first map was drawn,31 six new sites have been found by excavation and by
search in museum collections.32 These East Anglian sites fall into four geo-
graphical groups (FIG. 8) :
1. Essex and Suffolk coast (Bradwell, Ipswich, Little Bealings, Framlingham) ;
2. East coast of Norfolk (Winterton Ness, Lound, Burgh Castle, Caister-by-
Yarmouth and Norwich);
3. West coast of Norfolk, east of the fens (Heacham, Pentney, Sedgeford,
Snettisham and West Bilney);
4. Inland (all the sites being recently discovered) in SW. Norfolk and NW.
Suffolk (Brandon, Fakenham, Thetford and West Stow).
New finds are appearing so fast that we do not know how representative
present distribution is. The main distribution is along the East Anglian coast
with only small penetrations inland to Framlingham and Norwich and a larger
incursion SE. from the Wash into Suffolk. The origin of Ipswich ware is clearly
in the Rhineland.33 The distribution shows this connexion with the continent
and also the continuing tradition of coastal communication which must be
associated with the East Anglian royal house and its emphasis on sea power as
shown by Sutton Hoo.
At Broomeswell, a seventh-century hand-made pot was found with an
upright, pierced lug.34 At first it seemed unique in East Anglia except for that on the
rusticated pot from Lackford, Suffolk . 35 There are examples of upright pierced
24
25
Hurst (1956), pp. 37-9, fig. 5, nos. 10-15.
26
J. Roman Stud., XXXVIII (1948), 91-2.
27
1958 excavations by Mr. C. Green for the Ministry of Works.
28
Proc. Suff. Inst. Archaeol., XXVII (1956-8), 78, 87, fig. 10.
29
Med. Archaeol., II (1958), 188.
30
Hurst (1956), pp. 34-5.
31
cf. p. 54.
32
Proc. Cambridge Antiq. Soc., LI (1957), 58, fig. 5, no. I.
33
This is largely due to the work of Mr. R. R. Clarke.
34
Hurst (1956), p. 30.
35
Hurst (1956), p. 41, fig. 5, no. 12.
T. C. Lethbridge, A Cemetery at Lackford, Suffolk (Cambridge Antiquar. Soc. 4º publ. n. s. VI,
1951), P. 20, fig. 23.
ANGLO-SAXON POTTERY: A SYMPOSIUM 17
lugs from other so-called pagan sites such as Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire,36 and
Harston, Leicestershire, 37 but both may in fact be middle-Saxon in date. Pots
with these lugs are now being discovered frequently, and there were at least ten
from a single trench dug in 1957 at Cox Lane, Ipswich (cf. FIG. 3, no. 4), as
well as middle-Saxon examples at Windsor (pierced and unpierced), and pagan
ones at Lovedon, Lincolnshire, 38 West Stow, Suffolk, and Thetford (Redcastle),
Norfolk. Late-Saxon examples are usually larger, such as the one from Cam-
bridge 39 so the smaller ones seem to be confined to the late-pagan and middle-
Saxon periods. Very similar small lugs are found on iron-age A and B sites40
and the Saxon examples show a remarkable reappearance of the tradition.
Many of the plain pagan-Saxon pottery forms are similar to those of the iron age,
and it is likely that much of the missing middle-Saxon pottery is lurking in the
iron-age collections of many museums. Some pagan-Saxon pottery has in fact
been published as iron-age, but the presence of Saxon loom-weights now shows
it to be Saxon.41 The fabric of the iron-age and Saxon sherds from Linford,
Essex, is so similar as to make it difficult to differentiate some of them. 42
It has been suggested for both periods that these lugs are copies of the
triangular ears from bronze bowls . 4 3 It is an easy way of suspension over the
fire and like needs may produce like results. These upright lugs are clearly the
precursors typologically of the late-Saxon cup-lug from Abington Piggotts,
Cambridgeshire . 44 Although there are no cup-lugs, i.e., upright, pierced lugs
with a protective cup to prevent the suspension-cord being burnt by the fire, in
the middle-Saxon period in East Anglia, there is one from Sutton Courtenay,
where the hole through the side of the vessel is very small and the cup is level
with the rim.45 This, and various other features, suggest that Sutton Courtenay
besides starting early, goes on well into the middle-Saxon period. The relationship
between these cup-lugs and bar-lip pottery has still to be determined. They both
cause the same result, the protection of a suspension-thong from the heat of the
fire.
The sagging base was clearly a very favorutrite fashion, as it lasts in England
from the middle of the seventh century for 800 years until the end of the medieval
period. This fashion started on the continent, perhaps copying the sagging bases
36
37
E. T. Leeds, ‘A Saxon village at Sutton Courtenay,’ Archaeologia, XCII (1947), 91, fig. 10, a-b.
G. C. Dunning, ‘Anglo-Saxon discoveries at Harston,’ Trans. Leics. Archaeol. Soc., XXVIII (1952),
50, fig.
38
3.
39
Information from Mr. K. Fennell.
J. G. Hurst, ‘Saxo-Norman pottery in East Anglia, part 1,’ Proc. Cambridge Antiq. Soc., XLIX (1955),
55, fig.
40
2, no. 6, and p. 64.
E.g., Mrs. L. Murray-Threipland, ‘An excavation at St. Mawgan-in-Pyder, North Cornwall,’
Archaeol. J., CXIII (1956), 57, fig. 17, no. 23; Clare I. Fell, The Hunsbury hill-fort, Northants.,’ Archaeol.
J., XCIII ( 1936), 80, fig. 8, L 5; A. Bulleid and H. St.G. Gray, The Glastonbury Luke ViLlage (1917), II,
519, fig. 169 ; M. E. Cunnington, The Early Iron Age Inhabited Site at All Cannings Cross Farm, Wiltshire (1923),
p. 176,
41
pl. 37, no. 1.
R. R. Clarke, ‘An Iron Age hut at Postwick, Norfolk,’ Norfolk Archaeol., XXVI (1937), 271-7, and
Norfolk
42
Archaeol., XXXI (1957), 407.
43
Information from Mr. K. Barton.
44
R. E. M. Wheeler, London and the Saxons (London Museum Catalogue No. 6, 1935), p. 147, fig. 25.
45
Proc. Preh. Soc. East Anglia, IV (1922-4), 221, fig. 3,j.
E. T. Leeds, op. cit. in note 36, p. 90, fig. 10, d.
KENT
In Kent the situation is most interesting in middle-Saxon times, as there is a
mixture of hand-made and wheel-thrown forms.50 The most distinctive wheel-
thrown vessels from Kent are the spouted, lugged pitchers, of which the best
known is that from Richborough ( FIG . 4, no. I ). This pitcher was found near
St. Augustine’s chapel and nearby were found two sceattas, and two pennies of
Offa dating to the last quarter of the eighth century.51 Important features are
the peaked lug on the shoulder, pierced for suspension, and the vertical finishing
of the surface, which is a typical feature in Kent, for example at Canterbury52
and Dover. It has a zone of individual grid stamps round the shoulder and a
sagging base with a sharp basal angle not shown in the original publication.
The lugged pitcher from a settlement site at Teynham has the same peaked
lug as the Richborough pitcher but the lug is not pierced (FIG. 4, no. 3). The
surface is covered with a lattice-work pattern of tooled lines. This lattice pattern
appears at Whitby and it is known elsewhere, in Kent, for example, on a seventh-
century pot from the Holborough cemetery. 5 3 There is a fragment of a lugged
pitcher from the recent excavations by Mr. A. Saunders at St. Augustine’s
abbey, Canterbury ( FIG . 4, no. 5).54
There are two fragments of a lugged pitcher from Dover separately figured
55
in the report. These have been associated in their proper position (FIG . 4, no. 4).
The decoration, which is more complex than on the other Kent pitchers, is set
in a series of triangles. There are better examples of this technique in East Anglia
49
Op. cit. in note 39, p. 67, fig. 8, no. 3.
50
Archaeol. cantiana , LXVIII (1954), I23-5, fig. I2, nos. II2- I 5; id., LXXI ( I957), 36-7.
51
J. P. Bushe-Fox, Third Report on the Excavations of the Roman Fort at Richborough, Kent (Res. Rep.
Soc. Antiq., x, 1932), p. 186, pl. xlii, 362.
52
See p. 34 and fig. 9, no. I .
53
Archaeol. Cantiana, LXX (1956), 104-5 and 139, fig. 20, no. 1.
54
Med. Archeol., 1 (1957), 152; id., II (1958), 186.
55
Mrs. L. Murray-Threipland, ‘Excavations at Dover, 1945-7,’ Archeol. Cantiana, LXIV (1951),
147-8, fig. 13.
MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
FIG. 4
MIDDLE-SAXON POTTERY FROM KENT (I -5) AND LONDON (6-7). Sc. ¼
I . Richborough: M.O.W. Site Mus. (p. I 9); 2. Dover: Dover Mus. (p. 2I ); 3. Teynham (Osier farm,
I 927): Ospringe Mus. (p.I 9); 4. Dover: Dover Mus. (p. I 9); 5. Canterbury (St. Augustine's Abbey):
M.O.W. (p. I 9); 6. London (Savoy Palace): London Mus. A27I 45 (p. 23); 7. Ibid., A27I 9 I (p. 23)
ANGLO-SAXON POTTERY: A SYMPOSIUM 21
56
( FIG. 5 , n o s . 1-4). Two other lugged pitchers are illustrated from St. Osyths and
Shoebury, Essex (FIG . 5, nos. 3-4).
Middle-Saxon pottery is known from Dover, Hilborough and Canterbury,
but it is difficult to put an exact date to the hand-made pottery, which is more
fully discussed by Mr. Dunning (pp. 3 I -34). There is, however, a cooking-pot
from Dover 57 which is very similar to the wheel-thrown Ipswich ware of East
Anglia. It has the typical girth grooves (FIG. 4, no. 2).
At Sandtun, near Hythe, Kent, Mr. J. Birchell and Mr. Gordon Ward
excavated a mound with two occupation-levels separated by a sterile layer. In
the lower one was found a pitcher of brown ware with burnished black surfaces.
There are bands of rouletting round the neck and on top of the rim. It has an
applied spout which is U-shaped. This piece has previously been called a Frankish
pitcher of the seventh or eighth century, but it is more likely to be a Belgian or
north-French copy of the late-eighth or early-ninth century. At Norwich Dr.
Tischler said that neither the fabric nor the form is similar to Rhenish pitchers.
There is also a globular pot burnished all over. From the upper floor was a sherd
of hard grey pottery which is of a type common in Normandy in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries (p. 67). The lower occupation-level, therefore, belongs
to the middle-Saxon period and the other to about the time of the Norman
conquest. In both there was a series of rough sherds of early medieval pottery
( FIG. 9, no. 3). This pottery is outside the scope of this paper but we have here an
indication that it starts late in middle-Saxon times, in view of its association with
this imported pitcher.
LONDON
West of London, Mr. Hope-Taylor, digging for the Ministry of Works at
Old Windsor, Berkshire, has obtained a most important sequence of stratified
pottery from the seventh century into the medieval period.58 The types have yet
to be worked out, but in the middle-Saxon period most of the pottery is grass-
tempered and hand-made; there are only a few pots in gritty ware. This grass-
tempered pottery appears to last right down to the eleventh century, which is
very important, as it had previously been believed that it finished earlier. This
makes it doubly difficult to date hand-made Saxon pottery by ware, as grass-
tempered pottery is now seen to have a life from pagan-Saxon to late-Saxon
times. Secondly there are very few middle-Saxon sagging bases at Windsor,
which is strange, as they. are known in Kent and at Southampton (Hamwih).59
Although sagging bases are common in eastern England from the seventh
century, this lack at Windsor makes one cautious in dating such finds as those at
Whittington (p. 25) early. Important local types are the varied forms of hori-
zontal lugs dating to the late-eighth and early-ninth centuries, which seem to be
confined to this site at present.
Windsor, however, provides three other indications which help with dating
56
Hurst (1956), p. 41, fig. 5. nos. 1 and 4.
57
G. C. Dunning, Archaeol. Cantiana, LXXI (1957), 36, fig. 14, no. I.
58
Med. Archaeol., II (1958), 183-5.
59
See pp. 25 and 33.
F I G . 5
STAMPED PITCHERS FROM EAST ANGLIA. Sc. ¼
1. Ipswich: Ipswich Mus. (p. 14); 2. St. Osyth, Essex: Colchester Mus. (p. 21); 3. Ipswich (Buttermarket,
pit II ): Ipswich Mus. (p. 14); 4. Shoebury, Essex: Southend Mus. (p. 21)
FIG. 6
pl. vi, bottom left) which has a small hole on one side and a large hole on the
other, to the two upper ones (Wheeler, pl. vi) which are closer to the bun-shaped
type. This shows the danger of a complex typological sequence and more
information is required on middle-Saxon loom-weights before this can be done.
But meanwhile three main divisions, annular, intermediate and bun-shaped may
be distinguished ( FIG. 6). Annular ones are found at pagan sites such as Sutton
68
Courtenay, Berkshire, 67 and Bourton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire. There is a
69
remarkable group from Grimstone End in Suffolk. The intermediate type is
known from seventh- and eighth-century contexts at Whitby, Yorkshire, 7 0
66
Ibid., p. 139-40, pl. vi.
67
E . T . L e e d s , ‘A Saxon village near Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire,’ Archaeologia, LXXIII (1923),
180-1 and pl. xxvi, 3; id., L xxv I (1927), 75, 77, pl. vi, 2.
68
G. C. Dunning, ‘The Saxon hut near Bourton-on-the-Water,’ Antiq. J., XII (1932), 290, pl. lV , 2.
69
G. M. Knocker, ‘Excavations at Grimstone End,’ Proc. Suffolk Inst. Archaeol., XXVI (1955), 198-9,
pl. xxiv.
70
Archaeolgia, LXXXIX (1943), 83.
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A SYMPOSIUM 25
Y e a v e r i n g , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ,71 and Caister-by-Yarmouth, Norfolk, 72 and the
proper bun-shaped type from the ninth century onwards at Medmerry, Sussex, 73
76
Ipswich, 74 St. Neots, Huntingdonshire, 7 5 a n d O x f o r d . Similar categories of
77
loom-weights are found on the continent.
There has been some debate about their use. The annular ones could have
been either loom-weights or pot-stands but the bun-shaped ones could hardly
be used as pot-stands, and there are examples, such as the intermediate weight
from Faversham, 78 which have guide grooves for the warp. It is significant that
they cease to be found after the twelfth century at the time of the introduction
of the horizontal loom.
WESSEX
The most important middle-Saxon site on the south coast is Hamwih, the
Saxon Southampton, w h e r e M r . M . R . M a i t l a n d - M u l l e r a n d M r . D . M .
Waterman dug for several years after the second world war. Many pits and hut
sites were excavated and large quantities of pottery and coins were found. 7 9
There was much wheel-thrown imported pottery. All the local pottery is hand-
made and comprises mainly cooking-pots and bowls with plain, everted rims and
sagging bases (see further, p. 33).
The only other middle-Saxon site known in Wessex is at Downton, near
Salisbury, where Mr. P, A. Rahtz, digging for the Ministry of Works, found a
Saxon gravel-pit 15 ft. deep and 30 ft. across. 8o In this there were quantities of
grass-tempered pottery with simple rims and rounded bases without any true
basal angle. There were two open bowls and one small lug. Again, these are very
difficult to date but they should be middle-Saxon and perhaps early rather than
late. If comparison can be made with the material from Windsor they should
be before the ninth century (p. 34, FIG . 9, no. 6).81
THE WEST
In the west there is at present only one site that can be assigned to the
middle-Saxon period. At Whittington, Gloucestershire, Mrs. H. E. O’Neil found
metal objects82 which are similar to those at Whitby dating to the eighth or ninth
century. The pottery 83 comprises only a few sherds of hard, gritty black ware
71
Information from Mr. B. Hope-Taylor.
72
Information from Mr. C. Green.
73
Miss G. M. White, ‘A settlement of the South Saxons,’ Antiq. J., XIV (1934), 398-9, pl. lii, 2.
74
Information from Mr. S. E. West.
75
C. F. Tebbutt, ‘Late-Saxon huts at St. Neots,’ Proc. Cambridge Antiq. Soc., XXXIII (1933), 149.
76
E. M. Jope, ‘The Clarendon Hotel, Oxford. Part I. The Site,’ Oxoniensia, XXIII (1958), 73, fig. 23.
77
E.g., Dorestad, Oudheidkundige Mededeelingen, XI (1930), 86, fig. 67, 26-9; Tofting, Offa Bücher, XII
(1955), pl. 36, nos. 6-10; Nabburg, Germania, xxx I (1953), 219-21, fig. 4, nos. 14-19.
78
Archaeol. Cantiana, LXIX (1955), 208-10, fig. 2.
79
M. R. Maitland-Muller and D. M. Waterman, Archaeol. News Letter, II (1949), 13-14, 50, 142;
III (1950-1), 36-7, 134-5; Iv (1951), 62.
80
Wilts. Archaeol. Mag., LVI (1956), 248.
81
Information from Mr. B. Hope-Taylor.
82
G. C. Dunning, ‘Late Saxon objects from Whittington,’ Trans. Bristol & Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc.,
LXXI (1952), 77-81, fig. 13.
83
G. C. Dunning, ‘Saxon pottery from Whittington Court Roman villa,’ ibid., p. 60, fig. 5, nos. 9-10.
26 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
and cannot be dated closely. One bowl has a sagging base which confirms that
it goes with the metal objects but it might be as early as the late-seventh century.
