SQL Study Material PDF

Study Material
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SQL STUDY MATERIAL
INDEX
S.NO NAME OF THE CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1 INTRODUCTION OF SQL STATEMENTS 3-18
2 PSUDO COLUMNS 18-19
3 SQL OPERATORS 19-21
4 SQL FUNCTIONS 21-37
5 SET OPERATORS 37-40
6 CONSTRAINTS 40-42
7 JOINS 42-46
8 SUB QUERIES 47-50
9 VIEWS 50-54
10 SYNONYMS 54-56
11 INDEXES 56-64
12 DICTIONARY TABLES 64
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Introduction of SQL:
Structured English Query Language (“SEQUEL”) was developed by IBM Corporation

Inc., to use Codd‟s model.SEQUEL later becomes SQL (still pronounced as
“sequel”). SQL (Structured Query Language) is an ANSI and ISO standard computer
language for accessing, manipulating and controlling data‟s in database
systems.SQL works with database programs like Oracle, MS SQL Server, My
SQL,Teradata, MS Access, DB2, Informix, Sybase, etc.
SQL is a Standard - BUT....
 Unfortunately, there are many different versions of the SQL language,but to

be in compliance with the ANSI standard.
 They must support the same major keywords in a similar manner(Such as
SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE, and others).
Note:
Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in
Addition to the SQL standard!
SQL Queries:
With SQL, We can query a database and have a result set returned.
SQL Advantages:
SQL has the following advantages:
 Efficient
 Easy to Learn & Use(SQL is simple English-like commands make it easy to
design and manage the information)
 Functionally complete(You can define, retrieve, and manipulate data in the
tables)
SQL in Oracle:
 The Oracle Server supports ANSI standard SQL and contains extensions.
 Oracle SQL statements complies with industry-accepted standards.
Five Sub-Languages in SQL:

SQL provides 5 Sub-Languages for a variety of database tasks such as:
 DDL – Data Definition Language
 DML – Data Manipulation Language
 DRL/DQL – Data Retrieval/Query Language
 TCL – Transaction Control Language
 DCL – Data Control Language
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DDL:
DDL statements are used to provide Structure and Structure-Oriented changes to
the objects like Tables, Views etc,
Statements are:
 Create - Used to create objects like Table, View, Index and Synonyms
 Alter - Used to alter definition of an object.
 Drop - Used to drop the definition of an object along with its data.
 Truncate - Used to remove all the rows from the object & its structure
remains
 Rename - Used to rename the objects
Rules for creating a table:

 Table names & column names must begin with a letter and be 1–30
characters.
 Table names must begin with a character A–Z or a–z.
 Names may contain characters, numerals and special characters like A–Z, a–
z,
0–9, _ (underscore), $, and # (legal characters, but their use is
discouraged).
 The name must not be same as the name of any other object in your
schema.
 Names must not be an Oracle Server reserved word.
 Table names are not case sensitive. If you create a table with upper, lower or
a mixed case the table‟s names are stored only the upper case in the data
dictionary.
 If you want to create a table with the name in lower case characters, then
you
must enclose the table name within double quotes while creating the table.
 The no of columns in a table can be up to a maximum of 1000.
 The column names in the table must be unique. However, column names can
be
duplicated across tables.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE [schema.]<table_name>

(
<column_name> <data_type(size)> [DEFAULT <expr>] [,…..]
);
E.g: CREATE TABLE dept

(
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deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13)
);
The DEFAULT Option:
 This Default clause lets you specify a value to be assigned to the column if
the
user omits the value for the column.
 This option prevents null values from entering the columns if a row is
inserted
without a value for the column.
 The default value can be a literal value, an expression, or a SQL function,
such as
SYSDATE and USER.
 But the value cannot be the name of another column or a pseudo column
such as
LEVEL, ROWNUM, PRIOR, NEXTVAL or CURRVAL.
 The default expression must match the data type of the column.
E.g: CREATE TABLE emp

(
empno NUMBER(4),
sal NUMBER(7,2) DEFAULT 2500,
comm NUMBER(7,2) DEFAULT 0);
Creating a Table with Rows from another table:
E.g: CREATE TABLE empdup AS SELECT * FROM SCOTT.emp;
E.g: CREATE TABLE empcopy (empno, ename, Annualsal, deptno)
AS SELECT empno, ename, sal*12, deptno FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 10;
To copy the structure of table from other schema or from same schema
E.g: CREATE TABLE empstru AS SELECT * FROM emp WHERE 1 = 2;
The ALTER Command:

To change the definition of a table ALTER TABLE Command is used.
Use the ALTER TABLE statement to:
 Add a new column
 Modify an existing column
 Drop a column
 Rename a column
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The Add clause:
ADD clause with ALTER Table is used to add new columns to the table.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table_name>

ADD (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp ADD grade CHAR(1);
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp ADD (pf NUMBER(7,2),esi NUMBER(7,2) );
The Modify clause:

Column modification can include changes to a column‟s data type, size, and
default value.
MODIFY (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);
Note:
 You can change any columns data type provided if all rows of that column
contain NULL.
 You can change the size of a column‟s data type. Note that you can increase
the size. Whether the columns contain NULL value or not.
 You can decrease the width of a column only if the column contains only null
values or if the table has no rows.
 9i You can decrease the size as long as the change does not affect the
require data to be modified.
 You can modify a DATA column to TIMESTAMP.
 You can convert a CHAR column to the VARCHAR2 data type or convert a
 VARCHAR2 column to the CHAR data type only if the column contains null
values or if you do not change the size.
 A change to the default value of a column affects only subsequent insertions
to the table.
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY grade VARCHAR2(10);

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY sal NUMBER(10,2);
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY (job VARCHAR2(10),shopno number(3) );
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The Drop clause:
The Drop clause removes a column from a table.
DROP [COLUMN] (column_name [,column_name]…);
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp DROP COLUMN comm;

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp DROP (comm);
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp DROP (hiredate, comm);
Note:
o The column may or may not contain data.
o The table must have at least one column remaining in it after it is
altered.
o Once a column is dropped, it cannot be recovered.
The Rename clause:

It is used to change the existing column name of a table.
RENAME COLUMN <old_column_name>
TO <new_column_name>;
E.g: ALTER TABLE emp RENAME COLUMN sal TO salary;
Note:
 It invalidates all objects that depend on the renamed column.
 You must be the owner of the object that you rename.
 It works Oracle 9i ver 9.2.0.1.0 and prior.
The DROP command:

The DROP TABLE statement removes the definition of a table from the
database.When you drop a table, the database loses all the data in the table and all
the indexes associated with it. Dropping table invalidates the table‟s dependent
objects like views, synonyms etc The DROP TABLE statement, once executed, is
irreversible. To drop a table, the table should be in your own schema or you should
have DROP ANY TABLE system privilege. The Oracle Server does not question the
action when you issue the DROP TABLE statement.
Syntax: DROP TABLE <table_name>;