The thick upright rim is not much help for dating. The pottery from Wareham,
Dorset, is late-Saxon (see Med. III (1959), 130 ff., 138). A grass-tempered
sherd from Avebury, Wiltshire, could be pagan-, middle- or late-Saxon.
THE MIDLANDS
No middle-Saxon hand-made pottery is known in Lincolnshire and the
midlands. There must, however, be some in local museums which has not been
recognized. It is hard to believe that none has been found, especially in view of
the importance of Mercia at this period (but see note on Windsor, p. 19).
THE NORTH
In Northumbria the best known, and in fact almost the only known, middle-
Saxon site is the monastery of Whitby in the North Riding of Yorkshire. Its
pottery is dated by historical evidence to the period 657-867, 84 for there is no
documentary reference to any occupation of the site between the sacking of the
monastery by the Danes in 867 and its refounding in 1075. This dating is
supported by the character of the small finds, and the pottery may, therefore, be
firmly placed in the middle-Saxon period. Fifteen years ago it was not possible
to say more than this: now, with other comparative sites, it is possible to start to
divide the material, but it is still early to be too dogmatic. There are two main
groups. The first is mostly sandy, and grey or black in colour, a few of the sherds
being gritty or grass-tempered. It is all hand-made and there are cooking-pots, 85
small conical cups,8 6 a n d o p e n b o w l s8 7(FIG. 7). The bases are all flat, mostly
with a rounded angle, but some have a sharp angle (FIG . 7, no. 2). They are very
similar to pagan domestic types and illustrate the serious difficulty there is in
distinguishing pagan-, middle- and late-Saxon hand-made domestic pottery. It
is suggested that the simple everted rims (FIG . 7, nos. 1-5) are seventh- or eighth-
century, while those with the sharply carinated shoulder ( FIG . 7, no. 7), and those
with globular bodies and small upright (FIG . 7, no. 6), or slightly inturned, necks
are eighth- or ninth-century. As has been seen, these types occur in ninth-century
contexts elsewhere. There are four decorated sherds. 88 The zig-zag ornament is
found in the ninth century in East Anglia (p. 18), but the criss-cross lattice-
burnished pattern is found in seventh-century contexts in Kent 89 and ninth-
century ones in East Anglia (p. 18), so this is not so easy to date. It may be that
many of these decorative features last throughout the period.
The second group 9 0 is wheel-thrown and is quite alien to what was being
84
Sir Charles Peers and C. A. R. Radford, ‘The Saxon monastery at Whitby,’ Archaeologia, LXXXIX
(1943),
85
27-88.
Ibid., 77, fig. 25, nos. 1-13.
86
Ibid., 77, fig. 25, nos. 15-16.
87
Ibid., 77, fig. 25, nos. 17-22.
88
Ibid., 81, fig. 26, nos. 23-6.
89
Miss V. Evison, ‘An Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Holborough, Kent,’ Archaeol. Cantiana, LXX (1956),
104-5 and 139, fig. 20, no. 1.
90
Op, cit. in note 84, p. 81, fig. 26, nos. 29-33.
made in East Anglia at this time. It is very fine, hard and fired in a developed
kiln. It may be regarded as imported from Mayen.91 There is, however, a sherd
which has a squared, thickened rim and a harsh pimply surface.92 It is very
similar to the typical northern type of early-medieval cooking-pot dating to the
late-twelfth century, 93 and may therefore be later than the refounding of the
monastery in 1075.
FIG. 7
MIDDLE-SAXON POTTERY FROM WHITBY ABBEY, YORKS. (p. 26). SC . ¼
(after Archaeologia, LXXXIX (1943), 77, fig. 25, by courtesy)
1 =ibid. no. 1; 2=no. 3; 3=no. 4; 4=no. 5; 5=no. 7; 6=no. 13; 7=no. 8; 8-10=nos. 19-21; 11=no. 15
SUMMARY
FIG. 8
DISTRIBUTION OF FOUR MAIN TYPES OF MIDDLE-SAXON POTTERY
ANGLO-SAXON POTTERY: A SYMPOSIUM 31
been recognized. It is to be hoped, then, that during the next few years there will
be great strides in our knowledge of the middle-Saxon period in eastern England
and that sites will begin to appear in the north, midlands and south, which are at
present almost empty of them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I have to thank Mr. G. C. Dunning for his generous help in preparing this paper. I am particularly
grateful for his permission to use his drawings of the Kent vessels (FIG . 4, nos. 1-4), the vessels from
London (FIG . 4, nos. 6 and 7) and Whitby (FIG . 7). I must also thank Mr. S. E. West for allowing me to
publish in advance of his own report some of the most important finds from the Cox Lane, Ipswich,
excavation and for the use of his drawings ( FIGS . 3 and 5). Fig. 6 was drawn by Miss E. Meikle. I have
to thank the Southend Museum for permission to publish the fragment of stamped pitcher from Shoebury
(p. 21 and FIG . 5, no. 4).
BY G. C. DUNNING
Inspector of Ancient Monuments, Ministry of Works
THIS survey of late Saxon pottery incorporates material collected partly during my tenure of the
Esher Research Studentship of the London Museum in 1931-33, and partly under other conditions
since then. The original subject of the research, the late Saxon and medieval pottery of London, runs
as a thread through the paper.
THE period covered by this survey is from the eighth or ninth century until the
twelfth. The upper limiting date is bound to be elastic because, particularly in
southern England, some of the material lacks precise dating and shows little
development during these centuries and later, thus making fine distinctions
between the middle- and late-Saxon periods artificial. The lower limiting date
can hardly be drawn at the Norman conquest, since certain of the pottery groups
continue with little change into the twelfth century. With these reservations, the
material may be divided into the following regional and chronological groups.
A. INSULAR POTTERY
1. SOUTHERN ENGLAND
The group comprises pottery of insular ancestry. At first this shows little
improvement on the hand-made domestic wares of the earlier Anglo-Saxon
period. Although the distribution covers the region south of the Thames, from
Kent to Dorset, which was most accessible to influences from the continent, such
influence can only be detected in part on the indigenous pottery towards the
close of the period.
The leading types are cooking-pots and bowls. The spouted pitchers are as
yet known in this region only in the middle-Saxon period (p. 19); examples
dated later than the ninth century are at present lacking until the eleventh and
twelfth centuries are reached, and are described below (p. 34).
FIG. 1 0
SPOUTED PITCHER OF GROUP 1 FROM ST. GEORGE'S STREET,
WINCHESTER (p. 34). Sc. ¼
shape was in use from about the eighth century onwards; 104 and Canterbury,
where the sequence in cooking-pots has been worked out from the seventh or
105
eighth century onwards into medieval times. At Canterbury the earlier pots
104
Summary report in Med. Archaeol., II (1958), 183-5.
105
Atchaeof. Cantiana, LXVIII (1954), 124-5, fig. 12, 112-15, and 128-31, figs. 15-16.
34 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
have a burnished surface, and the later show vertical knife-trimming of the
b o d y (F I G . 9, no. 1). At Hamwih and Canterbury the bases of the pots are
either rounded, or convex with a definite basal-angle (F I G. 9 nos. 1 and 4). In
Wessex the earlier form of base persists alongside the more developed until the
end of the eleventh century at least.106
Other sites included in this group are Chilham,107 Hillborough, near Reculver
( FIG , 9, no. 2), and Sandtun, near Hythe (FIG . 9, no. 3), in Kent; Chichester108 and
Selsey 109 in Sussex; Winchester (FIG . 9, no. 5); Downton, Wilts. (FIG . 9, no. 6);
Wareham, Dorset; and Whittington, Gloucestershire.110
The technical skill achieved by the late-Saxon potters is well shown by the
great spouted pitcher, 22.5 in. (57.2 cm.) high from Winchester (F I G . 10),
datable to the early-twelfth century. At the ports and large towns, such as
Southampton and Winchester, improvements in shape and technique were the
result of trade contacts with Normandy in the Norman period. Inland, the
primitive ‘scratch-marked’ pottery”’ continued the native hand-made tradition
well into the twelfth century (FIG . 9, nos. 7-8), and in a modified form even into
the thirteenth century.
The use of large individual stamps to decorate the pitchers is a striking
demonstration of the resurgence of Saxon motifs in the Norman period. Recorded
instances are from Rayleigh castle, Essex,1 1 2 C h i c h e s t e r , 1 1 3 and the Oxford
r e g i o n , 114 but the range covers the whole area of Group 1 pottery in southern
E n g l a n d (F I G . I I) .
2. EAST ANGLIA AND THE MIDLANDS
The so-called Saxo-Norman group, comprises Thetford ware (sandy), St.
Neots ware (shell-filled), and Stamford ware (fine quality ware, often lead-
glazed). 115 It should be emphasized that these are generic terms, not specific. For
instance, pottery of hard sandy ware is found over a large area, and was not
necessarily all made and fired in kilns at the type site. This group is intrusive in
England, but rapidly became the dominant ceramic group of the region. The forms,
based on Frankish and Carolingian types in the Rhineland, include spouted
pitchers, storage-jars, cooking-pots, bowls, costrels, lamps and ring-vases (FIGS . 12-
16). The storage-jars provide a neat demonstration of the Rhenish origin of Group
2 pottery; in size and shape, the multiple handles, and above all in the profuse
plastic decoration in zones, these are patently copies of relief-band amphorae
(see P- 54).
106
Proc. Hants Field Club, XXI (1959), forthcoming.
107
Antiq. J., XVI (1936), 467.
108
Sussex Archaeol. Coll., XCI (1956), 143.
109
110
Antiq. J. XIV (1934), 393.
Trans. Bristol and Glos. Archacol. Soc., LXXI ( 1952), 60, fig. 5, 9-10.
111
Antiq. J., XV (1935), 174; Wilts Archaeol. Mag., LVII (1957-8), 40. Distribution map in Archaeol. J.,
CVII (1952), 37, fig. 10.
112
113
Trans. Essex. Archaeol. Soc., n.s. XII (1913), 180, pl. F, f-g.
Op. cit. in note 108, p. 148, fig. II .
114
Oxoniensia, XVII-XVIII (1952-3), 89, fig. 34, nos. 29, 30, 37.
115
J. G. Hurst, ‘Saxo-Norman pottery in East Anglia,’ Proc. Cambridge Antiq. Soc., XLIX (1955),
43-70; L (1956), 29-60; and LI (1957), 37-65.
F I G. I I
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF INDIVIDUAL STAMPS ON TWELFTH-CENTURY POTTERY
OF GROUP 1 IN SOUTHERN ENGLAND (p. 34)
The sites of the stamps (Sc. ½) are, from left to right: Oxford; Wallingford; Bath; Hewish; Somerset;
Winchester; Southampton; Rayleigh castle, Essex (2); and Lewes
travel further inland. On the other hand, the storage-jars, which occur in great
numbers at the towns of Thetford and Cambridge, are also found in the midlands
at Stamford and Lincoln, and even as far north as York. It is likely that the jars
were made at Lincoln and York, as well as on a large scale in East Anglia.
St. Neots ware. The cooking-pots and bowls are concentrated in the riverside
settlements to the south-west of The Wash. From this area the finds spread out
in three directions; eastwards into the Thetford region, south-westwards along
the clay vale to the Oxford region, and northwards to Stamford, Lincoln and
York. The shell-filling of St. Neots ware implies that it was made from riverine
shells in the region of Bedford, Cambridge and Huntingdon. The reason for the
trading of the more friable St. Neots pots into the Thetford area, with its abun-
dance of harder sandy pottery, is not clear, but possibly they were carried along
by travellers from the villages in the Ouse valley who were in contact with the
towns of Thetford, Norwich, etc.
F I G. 13
SPOUTED PITCHER OF GROUP 2 (THETFORD WARE) FROM THETFORD
(p. 35). Sc. ¼
blage. The main exception is Thetford, where there are unglazed Stamford ware
cooking-pots and bowls as well as glazed pitchers.
The fabric is smooth and light toned, varying in colour from off-white to
buff or grey, often with a pinkish tinge. It is made from Middle Jurassic estuarine
clay, which occurs in a belt in the eastern midlands between Northamptonshire
and the Humber, and outcrops at Stamford and in other parts of south Lincoln-
shire. The pottery contains fossil plant remains which clearly demonstrate the
source of the clay.
Problem of the Glaze. The glaze on Stamford ware, which makes it the most
distinctive pottery of the late-Saxon period in England, is light yellow or pale
38 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
green, or sometimes orange. It is either uniform and lustrous and covers most of
the outside surface of the pitcher or bowl, or thinner and in patches on the rim
and side.
F I G. 14
STORAGE-JAR OF GROUP 2 (THETFORD WARE) FROM SOUTH WOOTTON,
NORFOLK (p. 35). Sc. ¼
F I G. 17
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF GLAZED STAMFORD WARE OF GROUP 2 IN ENGLAND, AND
'POTTERY WITH SPARSE GLAZE' AND GLAZED ANDENNE WARE IN BELGIUM AND
HOLLAND (p. 37)
The kiln-sites are marked by a diamond
century, in southern Belgium, where it was made at Andenne117 ( FIG, 17). Until
the early date of glaze is confirmed abroad, it appears that priority in dating
belongs to England. If that is so, then it is possible that glaze was introduced
116
For a general discussion see G. C. Dunning, ‘Trade relations between England and the continent
in the late Anglo-Saxon period,’ in Dark-age Britain; Studies presented to E. T. Leeds (ed. D. B. Harden,
1956), pp. 227-31. The distribution map (FIG. 1 7) is a revised version of the map published in that paper.
117
R. Borremans et W. Lassance, Recherches archéologiques sur la céramique d’Andenne au moyen âge (Archaeo-
logia Belgica 32, Brussels, 1956) ; ‘Les potiers de L’Andenelle au moyen âge,’ Parcs Nationaux, XI (1956),
70 , with distribution map. R. Borremans, ‘Céramique mediévale et modern trouvée à Arlon et environs,
Lavacherie, Ebly et La Roche,’ Bull. Institut archéologique du Luxembourg, 1954, fasc. 4, pp. 49-68, and 1956,
fasc. 1, pp. 3-18.
42 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
into the Low Countries from England, and at the moment this explanation
seems preferable to its independent or parallel development there prior to the
twelfth century.
The lack of continuity for at least six centuries between the lead-glazed
wares of the Roman period in Britain and the late-Saxon Stamford ware, and
the absence of comparable material of early date on the adjacent parts of the
continent, compel the origin of this glaze to be sought directly in the glazed
wares of the eastern Mediterranean (Byzantium), where continuity is proved.118
The route and the means by which the knowledge of lead glaze, possibly by the
actual migration of potters, reached England in the ninth century are yet to be
determined; three alternative routes may be suggested:
1. By sea to Italy, and then overland via the Rhineland or France.
2. By sea to the Byzantine colonies in the south of France, and thence up the
Rhône valley and across France, or overland north-west to Bordeaux and
then via the Atlantic seaway.
3. By sea all the way, via the Atlantic and the English Channel.
Until more material is forthcoming abroad, particularly in the south of
France, it is not possible to decide between these alternative routes.
Dating. The dating evidence for Group 2 is still scanty. The start of Thetford
ware has recently been put back to the first half of the ninth century by its
association with imported Badorf ware at Ipswich (see p. 54). The earliest
reliable dating for St. Neots ware and Stamford ware is at Thetford, in stratified
levels with a coin of c. 900. Otherwise the dating of Stamford ware is from site
association at several motte castles, which proves that the ware continued until
the late-eleventh or early-twelfth century. At the moment, then, Thetford ware
has half a century or more of priority over the other two classes, and all three
continued down to the Norman period.
3. LONDON
The late-Saxon pottery of London occupies a special border position between
Group 1 and Group 2, and it has a dual derivation from these groups. Most of
the spouted pitchers are plain, with from one to three strap-handles bridging
the neck (FIG. 18); in size one of them (FIG. 18, no. 2) is comparable with the
great pitcher from Winchester (p. 33). In shape, which is full-bodied with a
high, rounded bulge, and in details such as the spout, which is usually pressed
against the rim but is sometimes separate and tubular, the London pitchers have
closer analogies in the south than in East Anglia.
A pitcher from Billiter Street (FIG. 18, no. 3) has emphatic thumb-pressed strips
on the handles and also on the body, which are continued down the side. Sherds
with similar decoration are known from other sites in the City. The dark grey
sandy ware is smoother and finer than the fabric of the plain pitchers, which is
coarse and sandy or gritty. These pitchers, which are without known parallels in
118
As first suggested by T. C. Lethbridge in Proc. Cambridge Antiq. Soc., XLIII (1950), 2. The problem
is discussed in more detail by R. B. K. Stevenson, ‘Medieval lead-glazed pottery: links between east and
west,’ Cahiers archéologiques, VII (1954), 89-94.
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A S Y M P O S I U M
43
the south, compare closely with a strip-decorated pitcher in Thetford ware from
Ipswich, 119 and the decoration on storage vessels also from Ipswich, and so show
connexions with East Anglia.
The dating of the London pitchers rests on the association at two sites with
F I G. 18
SPOUTED PITCHERS OF GROUP 3 FROM LONDON (p. 42). Sc. ¼
1, Coleman Street (LM); 2, Birchin Lane (GM); 3, Billiter Street (GM)
Pingsdorf ware (bases of amphorae) of the tenth or eleventh century; the general
analogies quoted above would agree with this late dating.