E.g: DROP TABLE emp;
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The RENAME command:
The RENAME statement is used to rename a table, view, sequence or a synonym.
Syntax: RENAME <old_name> TO <new_name>;
E.g: RENAME dept TO department;
Note:
 It transfers the integrity constraints, indexes and grants on the old object to
new object.
 It invalidates all objects that depend on the renamed object.
 You must be the owner of the object that you rename.
The TRUNCATE command:

 The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to remove all rows from a table and
to release the storage space used by that table.
 When you TRUNCATE a table, the table structure is not removed unlike DROP
TABLE command.
 The TRUNCATE also removes all data from all indexes also.
 When using the TRUNCATE TABLE statement, you cannot rollback.
 You must be the owner of the table or have DELETE TABLE system privileges
to truncate a table.
 The DELETE statement can also remove all rows from a table, but it does not
release storage space.
 The TRUNCATE command is more efficient and faster than the DROP TABLE.
If you drop a table, then you need to recreate the table‟s indexes, integrity
constraints and triggers.
 When you truncate a table, only the data is removed and it has none of these
effects.
 If the table is the parent of a referential integrity constraint, you cannot
truncate the table. Disable the constraint before issuing the TRUNCATE
statement.
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <table_name>;

E.g: TRUNCATE TABLE emp;
 Removing rows with the TRUNCATE statement is faster than removing them
with the DELETE statement for the following reasons:
 The TRUNCATE statement is a data definition language (DDL) statement and
generates no rollback information.
 Truncating a table does not fire the delete triggers of the table.
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DML:
DML statements enable the manipulation of data in the existing object or used to
provide Record and Record-Oriented changes.
Statements are:
 Insert - Used to add rows to a table
 Update - Used to modify the existing values in a table
 Delete - Used to remove one or more rows from a table
 Merge (9i) - Used to select rows & those rows are update/insert into another
table
 DML statements enable manipulation of data in the existing oracle schema

objects such as tables and views.
 You can do the Insert, Update, Delete, or Merge data in the database.
 A collection of DML statements that form a logical unit of work is called a
transaction.
Insert Command:
Insert statement is used for adding new row in an existing table.
Syntax: INSERT INTO [schema.]{<table_name>|<view_name>}
[(column [, column…])]
[VALUES (value [, expr…|DEFAULT])] | [sub_query];
E.g: INSERT INTO dept VALUES (50, 'HRD', 'Chennai');
Note:
 This statement with the VALUES clause adds only one row at a time to a
table.
 Character data should be enclosed within single quotes.
 Date and Time stamp data‟s can be provided with single quotes or you can
use the conversion functions.
 Number values should not be enclosed in single quotes; because implicit
conversion may take place for numeric values assigned to NUMBER data type
columns if single quotes are included.
 If you want to insert a new row that contains values for each column, the
column list is not required in the INSERT clause.
 However, if you do not use the column list, the values must be listed
according to the default order of the columns in the table, and a value must
be provided for each column.
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Inserting data’s into specific columns:
 If you want to insert a new row that contains values for specific column, the
column list is required in the INSERT clause.
 The column list should contain the column names of the table.
E.g: INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, job) VALUES (7550, 'DOLLY', 'HR');
Inserting Default Values (9i):

 The DEFAULT keyword can be used in INSERT statements to identify a
default
column value.
 If no default value exists, a null value is used.
 When creating a table, you can specify a default value for a column.
 Implicit method: Omit the column from the column list.
E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname) VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');

Explicit method: Specify the DEFAULT keyword in the VALUES clause.
E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname) VALUES (30, 'Purchasing', DEFAULT);
Inserting Null Values:

The NULL keyword can be used in INSERT statements to insert NULL value.
Implicit method: Omit the column from the column list.
E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname) VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');

Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword in the VALUES clause.
E.g: INSERT INTO dept VALUES (100, 'Finance', NULL);
Inserting Special Values:

You can use functions to enter special values in your table like SYSDATE etc.,
E.g: INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, hiredate, mgr, deptno)
VALUES (UID, USER, SYSDATE, NULL, DEFAULT);
Inserting Specific Date Format:

 The default date format is DD-MON-YY is used to insert a date value.
 If a date must be entered in a format, other than the default format by using
the TO_DATE function.
E.g: INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, hiredate)

VALUES (114, 'Den', TO_DATE('FEB 3, 1999', 'MON DD, YYYY'));
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Inserting rows using substitution variables:
 SQL *Plus substitution variable „&‟ allow the user to add values interactively
in an Insert statement.
 The SQL *Plus prompts for the value of the variable, accepts it and
substitutes into the variable.
 Any number of rows can be inserted one after another by using the „/‟. Which
executes the last executed statement. But supply a different set of values
each time you run it.
E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname, loc) VALUES (&deptno, '&dname', '&loc');
Copying Rows from Another Table:

 You can use the INSERT statement to add rows to a table where the values
arederived from existing tables. In place of the VALUES clause, use a sub-
query.
 The number of columns and their data types in the column list of the INSERT
clause must match the number of values and their data types in the sub-
query.
Syntax: INSERT INTO table [column (, column…)] subquery;
E.g: INSERT INTO emp2 SELECT * FROM emp;

INSERT INTO emp2 (empno, ename, job, sal)
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal FROM scott.emp;
Update Command:
 Update statement is used to change or modify the existing values in a table.
 Values of a single column or a group of columns can be updated.
 Updates can be carried out for all the rows in a table or selected rows.
Syntax: UPDATE [schema.]{<table_name> | <view_name>}

SET column = <expr | (sub-query) | DEFAULT>
[, column = <expr | (sub-query) | DEFAULT>,………]
[WHERE <condition>];
Note:
 Condition identifies the rows to be updated and is composed of column
names expressions, constants, sub-queries, and comparison operators
 In general, use the primary key to identify a single row. Using other columns
can unexpectedly cause several rows to be updated.
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E.g: UPDATE emp SET comm = 1500;
If you omit the WHERE clause, all the rows in the table are modified.
WHERE Clause with UPDATE Statement:

The UPDATE statement modifies specific rows if the WHERE clause is specified
or WHERE clause allows the update for selected rows.
E.g: UPDATE emp SET comm = 500 WHERE empno = 7900;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + 5000 WHERE sal > 3500;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 1.4 WHERE job = „MANAGER‟;
Updating more than one column values:

E.g: UPDATE emp SET sal = sal * 2, comm = sal * 0.2 WHERE empno = 7900;
Updating with Default, Null and Special Values:

E.g: UPDATE emp SET comm = NULL WHERE empno = 7654;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET comm = DEFAULT WHERE comm IS NULL;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET hiredate = sysdate WHERE comm = 0;
Updating rows using substitution variables:

E.g: UPDATE emp SET ename = „&Name‟ WHERE empno = &Empno;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET comm = sal * 0.6 WHERE sal = &Salary;
E.g: UPDATE emp SET &Expression WHERE &condition;
Sub-queries in Update statement:
Delete Command:
 Delete statement removes one or more existing rows from a table.
 WHERE clause allows a set of rows to be deleted from a table by specifying
the conditions.
 If you omit the WHERE clause all the rows in the table will be deleted.
Syntax: DELETE [FROM] [schema.]{<table_name> | <view_name>}

[WHERE <condition>];
E.g: DELETE emp;

E.g: DELETE FROM emp;
E.g: DELETE FROM emp WHERE job= 'CLERK';
E.g: DELETE FROM emp
WHERE hiredate > '01-JAN-1980' AND hiredate < '31-DEC-1999';
.
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Types of Multi-table INSERT Statements:
Oracle 9i introduces the following types of multi-table INSERT statements:
 Unconditional INSERT
 Conditional ALL INSERT
 Conditional FIRST INSERT
 Pivoting INSERT
Unconditional INSERT: ALL into_clause

 Specify ALL followed by multiple insert_into_clauses to perform an
unconditional multi-table insert.
 The Oracle Server executes each insert_into_clause once for each row
returned
by the sub-query.
 This INSERT statement is referred to as an unconditional INSERT, as no
further
restriction is applied to the rows that are retrieved by the SELECT statement.
 All the rows retrieved by the SELECT statement are inserted into the tables.
 The VALUES clause in the INSERT statements specifies the columns from the
SELECT statement that have to be inserted into each of the tables.
Syntax: INSERT [ALL] [insert_into_clause values_clause] (sub-query);
E.g: INSERT ALL

INTO em1 (empno, hiredate, sal) VALUES (empno, hiredate, sal)
INTO em2 (empno, mgr, sal) VALUES (empno, mgr, sal)
SELECT empno, hiredate, sal, mgr FROM emp
WHERE empno > 7840;
E.g: INSERT ALL
INTO dept1 (deptno, dname, loc)
SELECT * FROM dept;
E.g: INSERT ALL
INTO dept1
INTO dept2
SELECT * FROM dept;
E.g: INSERT ALL
VALUES (10, 'SALES', 'CHENNAI')
VALUES (20, 'HRD', 'DELHI')
SELECT * FROM dual;
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Conditional INSERT: conditional_insert_clause
 Specify the conditional_insert_clause to perform a conditional multi-table
insert.
The Oracle server filters each insert_into_clause through the corresponding
 WHEN condition, which determines whether that insert_into_clause is
executed.
A single multi-table insert statement can contain up to 127 WHEN clauses.
conditional_insert_clause Syntax:
[ALL] [FIRST]
[WHEN condition THEN] [insert_into_clause values_clause]
[ELSE] [insert_into_clause values_clause]
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Conditional INSERT: ALL
 If you specify ALL, the Oracle server evaluates each WHEN clause regardless
of
the results of the evaluation of any other WHEN clause.
 For each WHEN clause whose condition evaluates to true, the Oracle server
executes the corresponding INTO clause list.
 This INSERT statement is referred to as a conditional ALL INSERT, as a
further
restriction is applied to the rows that are retrieved by the SELECT statement.
Syntax: INSERT [ALL] [WHEN condition THEN]

[insert_into_clause values_clause] (sub-query);
E.g: INSERT ALL
WHEN SAL > 1800 THEN
INTO em1 (empno, hiredate, sal) VALUES (empno, hiredate, sal)
WHEN MGR > 7600 THEN
INTO em2 (empno, mgr, sal) VALUES (empno, mgr, sal)
SELECT empno, hiredate, sal, mgr FROM emp
WHERE empno > 7654;
E.g: INSERT ALL
WHEN deptno < 20 THEN
WHEN deptno >= 30 THEN
SELECT * FROM dept;
E.g: INSERT ALL
WHEN deptno <= 20 THEN
ELSE
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SELECT * FROM dept;
- 104 -
Conditional FIRST: INSERT
 If you specify FIRST, the Oracle Server evaluates each WHEN clause in the
order in which it appears in the statement.
 If the first WHEN clause evaluates to true, the Oracle Server executes the
corresponding INTO clause and skips subsequent WHEN clauses for given
row.
Syntax: INSERT [FIRST] [WHEN condition THEN]

[insert_into_clause values_clause] (subquery)
E.g: INSERT FIRST

WHEN salary > 10000 THEN
INTO emssal VALUES (deptid, salary)
WHEN hdate like ('%87%') THEN
INTO emhd87 VALUES (deptid, hdate)
WHEN hdate like ('%81%') THEN
INTO emhd81 VALUES (deptid, hdate)
SELECT deptno deptid, SUM(sal) salary, MAX(hiredate) hdate
FROM emp GROUP BY deptno;
DRL/DQL:
DRL/DQL statements enable to retrieve the data‟s from the database.
Statements is: Select - Used to extracts data from a database table
TCL:
TCL statements enable to manage the changes made by DML statements, which is
called as Transactions. Transactions can change a set data from one state to
another.A transaction helps to store the data permanently in the database.
Statements is:
 Commit - Used to make the changes permanent to the database
 Rollback - Used to undo or cancel the transactions
 Save point - Used to divide a transaction into smaller sub-units
When Does a Transaction Start?

A transaction begins when the first DML statement is encountered or first DML
statement issued after the previous transactions.
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When Does a Transaction End?
A transaction ends when one of the following occurs:
 A COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is issued
 A DDL statement, such as CREATE, etc., is issued
 A DCL statement is issued
 The user exits SQL*Plus
 A user process terminates abnormally.
 A machine fails or the system crashes
After one transaction ends, the next executable SQL statement automatically starts
the next transaction.
Commit:
Committing a transaction means making permanent the changes performed by the
SQL statements within the transaction.
Syntax: COMMIT;
Rollback:
Rolling back means undoing any changes to data that have been performed by
SQL statements within an uncommitted transaction.
Syntax: ROLLBACK;
Save Point:
You can create an intermediate marker in the current transaction by using the
SAVEPOINT statement, which divides the transaction into smaller sections within
the current transaction.
You can then discard pending changes up to that marker by using the ROLLBACK
TO SAVEPOINT statement.
Savepoints are similarly useful in application programs. If a procedure contains
several functions, you can create a savepoint before each function begins, then you
can easily rollback to that particular savepoint if the function fails.
Syntax: SAVEPOINT <savepoint_name>;

E.g: SAVEPOINT rainforest;
Note:
 Savepoint names must be unique within a given transaction.
 If you create another savepoint with the same name as an earlier one, the
earlier savepoint is erased.
 SAVEPOINT is not ANSI standard SQL.
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Rollback to Savepoint:
 ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT allows to Roll back the current transaction to the
specified savepoint, thereby discarding any changes and or savepoints
created after the savepoint to which you are rolling back.
 If you omit the TO SAVEPOINT clause, the ROLLBACK statement rolls back
the entire transaction.
 As savepoints are logical, there is no way to list the savepoints you have
created.
Syntax: ROLLBACK TO <savepoint_name>;