The finest quality wares found in London were imported, either from the
midlands (glazed Stamford ware) or from abroad. The numerous examples of
Pingsdorf ware found in the City, the result of the outstanding position of London
as a port, attest the flourishing trade carried on with the Rhineland (see below,
G r o u p I I) .
119
Hurst, op. cit. in note 115, L (1956), 38, fig. 3, 1.
44 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
4. D E R I V A T I V E S O F G R O U P 2
A development in the midlands at the end of the period, in the eleventh or
twelfth century, was the setting up of daughter industries in the larger towns.
These sub-groups are derived from Thetford ware, and include the main types
of spouted pitchers, cooking-pots, bowls, storage-jars and lamps. At Torksey a
kiln situated inside the town has been excavated, and produced a quantity of
cooking-pots and flanged bowls (FIG . 19). Torksey ware was traded north via
the Trent to York, where it has been found at Hungate. Other centres of pottery-
making were at Lincoln and York.120 At York the Thetford types of cooking-pot
and bowl are represented in the local ware, which is very gritty, red or buff
throughout, and the surface has a pimpled appearance.“’
Glazed Stamford ware also continued until about the middle of the twelfth
century. The pitchers lost the spouts and developed a neck and long strap-
handles, and so became jugs; examples are from Leicester, Stamford and
T h e t f o r d . 1 2 2 From these are derived the jugs of ‘developed Stamford ware’ with
fuller body-shapes, plastic strips on the body and comb-decorated handles, which
bring the close of the style down to the thirteenth century.123
thus homologous to Group 1, but does not appear until about two centuries later
than it in the south. It is numerically small, because the older tradition was
heavily overlaid by that of the more technically advanced ceramics of Group 2.
6, BAR-LIP POTTERY
A group of hand-made cooking-pots show the distinctive feature of the rim
on opposite sides drawn outward and up into a broad spout-like projection or
‘ l i p ’ ; across the inside, at about rim-level, a separate bar of clay was inserted
and luted in position. In use, the vessel was suspended by a thong attached at
each end to the bars, and the ‘lips’ served to protect the thong from the fire.
The type is intrusive in England and apparently it is derived from Holland,
where it is concentrated in a coastal zone and ranges in date from the ninth
century to the eleventh. On the continent the distribution extends more sporadi-
cally inland into lower Saxony, and into Schleswig-Holstein, notably at Hedeby, 128
in Denmark, and once in southern Sweden (F I G . 22). The origin of bar-lip
pottery has long been an enigma, and has recently been elucidated by Professor
C. J. Becker.1 2 9 In Denmark and southern Schleswig-Holstein there are numerous
precursors of the bar-lip and derivative types, which belong to the prehistoric
and Roman-iron ages. Examples intermediate in date between these and the
later series on the continent and in England are at present lacking.
In England, the distribution of bar-lip pottery is sporadic in the eastern
counties, where examples have been found at Barking, Essex, at two sites in
East Anglia, and once in east Yorkshire (FIG . 20, nos. 1-3). Apart from an isolated
find at Alderney, Channel Islands, finds are as yet lacking in southern England
until Cornwall is reached. In Cornwall bar-lip pottery is known from some ten
sites, mostly along the north coast between St. Ives and Mawgan Porth.130
In shape bar-lip pottery is globular, and in Holland and north Germany
the bases are usually round or only slightly flattened (FIG . 21 ) . None of the pots
from eastern England is complete, but rounded bases are probable. In Cornwall,
on the other hand, the bases are flat (FIG . 20, no. 4), and here the type shows fusion
with the local post-Roman pottery, which is also flat-based.131 The ware aiso
shows regional differences. The Barking pot is very coarse and grass-tempered,
but the ware of those found in East Anglia is shell-filled, conforming with the
St. Neots class of Group 2. In Cornwall the pottery is also grass-tempered, and
this again shows fusion with local wares. The form of the ‘lip’ underwent devolu-
tion in England. On the pots from Barking, Alderney, and in Cornwall the lip
projects markedly above rim-level (FIG . 20, nos. 1 and 4), and this follows the conti-
nental type very closely. Elsewhere the upper edge of the lip sinks level with the
rim or even below it (FIG . 20, nos. 2 and 3), a departure from the prototype as a
result of successive copying.
128
W. Hübener, Die Keramik von Haithbu (1959), pp. 28, 100-2, pl. 3, 52-5.
129
C, J. Becker, ‘Lergryder med indvendige ører eller svalerede-hanke fra Danmarks jernalder,’
Kuml(1959),
130
pp.28-52.
R. L. S. Bruce-Mitford, ‘A dark-age settlement at Mawgan Porth, Cornwall,’ in Recent Archaeo-
logical Excavations in Britain (ed. Bruce-Mitford, 1956), p. 167-96; C. Thomas, Gwithian: Ten Years' Work,
1949-1958 (West Cornwall Field Club, 1958), pp. 18 ff.
131
Thomas, op. cit. in note 130, and Proc. West Cornwall Field Club, II (1957-8), 59 ff.
F I G. 22
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF BAR-LIP POTTERY (p. 48)
suggests the presence of Frisian merchants also in the ninth century, if not later.
A special reason is to be sought for the massing of bar-lip pottery in Cornwall;
the most convincing explanation is that it was introduced by Frisian merchants
engaged in the trade in Cornish tin to the continent.
B. IMPORTED POTTERY
Intensive trade with the continent is a dominant feature throughout the
period covered by this survey.132 This trade brought imported pottery to eastern
and southern England from various sources on the adjacent parts of the continent.
The origins of some of this pottery (Groups 7 and 8) are not yet closely defined,
and range from the lower Rhineland to northern France. In and after the eighth
132
Dunning, op. cit. in note 116, pp. 218 ff.
century, however, the bulk of the pottery (Groups 9, 10 and 11) came from fac-
tories in the middle Rhineland between Bonn and Cologne. These centres were
organized for large-scale production, and maintained an active export trade to
the countries bordering the North Sea and to Scandinavia. Towards the close
of the period another Rhenish type was imported (Group 12). The rise of new
pottery centres for glazed ware in southern Belgium maintained the connexion
with London (Group 13). After the Norman conquest the main trade routes
move down the English Channel to Normandy, whence came red-painted
pottery (Group 14) derived from that of the Rhineland.
The imported pottery will be considered in chronological order according
to its source.
7. FRANKISH IMPORTS
The excavations at Hamwih have produced a quantity of imported pottery
in association with the local hand-made wares of Group 1. The settlement
certainly existed in the early-eighth century, and continued until the tenth cen-
tury at least. The imports cover this range in dates, showing that the mart was in
close and continuous contact with continental sources, as demonstrated also by
the glass and basalt lava querns. 133 The imported pottery may be divided into
the following five classes :
1. Bridge-spouted pitchers of fine off-white or grey ware with darker grey
surface; and biconical pot, cordoned and grooved on the upper part
( FIG . 23, nos. 1-6).
2. Decorated sherds, in ware similar to (1) . The decoration comprises applied
bosses, rows of stamped circles, and small stamped crosses sometimes
occurring on the same sherd as the circles ( FIG . 23, nos. 7-10).
3. Cooking-pots, bowls and two-handled jars of off-white or buff ware. Some
have bands of roller-stamped decoration on the rim and side (FIG . 23, nos.
11-24).
4. Flanged bowls of grey or whitish ware, simulating Roman mortaria. One
has a pinched spout, and another has applied-strip decoration on the side
( FIG . 23, nos. 25-26).
5. Red-painted sherds (FIG . 23, no. 27).
Classes (3) to (5) will be considered below under Groups 9 and 11.
The bridge-spouted pitchers and the cordoned pot are Frankish in type,
such as occur over a wide area in the Rhineland, the Low Countries, and northern
France. Professor Tischler, who examined some of the Hamwih pottery at the
Norwich conference, stated that he does not regard the pitchers as Rhenish in
origin, and is doubtful of their coming from the Low Countries. The comparative
material from settlement-sites in northern France is very scanty, and the problem
can only be solved when ports such as Quentovic and Rouen, both of which are
known to have had trading relations with Hamwih, have been excavated.
133
Interim reports in Proc. Hants Field Club, XVII (1949-51), 65, 125. For the glass see D. B. Harden
in op. cit. in note 116, p. 153, and for the lava querns, ibid., p. 232.
F I G. 23
IMPORTED POTTERY OF GROUPS 7, 9 AND 11 FROM HAMWIH,
SOUTHAMPTON (p. 50). Sc. ¼
52 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
One rim-sherd of this class is known from Winchester, and similar pitcher-
spouts have been found in the excavations at Old Windsor. Otherwise they are
known only from sites in Kent, where they may be slightly earlier in date.
The stamped sherds at Hamwih have close parallels at Dorestad, 134 and so
these are probably imports from the lower Rhineland.
8. TATING TYPE
The excavations at Old Windsor1 3 5 have produced several fragments of a
biconical pitcher with a tubular spout, made of fine grey ware with polished
black surface (FIG . 24). The body is decorated in panel style with vertical narrow
strips alternating with rows of diamonds. The marks on the surface are where
tinfoil cut into strips and diamonds was attached by an adhesive.
Applied tinfoil decoration is characteristic of the so-called ‘Frisian’ or
‘Tating’ jugs, and this is the first example to be found in England. The group is
widely distributed, and has been found in the middle Rhineland, Holland, north
Germany, and in southern Norway and Sweden (FIG . 25) ; it is closely dated to
136
the first half of the ninth century. The origin of the group is uncertain, but
the Frankish character of the fabric is in favour of the lower Rhineland.
The usual Tating jug is a tall vessel, sometimes with a biconical body,
provided with a large bridge-spout and a long handle from the neck to the lower
part of the body. The tinfoil decoration is often in the form of vertical strips on
the neck, and horizontal zones of strips and diamonds or trellis-pattern on the
body. The Old Windsor pitcher thus adds a new form to the repertory of the
Tating group, and one that strengthens the argument for the late Frankish
derivation of the type.
Another example of Tating ware, found in the excavations at Hamwih, has
been brought to my notice by Mr. D. M. Waterman. This is a sherd of grey
ware with a row of diamond-shaped marks where the tinfoil was attached.
9. BADORF WARE
The ware is light in colour, whitish or yellow toned, and the main types of
a m p h o r a , spouted pitchers, cooking-pots and bowls have been illustrated
r e c e n t l y . 1 3 7 Tischler has divided Badorf ware into two groups, the first dating
720-780 and the second 780-860; both groups are represented in England.
To Group 1 belongs the important find of two-handled and rouletted jars or
pitchers and bowls found at Hamwih, in stratigraphical relation to a hoard of
coins dated c. 700-50. See FIG . 23, nos. 15, 19, 23-24.
134
In the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden.
135
Reference in note 104.
136
For earlier work and references see H. Arbman, Schwedn und das karolingische Reich (1937),
pp. 88-90 and 101-4, and W. Hübener in Offa, XI (1952), 115-8. For recent work and new finds see
D. Selling, Wikingerzeitliche und frühmittelalterliche Keramik in Schweden (1955), pp. 44-59; R. Schindler in
Offa, xv (1956), 121 (Süderende, Föhr Island), and Praehist. Zeitschr., XXXVII (1959), 66 (Hamburg) ;
W. Hübener, Die Keramik von Haithabu (1959), pp. 40, 133-8, pl. 6, 159-62 and pl. 13, 1.
137
Dunning, op. cit. in note 116, p. 223, fig. 49.
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A S Y M P O S I U M 53
F I G. 24
SPOUTED PITCHER OF GROUP 8 FROM OLD WINDSOR, BERKS. (p. 52). Sc. ¼
F I G. 25
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF POTTERY OF TATING TYPE (p. 52)
Group II is represented at Ipswich (FIG . 26, nos. 1-3), Canterbury, and Jersey
(Channel Islands). The finds at Ipswich are crucial for the chronology of middle-
Saxon pottery (p. 18) and late-Saxon pottery of Group 2 (Thetford ware), both of
which were associated with the imported wares in several pits. At Canterbury
the sherds are from two amphorae with tubular spouts, decorated with lines of
roller-stamped notches on the rim, neck and body (FIG . 26, nos. 6-7). The Jersey
find is part of a large cooking-pot, decorated with a zone of incised wavy lines
( F I G . 26, no. 8). This pot is dated independently by association with coins of
Charles the Bald (840-77).
FIG. 2 6
POTTERY OF GROUP 9 FROM ENGLAND (p. 54). Sc.: 1-5, ½; 6-8, ¼
1-5, Ipswich; 6-7, Canterbury; 8, Jersey, Channel Islands
Also in two of the pits at Ipswich were two sherds of grey ware with light
brown surface, both painted with narrow lines in dark red ( FIG . 26, nos. 4-5). These
are the first examples in England of red-painted Badorf ware.138 The style is the
forerunner, in the first half of the ninth century, of the better known red-painted
ware made at the adjacent village of Pingsdorf (Group II ) .
F I G. 27
POTTERY OF GROUP 10 FROM ENGLAND (p. 55). Sc. ¼
1, Ipswich; 2, London (GM); 3, Winchester
The third site is Winchester, where was found a sherd of drab white ware,
with the strips forming a zone of trellis pattern and roller-stamped with square
notches ( FIG . 27, no. 3). This sherd was submitted to Professor J. Frechen, of the
Mineralogisch-Petrologisches Institut at Bonn, who kindly reports that its
mineral content is characteristic of the Badorf and Pingsdorf group.
in the City (FIG. 28). The type most commonly found is the smaller wine amphora
derived from the Badorf type, with a foot-ring added for stability (nos. 1-10).
Other types represented in London are the small pitcher with tubular spout
(no. 11), beakers (nos. 12-13), and small pots, one with two handles (nos. 14-15).
The amphorae belong to the tenth and eleventh centuries, and the other types
range between then and the twelfth century. The finds show that Pingsdorf
ware reached London throughout most of the period of production, which lasted
from about the middle of the ninth century until the late twelfth century.
Elsewhere in England, Pingsdorf ware is limited to single or a few finds
from any site, and these are widely distributed along the east and south coasts.
The find furthest north is at York (F I G. 29, no. 1), then Norwich (nos. 2-3),141
Thetford (no. 4), and Ipswich (no. 5) in East Anglia. Imported pottery is more
common on the south coast, where the sites are Canterbury, Dover (no. 6),142
Pevensey castle (nos. 7-8), Burlough castle, Arlington (no. 9) and Sompting
(no. 10) in Sussex, Winchester (nos. 11 -12), and Hamwih ( FIG . 23, no. 27). The finds
from Norwich, Pevensey castle and Burlough castle show that the importation
of late Pingsdorf ware continued down to the Norman period.
The pot from Ipswich (FIG. 29, no. 5) has also been examined by Professor
Frechen, who states that the ware does not belong to the Pingsdorf group. It is
likely that this pot, and the sherd from Winchester (no. 12), which are decorated
in similar linear style, originate from the kilns in Dutch Limburg, such as
Brunssum and Schinveld,143 which produced pottery in derived-Pingsdorf style
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Mineral analysis is required for some of
the other sherds in order to decide whether they are from Pingsdorf or Dutch
Limburg. For finds from Dowgate, London, see p. 74.
These scattered finds, taken in conjunction with the more numerous finds
from London, provide a neat index of the wide range of trade from the Rhineland
to England (FIG. 30) and its continuity (including Badorf ware) from the ninth
century until the twelfth, and demonstrate the outstanding position of London as
a port.
12. HANDLED LADLES
As well as the fine-quality wares of Groups 9 and 11, coarser pottery was
also imported from the Rhineland in the late-eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The type is a distinctive, small, round-based pot with a single, long, curved
handle attached to the rim and neck, or to the upper part of the body ( FIG . 31).
The shape is that of the hand-made globular cooking-pot (Kugeltöpf) c o m m o n
in the Rhineland from about the ninth century to the twelfth, with a curved
handle added. The pots probably served as dipping ladles. Examples found at
Bergen are, however, discoloured and sooty outside, showing another use in
heating liquids over a fire; only one of the pots from England is discoloured in
this way. The bodies and the round bases show much working of the surface by
141
Norfolk Archaeol., XXXI (1955j), 60, fig. 13.
142
Archaeol. Cantiana, LXIV (1951), 148, fig. 14.
143
J. G. N. Renaud in Berichten van & Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek in Nederland, VI
(1955), 106 (Brunssum), and VIII (1957-8), 179 (Schinveld).
F I G. 28
RED-PAINTED POTTERY OF GROUP 11 FROM LONDON (p. 56). Sc. ¼
1, Miles Lane (GM); 2. Old Jewry Chambers (GM); 3, Gracechurch Street (LM); 4, Cripplegate (GM);
5, Threadneedle Street (LM); 6, nos. 31-4, Fenchurch Street (GM); 7, Bank of England; 8, nos. 143-9,
Fenchurch Street (GM); 9, nos. 19-24, Birchin Lane (GM); 10, nos. 15-18, Lime Street (GM); 11, Budge
Row (Maidstone Mus.); 12, London Wall (GM); 13, St. Martin's-le-Grand (LM); 14, All Hallows,
Lombard Street (GM); 15, City of London (GM)
58 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
the fingers, suggesting that the pots were finished by hand after being formed
inside a concave mould or bat on the wheel-head; usually the inside of the rim
and neck still show the wheel-marks. The ware is whitish or grey, gritty or sandy,
with a darker grey or bluish-grey surface.
F I G. 29
RED-PAINTED POTTERY OF GROUP 11 FROM ENGLAND (p. 56). Sc. ¼
1, Hungate, York; 2-3, Norwich; 4, Thetford; 5, Ipswich; 6, Dover; 7-8, Pevensey castle, Sussex;
9, Burlough castle, Sussex; 10, Sompting, Sussex; 11-12, Winchester
Abroad, the ladles are grouped in the lower Rhineland,144 whence they
reached the Low Countries.145 Long distance trade carried the ladles to Bergen
144
Cologne; Altes Kunsthandwerk, v (1927), 177, pl. 136. Husterknupp, near Frimmersdorf; A.
Herrnbrodt, Der Husterknupp (1958), p. 90, pl. 16, 169. A ladle (not marked on the map, FIG . 32), in the
Bischöfliches Museum at Trier, is among pottery from a building at Alt-Liebfrauen, dated between 882
and 953. I am indebted to Miss V. I. Evison for this information.
145
Ghent; in the Bijloke Museum, Ghent. Heusden, near Ghent; in the Vleeshuis Museum, Antwerp.
Middelburg; Oudheid. Mededeel., n.s. XXII (1941), 68, fig, 57. Deventer; op. cit. in note 143, VII (1956), 62,
fig. 18, 8, and 12. Kuinre; P. J. R. Modderman, Over de Wordingen de Beteekenis van het Zuiderzee Gebied
(1945), p. 43, fig. 5, III 53 n. Oosterend, Friesland; in the Fries Museum, Leeuwarden, Olden Klooster
near Holwierde, Bierum; in the Museum van Oudheden, Groningen.
FIG. 3 0
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF PINGSDORF WARE (p. 56)
Cambridge (no. 4), Hardingham, Norfolk (no. 5), Stamford (no. 6), Oxford (no.
7), and a recent find from Southampton. Isolated from the finds in England is
the example found at Ballyfounder rath, county Down, in northern Ireland (no.
8 ) ,1 4 9 which it reached probably as a re-export from England.
On the continent the date of these ladles ranges from the late-ninth or
early-tenth century until the late-twelfth century. The earlier dating is in the
146
Bergen; examples in twelfth-century levels from recent excavations at the medieval port. A. E.
Herteig, ‘The excavations of “Bryggen”, the old Hanseatic wharf in Bergen,’ Med. Archaeol., III (1959),
181, pl. XIII, D. Borgund; from recent excavations (information from Dr. Herteig, of the Historical Museum,
in the University of Bergen).
147
In the Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm. Information from Dr. Herteig.
148
Op. cit. in note 112, p. 180, pl. G , i.
149
Ulster J. Archacol., XXI (1958), 47, fig. 6, 6.
Rhineland, and most of the exported examples have been found at castles or in
contexts dating from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In England the ladles
are dated not earlier than the Norman period, by their occurrence at castles of
this date. The Ballyfounder ladle was found in an early-thirteenth-century
FIG. 3 1
HANDLED LADLES OF GROUP 12 FROM BRITAIN (p. 56). Sc. ¼
1, Guildhall, London (GM); 2, Paternoster Row, London (GM); 3, Rayleigh castle, Essex; 4, Cam-
bridge; 5, Hardingham, Norfolk; 6, Stamford castle, Lincs.; 7, Queen Street, Oxford; 8, Ballyfounder,
County Down
context, and is considered to have reached Ireland from England following the
invasion of 1177.
FIG. 3 2
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF HANDLED LADLES (p. 58)
which is moulded outside and hollowed on the inner slope. The spout is tubular,
made separately and secured in a hole in the side, well below rim level. The two
strap-handles are placed laterally, and are ridged in profile. The decoration
consists of seven applied strips, ridged in section and marked by paired finger-
prints, which pass vertically below the spout, down the middle of the handles
and below them, and also down the sides of the pot.
The pitcher is certainly not glazed Stamford ware, which reached London
62 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
from the midlands (p. 37). On the other hand many of its features, the tubular
spout, the form of the handles and the plastic strip decoration, have close parallels
among the glazed pottery of Belgium and Holland. M. René Borremans, of the
Section Belgique Ancienne at Brussels, who has seen illustrations and a
small sherd of the Lime Street pitcher, points out that it differs in some respects
from the Andenne glazed ware which he has studied in detail.150 The differences
relate to the shape, which is more ovoid, the fabric, which is usually whitish or
yellow, but seldom pink-toned, and the distribution of the glaze, which, though
clear yellow or orange-toned, is limited to a broad zone on the body. M. Borremans
FIG. 3 3
GLAZED SPOUTED PITCHER OF GROUP 13 FROM LIME STREET, LONDON
(p. 61), Sc. ¼
feels convinced that the Lime Street pitcher is not a product of the kilns at An-
denne, which were distributed widely in Belgium and reached Holland (p. 41,
FIG. 17), although he accepts a date for it in the twelfth century, contemporary
with the earlier Andenne ware. The provisional conclusion is, therefore, that the
Lime Street pitcher was made at some other kiln in southern Belgium that
produced glazed pottery.
tenth century, and the trade connexion between Rouen and Hamwih even
earlier (p. 50), provide the setting for the increase in this trade as a result of the
Norman conquest of England.151 This trade brought a considerable amount of
red-painted pottery and other types, mostly pitchers and jugs, to southern
FIG. 3 5
DISTRIBUTION-MAP OF RED-PAINTED AND OTHER POTTERY OF GROUP 14
(p. 62)
England. The evidence thus provides an early instance of trade in wine and the
pottery in which it was served, both derived from the same source abroad.
The pottery is concentrated at ports, and places easily accessible from
them, along the south coast from Kent to Hampshire (FIG 35). The ports and
151
The documentary and archaeological evidence that wine was the commodity traded is cited in
Antiq. J., XXXVIII (1958), 208.
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A S Y M P O S I U M 65
FIG. 3 6
RED-PAINTED POTTERY OF GROUP 14 FROM ENGLAND (p. 67). Sc. ¼
1, Stonar, near Sandwich, Kent; 2, Pevensey castle, Sussex; 3, Southampton; 4, St. George's Street,
Winchester; 5, South Denes, Great Yarmouth, Norfolk; 6, Cricklade, Wilts.
66 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
FIG. 3 7
POTTERY OF GROUP 14 FROM ENGLAND (p. 67.) Sc. ¼
1, nos. 143-9, Fenchurch Street, London (GM); 2, High Street, Lewes, Sussex; 3, Exeter
FIG. 3 8
BOSS-DECORATED POTTERY FROM ENGLAND AND THE CONTINENT
(p. 67). Sc.: 1-2 and 4-5, ¼; 3, 1/8
1, Southampton; 2, Goincourt, Oise; 3, St. Bômer-les-Forges, Orne; 4, Brunssum, Dutch Limburg;
5, Cologne
cooking-pots of ‘blue-grey’ ware (p. 76). A n early example was found at Cologne in
tenth-century associations (FIG . 38, no. 5), and several examples from the Huster-
knupp near Frimmersdorf are dated between the tenth and twelfth centuries.161
161
A. Herrnbrodt, Der Husterknupp (1958), pp. 80, 88, 97, fig. 53, 9 and pls. 5, 30 and 12,
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A S Y M P O S I U M
69
These analogies denote a partial but widespread revival, along a broad littoral
zone of the continent, of an ultimately Saxon decorative motif (Buckelschmuck)
in the tenth to the twelfth centuries.162
Pottery of the Normandy group also reached at least one port in East
Anglia. The upper part of a pitcher red-painted in panel style was found at the
South Denes site, Great Yarmouth (FIG . 36, no. 5). The bold style and arrange-
ment of the painting is very similar to that on the pitcher from Goincourt,
mentioned above.
The remaining finds assigned to this group are in the upper reaches of the
Thames valley. A sherd of red-painted ware was found beneath the castle mound
of Oxford (constructed c. 1 0 7 0 ) , 163 and is thus securely dated to the eleventh
century. At Cricklade, Wiltshire, the greater part of a wide, shallow bowl was
found in the recent excavations (FIG . 36, no. 6). The broad zone of red-painting
is a horizontal version of the panels on FIG . 36, no. 5. A fragment of this bowl
has been examined by Professor Frechen, who states that the coarse gritty ware
does not belong to the Pingsdorf group. Nor, it may be added, can a parallel be
found in the Rhineland for the shape of the bowl.
These two finds are far removed from the coastal distribution of the bulk of
the pottery. They are more likely to have reached so far inland through South-
ampton, rather than to have been imported to London and then carried up the
Thames.
Brief comment should be made on the decoration of the Southampton jug
( FIG . 36, no. 3), because it differs from that of the others of this group and intro-
duces a new feature of the pottery carried by trade. The jug, which is made of fine
whitish ware with yellow-toned surface, has red-painting in wide bands or zones
from the rim nearly to the base. The wavy lines were deeply incised through the
painting to expose the body colour, and this is thus a very early example of
graffito technique. Although red-painting, usually in separate strokes or as simple
linear patterns, is characteristic of Pingsdorf ware and its derivatives (p. 56),
and incised wavy lines are known on Ottonian pottery in the lower Rhineland,
no parallels for the formal overall style of the painting or for the graffito technique
appear to be forthcoming among the Rhenish groups.
The tubular handle is also unknown in the Rhineland. It does, however,
occur in Normandy and in western France, though, apart from the present
example, it has only been noted on jugs dated not earlier than the thirteenth
century.
The Southampton jug thus exhibits in a single vessel motifs and techniques
derived from different ceramic groups in the Rhineland and France. These
appear to have been transmitted to Normandy and there combined in a new
style. The lack of exact parallels in the region from which this jug is presumed to
162
Examples of the boss-motif intermediate in date between the ancestral Saxon style and those of
early-medieval date may be mentioned here. These are wheel-turned Frankish pots of the seventh or
eighth century found at Villers-devant-Orval (Baron de Loë, La Belgique ancienne (1939), IV, 103, fig. 83, 3),
and a pot with ten shoulder-bosses (no. 971) in the Épernay Museum. Two examples of such boss-decorated
pots reached Faversham and Broadstairs in Kent (J. N. L. Myres in op. cit. in note 116, p. 22, fig. 2, 5-6).
163
Oxoniensia, XVII-XVIII (1952-3), 90, pl. viii, B , f.
70 M E D I E V A L A R C H A E O L O G Y
F I G. 39
BLOCK-DISTRIBUTIONS OF POTTERY OF GROUPS 1 AND 2 IN ENGLAND
(p. 71)
The boundary of the Danelaw is shown by a dotted line
A N G L O - S A X O N P O T T E R Y : A S Y M P O S I U M
71
have originated prompts the suggestion that it was made specially for export.
Similar evidence is known for pottery exported from western France to England
in the thirteenth century.164
FIG. 4 0
TRADE ROUTES BETWEEN THE CONTINENT AND ENGLAND IN (a) THE LATE
SAXON PERIOD AND (b) THE NORMAN PERIOD, BASED ON FINDS OF
IMPORTED POTTERY (p. 71)
for the longer-distance trade of the Frisians. This resulted in the introduction of
Group 6 into Cornwall in the tenth century, and is shown by an arrow passing
down-channel.
The trade in pottery in the Norman period is shown in F I G. 40, b. Trade
with the Rhineland and Low Countries continued, though, as far as the pottery
is concerned, to a diminished extent (Groups 11, 12 and 13). Some of the pottery
traded, however, reached further inland and farther afield than previously
(Group 12). The bulk of the trade was now cross-channel from Normandy
POSTSCRIPT
An important find was made in London after the above paper was com-
pleted. Late in 1959 the site for the new Public Cleansing Depot, immediately
west of Cannon Street station, was excavated. The site extended from Upper
Thames Street to the frontage on the Thames, which was formerly Dowgate
Dock at the mouth of the Walbrook. The section revealed a layer of river silt
about I5 - 2o ft. below the present surface, which rested on river gravel containing
Roman pottery and was covered by medieval rubbish with thirteenth-century
pottery. The silt was wedge-shaped, 2-3 ft. thick, and deeper at the north or
Upper Thomas Street side of the site, thinning out towards the south or river
side. A considerable amount of pottery was contained in the silt. Most of the
pottery was concentrated at one place over a length of about 5 ft., from which it
thinned out to the north and south. Although the bulk of the pottery is in fairly
small fragments, the greater part of one pitcher of Pingsdorf ware has been
reconstructed, and this was scattered for several feet along the layer of silt. These
observations suggest that the deposit represents the foreshore of the Thames in
early medieval times, and that the pottery, which is not abraded or discoloured,
was not washed about for long before it was covered by fresh silt. It is therefore
deduced that the pottery did not accumulate over an appreciable period of time,
but that it was thrown on to the foreshore at one time or during a short period
only. It may thus be regarded as a contemporaneous group.
Analysis of the assemblage, comprising over i,ooo sherds, results in the
identification of the following groups as defined in the above paper
1115 Sir Cyril Fox, The Personality of Britain (3rd edn. 1938), p. 82, fig. 34-
166 C. A . Ralegh Radford in op. cit. in note 116, p. 59; C. Thomas, `Imported pottery in dark-age
western Britain,' Med. A rchaeol., in (1959), 89 fF
74 MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY
I. Red-painted pottery of the Pingsdorf class, Group i i
Complete pitcher I
Tubular spouts g
Rims 32
Red-painted sherds 105
Plain sherds 540
Miscellaneous 6
Foot-rings 32
725
2. Handled ladles, Group 12:
Rims with handles 2
Ends of handles 2
4
3. 'Blue-grey' pottery, to be included in Group 12:
Tubular spouts 5
Rims: thickened 12
plain everted 4
Shoulders 17
Body sherds 126
Bases: rounded 10
foot-ring I
175
4. Glazed pottery, Group 13:
Rims 3
Handles 3
Rouletted sherds 4
Applied strips 3
Glazed sherds go
Sagging bases 4
1 07
is light toned, yellow or yellowish-buff. About 10 per cent. of these sherds have
red inclusions in the fabric, which is one of the characteristics of true Pingsdorf
ware. The second grade is darker, yellowish-brown or brown. The darkest sherds
are vitrified, and the surfaces are purple with a glassy appearance. A few sherds
belong to a minor grade; these are pink-toned throughout.
2-3. The handled ladles (nos. 17-18) are of normal type with a long curved
handle. The ware is whitish or grey, with darker grey surface and an iridescent
sheen.
The ladles of Group 12 are a special type among a large class of pottery
known as “blue-grey’ ware, long recognized in the Rhineland167 and now for
the first time represented in England,168 and forming nearly 20 per cent. of the
finds from Dowgate. The commonest type is a globular cooking-pot with high
rounded shoulder and a round base (no. 19). The characteristic rim is thickened
on the outside with an outer slope (nos. 20-23). Only one rim of a cooking-pot
is more developed (no. 24) ; this is flanged with a groove on top.
One sherd has a tubular spout below the rim, and a separate foot-ring
almost certainly belongs to the same pot (no. 25). This is clearly a small spouted
pitcher copying a leading Pingsdorf type.
The fabric of ‘blue-grey’ pottery is very uniform. The sherds are light in
weight and fired very hard. In fracture the ware is light-coloured, usually
whitish but sometimes yellow-toned or light grey. The surface is uneven and
harsh to the touch, and varies from grey to black. Characteristic features of the
surfaces are a silvery or pseudo-metallic sheen, and bluish iridescent patches.
Two sources are known for ‘blue-grey’ pottery, one at Wildenrath, near
H e i n s b e r g ,169 not far from the kilns for red-painted pottery in Dutch Limburg,
and the other at Paffrath, near Cologne.170 The types and fabric of cooking-pots
made at both places are closely similar, but many of the Wildenrath pots are
decorated with impressed stamps. Until the two sources can be distinguished
from one another otherwise, Group 12 may provisionally be termed Paffrath
ware.
4. Glazed pottery forms about 10 per cent. of the finds from Dowgate. The
sherds are too small for any reconstruction of the types, but the majority appear to
belong to pitchers and jugs. The collared rim and strap-handle with applied
finger-printed strip (no. 26), both glazed yellowish-brown, belong to a wide-
mouthed pitcher with tubular spout.1 7 1 A yellow-glazed sherd with applied
finger-pinched strip down the handle and below it (no. 27) is from a pitcher of the
type illustrated above in FIG . 33. The thickened rim with angular cordons on the
neck (no. 28), and the round-sectioned handles (nos. 29-30) are appropriate to
167
A long series, dating from the late ninth century until the twelfth, is published in A. Herrnbrodt,
Der Husterknupp (1958), pp. 80-98, figs. 49-53, pls. 5-6 and 12-14.
168
Outside London, Group 12 is now represented at the Clarendon hotel, Oxford, by a cooking-pot
rim and the handle-end of a ladle, both associated with eleventh-twelfth-century pottery (Oxoniesia, XXIII
(1958,169 40, 44, fig. 9.
Bonner Jahrb., CXXXII (1927), 207.
170
Ibid., CLV-CLVI (1955-56), 355.
171
Borremans and Lassance, op. cit. in note 117, pl. 1, 3-4.
ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used in the captions of the figures: BM, British Museum; GM,
Guildhall Museum; LM, London Museum.
B C
SAXON AND ROMANO-SAXON POTTERY
A. Saxon urn from North Elmham, Norfolk (p. 8). SC . 3 / 8
After Antiq. J., XVII (1937). pl. 9I a, by courtesy
B. Saxon urn from Caistor-by-Norwich, Norfolk (p. IO). SC . c. ¼
After ibid., p. 429, fig. I b, by courtesy
C. Romano-Saxon urn from Great Casterton, Rutland (p. 8). SC . 1 / 3
After J. Roman Stud. XLVIII (1958), pl. 20, I, by courtesy