E.g: ROLLBACK TO rainforest;
Implicit Transaction Processing
Automatic commit:
The action that will force a commit to occur, even without issuing the COMMIT is:
 Any DDL or DCL statements issued.
 SQL*Plus exited normally.
 Connecting to other user.
 Disconnecting from Oracle.
Automatic rollback:
 The action that will force a rollback to occur, even without issuing the
ROLLBACK is:
 Abnormal termination of SQL*Plus
 A machine fails or the system crashes
 System failure
 Network failure
DCL:
DCL statements enable to control the access to the database and its objects.
Statements are:
Grant - Used to give access of the database object from one user to another
Revoke - Used to remove the object privileges granted to other user
Creating a User:
 The DBA creates the user by executing the CREATE USER statement.
 The user does not have any privileges at this point.
 The DBA can then grant privileges to that user.
 These privileges determine what the user can do at the database level.
Syntax: CREATE USER user IDENTIFIED BY password;

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E.g: CREATE USER scott IDENTIFIED BY tiger;
Changing Your Password:

The DBA creates an account and initializes a password for every user.
You can change your password by using the ALTER USER statement.
In Oracle 7.x:
Syntax: ALTER USER <user_name> IDENTIFIED BY <new_password>;
E.g: ALTER USER scott IDENTIFIED BY lion;

Although this statement can be used to change your password, there are many
other
options. You must have the ALTER USER privilege to change any other option.
In Oracle 8 and prior:
Syntax: PASSW [ORD] <user_name>;
It will prompt the user for old & new password.
E.g: PASSWORD scott;
Changing the password for scott
Old password: tiger
New password: lion
Retype new password: lion
Typical User Privileges:
Once a user is created by DBA, he grants specific system privileges to a user.
Pseudo Column:
A pseudo column behaves like a table column, but is not actually stored in the
table. You can select from pseudo columns, but you cannot insert, update, or delete
their values.
 ROWID Maintains Unique Rowid for each and every record. It‟s Permanent.
 ROWNUM Displays Sequence number of the records. It‟s Temporary.
 LEVEL and SYSDATE
 CURRVAL and NEXTVAL
E.g: SELECT rownum, rowid FROM emp;
To display the Structure of a tables:

Syntax: DESC [RIBE] <table_name>;
E.g: DESC emp;
DESCRIBE dept;
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Restrict the Rows using WHERE clause (Selection)
 You can restrict the rows returned from the query by using the WHERE
clause.
 A WHERE clause contains a condition that must be met, and it directly follows
the FROM clause.
 If the condition is true, the row meeting the condition is returned.
 The WHERE clause can compare values in columns, literal values, arithmetic
expressions or functions.
 The character strings and date values should be enclosed within single
quotes.
 The character strings when specified as a value are always case sensitive.
 The date values when specified as a value are always format sensitive.
Comparison Operators:
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
> = Greater than or equal to
< = Less than or equal to
< > or ! = or ^ = Not equal to
E.g: SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job = 'MANAGER';

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >= 2600;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm < sal;
Special Comparison Operators:

BETWEEN…..AND Between two values (inclusive)
IN Match any of a list of values
LIKE Match a character pattern
IS NULL Is a null value
NOT Keyword can be used before any of this operator to negate its meaning.
BETWEEN…AND:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 1600 AND 3500;
IN:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename IN ('KING', 'WARD');
LIKE:
 Like is a pattern matching comparison operator.
 Like operator matching is case sensitive.
 „%‟ And „_‟ (underscore) are wild card characters used to specify a pattern
 „%‟ Represents a sequence of zero or more characters.
 „_‟ Represents any single character
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 You can use wild card characters multiple times either before & after the
pattern.
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE('S%');

E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE('S_%');
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE('_I%');
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE('%R');
Escape Option:
 You can include the actual characters "%" or "_" in the pattern by using the
ESCAPE clause, which identifies the escape character.
 If the escape character appears in the pattern before the character "%" or
"_" then Oracle interprets this character literally in the pattern, rather than
as a special pattern matching character.
 The ESCAPE clause identifies the backslash (\) as the escape character.
 To search for employees with the pattern 'A_B' in their name:
E.g: SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '%A\_B%' ESCAPE '\';
E.g: SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE 'S%\_%' ESCAPE '\';
E.g: SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '\%S%' ESCAPE '\';
IS NULL:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE comm IS NULL;
Logical Operators:
 AND Returns TRUE if both component conditions are true
 OR Returns TRUE if either component condition is true
 NOT Returns TRUE if the following condition is false

AND:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal, job FROM emp WHERE sal > 1600 AND deptno = 30;
OR:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal, job FROM emp WHERE sal >1600 AND deptno = 30;
NOT:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal, comm FROM emp WHERE comm IS NOT NULL;
Rules of Precedence:
1st Arithmetic operators
2nd Concatenation operator
3rd Comparison conditions
4th IS [NOT] NULL, LIKE, [NOT] IN, EXIXTS
5th [NOT] BETWEEN
6th NOT logical condition
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7th AND logical condition
8th OR logical condition
Override rules of precedence by using parentheses ( ).
Sorting Rows using ORDER BY clause

 The ORDER BY clause can be used to sort the rows either in Ascending or
Descending.
 If you use the ORDER BY clause, it must be the last clause of the SQL
statement.
 You can specify an expression, an alias, or column position as the sort
condition.
 By default, it takes Ascending. For Descending you have to specify DESC.
 You can also order by columns that are not included in the SELECT clause.
 In ascending Null‟s are last. In descending Null‟s are first.
Ascending Order:
E.g: SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal;
SELECT empno, ename, sal * 12 FROM emp ORDER BY sal * 12 ASC;
Descending Order:
E.g: SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC;
Sorting by Column Alias:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal * 12 annualsal FROM emp ORDER BY annualsal;
Sorting by Multiple Columns:
E.g: SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM emp ORDER BY deptno, sal DESC;
Sorting by Column Position No:
E.g: SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp ORDER BY 3;
Sorting the column that are not included in the Select:
E.g: SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp ORDER BY job;
SQL Functions
Functions are a very powerful built-in feature of SQL.
Advantages of functions:
 Used to perform calculations on data.
 Modify individual data items.
 Easy manipulate output for groups of rows.
 Used for alter date and number formats for display.
Types of Functions:
 Single Row Function
 Group Function (Aggregate Function)
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Single Row Functions:
Single-row functions are used to manipulate data items. They accept one or more
arguments and return one value for each row returned by the query.
An argument can be one of the following:
 User-supplied constant
 Variable value
 Column name
 Expression
Features of single-row functions include:
 Acting on each row returned in the query
 Returning one result per row
 Possibly returning a data value of a different type than that referenced
 Single row functions can be nested.
 Can be used in SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY clauses; can be nested
Types of Single Row Functions:

1. General Functions
2. Character Functions
3. Number Functions
4. Date Functions
5. Conversion Functions
General Functions:
NVL DECODE
NVL2 LEAST
NULLIF (9i) GREATEST
COALSECE (9i) USER & UID
NVL:
Syntax: NVL (expr1, expr2)
E.g: SELECT ename, (sal * 12) + NVL(comm, 0) FROM emp;
NVL2:
Syntax: NVL2 (expr1, expr2, expr3)
E.g: SELECT ename, comm, NVL2(comm, comm * 1.5, 1000) FROM emp;
NULLIF (9i):
Syntax: NULLIF (expr1, expr2)
E.g: SELECT ename, NULLIF(sal, 3000) FROM emp;
COALESCE (9i):
Syntax: COALESCE (expr1, expr2,....expr n)
E.g: SELECT ename, comm, sal, COALESCE(comm, sal, 7000) FROM emp;
Before Executing the above statement, just execute this statement, then only you
can understand the coalesce function
UPDATE emp SET sal = NULL WHERE sal >= 3000;
22
DECODE:
Syntax: DECODE(expr | column, search1, result1 [,search 2, result2,..] [, default])
E.g: SELECT empno, ename, sal, job, DECODE( job, 'MANAGER', 'Admin',
'CLERK', 'Accounts',
'SALESMAN', 'Marketing') Trade
FROM emp;
'CLERK', 'Accounts', 'Others') Trade
FROM emp;
'CLERK', 'Accounts', job) Trade
FROM emp;
LEAST:
Syntax: LEAST(exp1, exp2,…..)
E.g: SELECT LEAST('HARRY', 'HARRIOT', 'HAROLD') FROM DUAL;
SELECT LEAST(25, 14, 84, 12, 54 ,7) "LEAST" FROM DUAL;
GREATEST:
Syntax: GREATEST (exp1, exp2,…..)
E.g: SELECT GREATEST('HARRY', 'HARRIOT', 'HAROLD') FROM DUAL;
SELECT GREATEST(25, 14, 84, 12, 54 ,7) FROM DUAL;
UID: This function returns the User ID of the session user, generated by system.
E.g: SELECT UID FROM DUAL;
USER: This function returns the name of the session user.
E.g: SHOW USER;
SELECT USER FROM DUAL;
Character Functions:
Case - Manipulation Functions:
LOWER
UPPER
INITCAP
Character - Manipulation Functions:
CHR TRIM
CONCAT LTRIM
SUBSTR RTRIM
LPAD REPLACE
RPAD TRANSLATE
REVERSE
Character Functions Returning Numerical Values:
ASCII
LENGTH
INSTR
23
LOWER:
Syntax: LOWER (char)
E.g: SELECT LOWER(ename) FROM emp WHERE LOWER(job) = 'manager';
UPPER:
Syntax: UPPER (char)
E.g: SELECT UPPER('oracle') FROM DUAL;
INITCAP:
Syntax: INITCAP (char)
E.g: SELECT empno, INITCAP(ename) FROM emp;
SELECT INITCAP('ORACLE SERVER') FROM DUAL;
CHR:
Syntax: CHR(n)
E.g: SELECT CHR(67) || CHR(65) || CHR(84) "Dog" FROM DUAL;
CONCAT:
Syntax: CONCAT (char1, char2)
E.g: SELECT CONCAT(empno, ename) FROM emp;
SUBSTR:
Syntax: SUBSTR(string, position[, substring_length])
E.g: SELECT SUBSTR('ABCDEFG', 3, 4) "Substring" FROM DUAL;
SELECT SUBSTR('ABCDEFG', -4, 3) "Substring" FROM DUAL;
SELECT SUBSTR('ABCDEFG', 5) "Substring" FROM DUAL;
LPAD:
Syntax: LPAD(char1, n[, char2])
E.g: SELECT LPAD(job, 12, '*') FROM emp;
RPAD:
Syntax: RPAD(char1, n[, char2])
E.g: SELECT RPAD(job, 12, '*') FROM emp;
REVERSE:
Syntax: REVERSE(string)
E.g: SELECT REVERSE(ename) FROM emp;
TRIM:
Syntax: TRIM([LEADING | TRAILING]<trim_character> FROM <trim_source>)
E.g: SELECT TRIM(LEADING 'S' FROM ename)FROM emp;
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SELECT TRIM(TRAILING 'S' FROM ename)FROM emp;
SELECT TRIM('S' FROM ename)FROM emp;
LTRIM:
Syntax: LTRIM(string [, char(s)])
E.g: SELECT ename, LTRIM(ename, 'SM')FROM emp;
RTRIM:
Syntax: RTRIM(string [, char(s)])
E.g: SELECT ename, RTRIM(ename, 'ES')FROM emp;
REPLACE:
Syntax: REPLACE(char, search_string[, replacement_string]) --replacement by
entire string
E.g: SELECT REPLACE(ename, 'A') FROM emp; --replacement by entire string
SELECT REPLACE(ename, 'A', 'x') FROM emp;
SELECT REPLACE(ename, 'AM', '***') FROM emp; --replacement by entire string
TRANSLATE:
Syntax: TRANSLATE(string, from_string, to_string) - ---replacement character by
character
E.g: SELECT ename, TRANSLATE(ename, 'ALT', 'alt') FROM emp; ---replacement

character by character
ASCII:
Syntax: ASCII(char)
E.g: SELECT ASCII('A') FROM DUAL;
LENGTH:
Syntax: LENGTH(char)
E.g: SELECT ename, LENGTH(ename) FROM emp
WHERE LENGTH(ename) = 5;
INSTR:
Syntax: INSTR(string, substring[, position[, occurrence]])
E.g: SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR', 'OR') "Instring" FROM DUAL;
SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR', 'OR', 3)"Instring" FROM DUAL;
SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR', 'OR', 3, 2)"Instring" FROM dual;
SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR', 'OR', -3, 2)
"Reversed Instring" FROM DUAL;
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Number Functions:
ABS
CEIL
FLOOR
MOD
POWER
SQRT
SIGN
TRUNC
ROUND
ABS:
Syntax: ABS (n)
E.g: SELECT ABS(-15) "Absolute" FROM DUAL; o/p: 15
CEIL:
Syntax: CEIL(n)
E.g: SELECT CEIL(15.7) "Ceiling" FROM DUAL; o/p: 16
FLOOR:
Syntax: FLOOR(n)
E.g: SELECT FLOOR(15.7) "Floor" FROM DUAL; o/p: 15
MOD:
Syntax: MOD(m, n)
E.g: SELECT sal, MOD(sal, 3) "Modulus" FROM emp;
POWER:
Syntax: POWER(m, n)
E.g: SELECT sal, POWER(sal, 2) "Salary Raised" FROM emp;
SQRT:
Syntax: SQRT(n)
E.g: SELECT SQRT(24) "Square root" FROM DUAL; o/p: 4.89897949
SIGN:
Syntax: SIGN(n)
E.g: SELECT SIGN(-15) "Sign" FROM DUAL; o/p: -1
SELECT SIGN(0) "Sign" FROM DUAL; o/p: 0
SELECT SIGN(15) "Sign" FROM DUAL; o/p: 1
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TRUNC:
Syntax: TRUNC(n[, m])
E.g: SELECT sal, sal / 3, TRUNC((sal / 3), 1) "Truncate" FROM emp;
ROUND:
Syntax: ROUND(n[, m])
E.g: SELECT sal, sal / 3, ROUND((sal / 3),1) "Round" FROM emp;
Matrix Query using General Function DECODE:

E.g: SELECT job,
SUM(DECODE(deptno, 10, sal)) dept10,
SUM(DECODE(deptno, 40, sal)) dept40
FROM emp
GROUP BY job;
Date Functions:
Arithmetic with Dates
Operation Result Description

date + number Date Adds a no. of days to a date
date - number Date Subtracts a no. of days from a date
date - date No. of days Subtracts one date from another
date + number/24 Date Adds a no. of hours to a date
E.g: SELECT hiredate, hiredate + 5 FROM emp;
SELECT hiredate, hiredate - 5 FROM emp;
SELECT hiredate, (SYSDATE - hiredate) FROM emp;
SELECT SYSDATE, SYSDATE + 12 / 24 FROM DUAL;
Type of Date Functions:

MONTHS_BETWEEN Number of months between two dates
ADD_MONTHS Add calendar months to date
NEXT_DAY Next day of the date specified
LAST_DAY Last day of the month
ROUND Round date
TRUNC Truncate date
MONTHS_BETWEEN:
Syntax: MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1, date2)
E.g: SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE, hiredate)FROM emp;
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ADD_MONTHS:
Syntax: ADD_MONTHS(date, n)
E.g: SELECT hiredate, ADD_MONTHS(hiredate, 2)FROM emp;
NEXT_DAY:
Syntax: NEXT_DAY(date, 'char')
E.g: SELECT hiredate, NEXT_DAY(hiredate, 'WEDNESDAY')FROM emp;
LAST_DAY:
Syntax: LAST_DAY(date)
E.g: SELECT hiredate, LAST_DAY(hiredate) FROM emp;
ROUND:
Syntax: ROUND(date[,'fmt'])
E.g: SELECT hiredate, ROUND(hiredate, 'YEAR') FROM emp;
SELECT hiredate, ROUND(hiredate, 'MONTH') FROM emp;
SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC:
Syntax: TRUNC(date[,'fmt'])
E.g: SELECT hiredate, TRUNC(hiredate, 'YEAR') FROM emp;
SELECT hiredate, TRUNC(hiredate, 'MONTH') FROM emp;
Conversion Functions:
Implicit data-type conversion
From To
VARCHAR2 or CHAR NUMBER or DATE
NUMBER or DATE VARCHAR2
Although implicit data-type conversion is available, it is recommended that you
do explicit data type conversion to ensure the reliability of your SQL statements.
Explicit data-type conversion

Functions:
TO_CHAR
TO_NUMBER
TO_DATE
TO_CHAR:
Syntax: TO_CHAR(date | number [, fmt[, 'nlsparam']])
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TO_CHAR Date Type Conversions:
Sample Format Elements of Valid Date Formats
E.g: SELECT ename, TO_CHAR(hiredate, 'DDspth/MMth/YYsp')FROM emp;
SELECT ename, TO_CHAR(hiredate, 'fmDD Month YYYY') FROM emp;
SELECT ename, TO_CHAR(hiredate,
'DD Month YYYY HH24:MI:SS AM')FROM emp;
TO_CHAR Number Type Conversions:

TO_NUMBER:
Syntax: TO_NUMBER(char[, fmt[, 'nlsparam']])
E.g: SELECT TO_NUMBER('-AusDollars100', 'L9G999D99',
'NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTERS = '',.'' NLS_CURRENCY = ''AusDollars''')
"Amount" FROM DUAL;
TO_DATE:
Syntax: TO_DATE(char[, fmt[, 'nlsparam']])
E.g: SELECT TO_DATE('January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.',
'Month dd, YYYY, HH:MI A.M.', 'NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE = American')
FROM DUAL;
Display the salary in words:
Ans: SELECT ename, sal, INITCAP(TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(sal,'jsp'),'jsp'))
|| ' Only' "Sal in Words" FROM emp;
Display the Last day of a required date in YYYY/DD/MM format:
Ans: SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(LAST_DAY('01-JAN-2007')),
'YYYY/DD/MM') FROM DUAL;
Conditional Expressions:
Give you the use of IF-THEN-ELSE logic within a SQL statement
CASE expression (9i):

Syntax: CASE expr WHEN comparison_expr1 THEN return_expr1
[WHEN comparison_expr2 THEN return_expr2
WHEN comparison_exprn THEN return_exprn
ELSE else_expr]
END
E.g: SELECT ename, job, sal, comm,
CASE job WHEN 'PRESIDENT' THEN 1.8 * sal
WHEN 'ANALYST' THEN 1.5 * sal
WHEN 'MANAGER' THEN 1.3 * sal
WHEN 'SALESMAN' THEN 1.2 * sal
ELSE sal
END "REVISED_SALARY"
FROM emp order by 5;
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Connecting to SQL*Plus:
CONN [ECT] logs on to another user account without exiting SQL*Plus
Syntax: CONN <user_name> / <password> @ <host_string>;
E.g: CONN scott/tiger@oracle;
To connect with oracle without exiting SQL*Plus
SQL>conn
Enter user-name: SCOTT
Enter password: *****
SQL> conn scott
Enter password: ****
Aggregating Data using Group Functions

Unlike single-row functions, group functions operate on sets of rows to give one
result per group. These sets may be the whole table or the table split into groups.
Types of Group Functions:

 AVG Average value of n, ignoring null values
 COUNT Count No. of Rows
 MAX Maximum value of expr, ignoring null values
 MIN Minimum value of expr, ignoring null values
 STDDEV Standard deviation of n, ignoring null values
 SUM Sum values of n, ignoring null values
 VARIANCE Variance of n, ignoring null values
AVG:
Syntax: AVG([DISTINCT | ALL] n)
E.g: SELECT AVG(sal) "Average" FROM emp;
SELECT AVG(comm) "Average" FROM emp;
SELECT AVG(NVL(comm, 0)) "Average" FROM emp;
SELECT AVG(DISTINCT sal) "D.AVG" FROM emp;
COUNT:
Syntax: COUNT(* |{ [DISTINCT | ALL] expr})
E.g: SELECT COUNT(*) "Total" FROM emp;
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT deptno) "DIST.COUNT" FROM emp;
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHERE comm IS NULL;
MAX:
Syntax: MAX([DISTINCT | ALL] expr)
E.g: SELECT MAX(sal) "Maximum" FROM emp;
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MIN:
Syntax: MIN([DISTINCT | ALL] expr)
E.g: SELECT MIN(sal) "Minimum" FROM emp;
STDDEV:
Syntax: STDDEV([DISTINCT | ALL] x)
E.g: SELECT STDDEV(sal) "Deviation" FROM emp;
SUM:
Syntax: SUM([DISTINCT | ALL] n)
E.g: SELECT SUM(sal) "Total" FROM emp;
SELECT SUM(DISTINCT sal) "D.SUM" FROM emp;
VARIANCE:
Syntax: VARIANCE([DISTINCT | ALL] expr)
E.g: SELECT VARIANCE(sal) "Variance" FROM emp;
Guidelines for Using Group Functions:

 DISTINCT makes the function consider only non-duplicate values; ALL makes
it consider every value including duplicates. The default is ALL and therefore
does not need to be specified.
 The data types for the functions with an expr argument may be
CHAR,VARCHAR2, NUMBER, or DATE.
 All group functions (expect COUNT function) ignore null values. To substitute
a value for null values, use the NVL, NVL2, or COALESCE functions.
 COUNT (*) counts all selected rows including duplicates and rows with nulls.
 The default „group‟ is the whole set of records in the table. Thus any
aggregate functions will apply to the whole table if no GROUP BY clause is
specified.
Creating Groups of Data by Using GROUP BY Clause

All group functions have treated the table as one large group of information.
At times, you need to split rows in a table into smaller groups or subsets.
Syntax: SELECT <column, group_function(column)>

FROM <table_name>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <group_by_expression>]
[ORDER BY <column>];
31
Guidelines:
 If you include a group function in a SELECT clause, you cannot select
individual
 results as well, unless the individual column appears in the GROUP BY clause.
 You receive an error message if you fail to include the individual column list
inthe GROUP BY clause.
 Using a WHERE clause, you can exclude rows before dividing them into
groups.
 The GROUP BY clause must be specified after WHERE clause.
 You must include the individual columns in the GROUP BY clause.
 You cannot use a column alias in the GROUP BY clause.
 By default, rows are sorted by ascending order of the columns included in the
GROUP BY list. You can override this by using the ORDER BY clause.
 You cannot use the WHERE clause to restrict groups.
 You cannot use group functions in the WHERE clause.
 You use the HAVING clause to restrict groups.
E.g: SELECT deptno, SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno;
Using the group function in the ORDER BY clause:

SELECT job, SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job ORDER BY SUM(sal);
Using the Group By Clause on Multiple Columns:

SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno, job;
Restrict Groups Using HAVING Clause

You use the HAVING clause to specify which groups are to be displayed,and thus,
you further restrict the groups on the basis of aggregate information.
Note: WHERE clause conditions can‟t be used in Having clause & vice versa.
The Oracle performs the following steps when you use the HAVING clause:
1. Rows are grouped.
2. The group function is applied to the grouped rows.
3. The groups that match the criteria in the HAVING clause are displayed.
Syntax: SELECT column, group_function FROM table_name

[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING group_condition]
[ORDER BY column];
E.g: SELECT deptno, SUM(sal) FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno HAVING SUM(sal) > 1500;
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E.g: SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno < > 10
GROUP BY deptno, job HAVING SUM(sal) > 2000 ORDER BY 3;
To Find nth row in a table using Group By Clause:

E.g: SELECT * FROM emp
GROUP BY empno, ename, job, mgr, hiredate, sal, comm, deptno, rownum
HAVING rownum = &N;
Nesting Group Functions:
E.g: SELECT MAX(AVG(sal)) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno;
Why should group functions are not allowed in WHERE clause?

SELECT Statement Execution Flow:
A) Because while executing where clause there is no group function results.
Advance Group By Function

The ROLLUP Operator:
 The ROLLUP operator delivers aggregates and super-aggregates for
expressions within a GROUP BY statement.
 The ROLLUP operator can be used by report writers to extract statistics and
summary information from results sets.
 ROLLUP grouping produces a result set containing the regular grouped rows
and subtotal rows.
E.g: SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal) FROM emp

WHERE deptno > 10
GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno, job);
The CUBE Operator:

 The CUBE operator can be applied to all aggregate functions, including
AVG,SUM, MAX, MIN, and COUNT.
 It is used to produce results sets that are typically used for cross-tabular
reports.
 Columns included in the GROUP BY clause are cross-referenced to produce a
superset of groups.
 The aggregate function specified in the select list is applied to these groups
to produce summary values for the additional super-aggregate rows.
 The CUBE groups the selected rows based on the values of all possible
combinations of expressions in the specification and returns a single row of
 summary information for each group.
E.g: SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal) FROM emp

WHERE deptno > 10
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GROUP BY CUBE(deptno, job);
The GROUPING Function:

 The GROUPING function can be used with either the CUBE or ROLLUP
operator to help you understand how a summary value has been obtained.
 The GROUPING function uses a single column as its argument.
 The expr in the GROUPING function must match one of the expressions in the
GROUP BY clause.
 The function returns a value of 0 or 1.
o A value of 0 returned by the GROUPING function, If the expression
has been used to calculate the aggregate value.
o A value of 1 returned by the GROUPING function, If the expression
has not been used to calculate the aggregate value.
E.g: SELECT deptno, job, SUM(sal), GROUPING(deptno), GROUPING(job)

FROM emp WHERE deptno < 30
GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno, job);
Grouping Sets:
GROUPING SETS are a further extension of the GROUP BY clause that let you
specify multiple groupings of data. Doing so facilitates efficient aggregation and
hence facilitates analysis of data across multiple dimensions.A single SELECT
statement can now be written using GROUPING SETS to specify various groupings
(that can also include ROLLUP or CUBE operators), rather than multiple SELECT
statements combined by UNION ALL operators.
E.g: SELECT deptno, job, mgr, AVG(sal)

FROM emp
GROUP BY GROUPING SETS ((deptno, job), (job, mgr));
Composite Columns:
 A composite column is a collection of columns that are treated as a unit
during the computation of groupings.
 In general, composite columns are useful in ROLLUP, CUBE, and GROUPING
SETS.You specify the columns in parentheses.
E.g ROLLUP (a, (b, c), d) (b, c) form a composite column & treated as a unit.
E.g: SELECT deptno, job, mgr, SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY ROLLUP( deptno, (job, mgr));
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Oracle 9i Date Time Function
Oracle 9i, you can include the time zone in your date and time data, and provide
support for fractional seconds.
Date-Time functions:
 SYSDATE
 SYSTIMESTAMP
 CURRENT_DATE
 CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
 LOCALTIMESTAMP
 DBTIMEZONE
 SESSIONTIMEZONE
 EXTRACT
Altering the Time Zone and Date Format:

ALTER SESSION SET TIME_ZONE = '-5:0';
ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT = 'DD-MON-YYYY HH24:MI:SS';
SYSDATE:
• SYSDATE returns the current date and time. The function requires no arguments.
• The datatype of the returned value is DATE. It won‟t return the time value.
• Using TO_CHAR function you can display the time and date values.
• In distributed SQL statements, this function returns the date and time on your
local database.
E.g: SELECT SYSDATE, TO_CHAR( SYSDATE, 'MM-DD-YYYY HH24:MI:SS' )
FROM DUAL;
SYSTIMESTAMP:
SYSTIMESTAMP returns the system date, including fractional seconds and time
zone of the system on which the database resides.
The return type is TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE.
E.g: SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;
SYSTIMESTAMP
Explicitly specify fractional seconds:
E.g: SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSTIMESTAMP, 'SSSS.FF') FROM DUAL;
Output:
TO_CHAR(SYSTIM
2525.000001
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CURRENT_DATE:
• The CURRENT_DATE returns the current date in the session‟s time zone.
• CURRENT_DATE is sensitive to the session time zone.
• The TIME_ZONE parameter specifies the default local time zone displacement
for the current SQL session.
The TIME_ZONE parameter is set as follows:
TIME_ZONE = '[+ | -] hh:mm'
E.g: SELECT SESSIONTIMEZONE, CURRENT_DATE FROM DUAL;
Output:
SESSIONTIMEZONE CURRENT_D
+05:30 11-NOV-06
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP:
The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the current date and time in the
session time zone, as a value of the data type TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE.
The syntax of the CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function is:
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP (precision)
Where, precision is an optional argument that specifies the fractional second
precision of the time value returned. If you omit precision, the default is 6.
Otherwise it Accepts values are 0 to 9.
E.g: SELECT SESSIONTIMEZONE, CURRENT_TIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;
Output:
SESSIONTIMEZONE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
+05:30 11-NOV-06 02.04.30.000000 AM +05:30
LOCALTIMESTAMP:
The LOCALTIMESTAMP function returns the current date and time in the
session time zone in a value of data type TIMESTAMP.
The TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE data type has the following format:
TIMESTAMP [ (fractional_seconds_precision) ] WITH TIME ZONE
The syntax of the LOCAL_TIMESTAMP function is:
LOCAL_TIMESTAMP (TIMESTAMP_precision)
E.g: SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, LOCALTIMESTAMP FROM DUAL;
Output:
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP LOCALTIMESTAMP
11-NOV-06 02.06.20.000000 AM +05:30 11-NOV-06 02.06.20.000000 AM
Difference between LOCALTIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is

LOCALTIMESTAMP returns a TIMESTAMP value,
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP returns a TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE value.
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DBTIMEZONE:
• The DBTIMEZONE function returns the value of the database time zone.
• The default database time zone is the same as the operating system's time zone.
• You can set the database's default time zone by specifying the SET TIME_ZONE
clause of the CREATE DATABASE statement.
E.g: SELECT DBTIMEZONE, SESSIONTIMEZONE FROM DUAL;
Output: see the output in session time zone.
SESSIONTIMEZONE:
The SESSIONTIMEZONE returns the value of the current session‟s time zone.
E.g: SELECT DBTIMEZONE, SESSIONTIMEZONE FROM DUAL;
DBTIME SESSIONTIMEZONE
-05:00 +05:30
EXTRACT:
The EXTRACT expression extracts and returns the value of a specified datetime
field from a datetime or interval value expression.
Syntax:
EXTRACT ( [YEAR] [MONTH] [DAY] [HOUR] [MINUTE] [SECOND]
[TIMEZONE_HOUR] [TIMEZONE_MINUTE] [TIMEZONE_REGION]
[TIMEZONE_ABBR]
FROM [datetime_value_expression] [interval_value_expression] )
E.g: SELECT EXTRACT (YEAR FROM SYSDATE),
EXTRACT (MONTH FROM SYSDATE),
EXTRACT (DAY FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
Output:
(YEARFROMSYSDATE) (MONTHFROMSYSDATE) (DAYFROMSYSDATE)
The SET Operators
The SET operators combine the results of two or more component queries into one
result. Queries containing SET operators are called compound queries.
Note: In the slide, the light color (gray) in the diagram represents the query result.
Operator Returns
UNION All distinct rows selected by either query
UNION ALL All rows selected by either query, including all duplicates
INTERSECT All distinct rows selected by both queries
MINUS All distinct rows that are selected by the first SELECT statement and that
are not selected in the second SELECT statement
37
Guidelines:
• All SET operators have equal precedence.

• If multiple SET operators used, the Oracle evaluates them from left (top) to right
(bottom)
• You should use parentheses to specify the order of evaluation explicitly.
The UNION SET Operator:

The UNION operator returns all rows selected by either query. Use the UNION
operator to return all rows from multiple tables and eliminate any duplicate rows.
Guidelines:
 The number of columns and the data types of the columns being selected
must be identical in all the SELECT statements used in the query. The names
of the columns need not be identical.
 NULL values are not ignored during duplicate checking.
 The IN operator has a higher precedence than the UNION operator.
 By default, the output is sorted in ascending order of the first column of the
SELECT clause.
E.g: SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20

UNION
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno = 30;
The UNION ALL Operator:
Use the UNION ALL operator to return all rows from multiple queries.
Guidelines:
 Unlike UNION, duplicate rows are not eliminated and the output is not sorted
by default.
 The DISTINCT keyword cannot be used.
Note: With the exception of the above, the guidelines for UNION and UNION ALL
are
the same.
UNION ALL
38
The INTERSECT Operator:
Use the INTERSECT operator to return all rows common to multiple queries.
Guidelines:
 The number of columns and the data types of the columns being selected by
theSELECT statements in the queries must be identical in all the
SELECTstatements used in the query. The names of the columns need not be
identical.
 Reversing the order of the intersected tables does not alter the result.
 INTERSECT does not ignore NULL values.

INTERSECT
The MINUS Operator:
Use the MINUS operator to return rows returned by the first query that are not
present in the second query (the 1st SELECT query MINUS the 2nd SELECT query).
Guidelines:
 The number of columns and the data types of the columns being selected by
the SELECT statements in the queries must be identical in all the SELECT
 statements used in the query. The names of the columns need not be
identical.
 All of the columns in the WHERE clause must be in the SELECT clause for the
MINUS operator to work.

MINUS
The Oracle Server and SET Operators:
 Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated except in UNION ALL.

 Column names from the first query appear in the result.
 The output is sorted in ascending order by default except in UNION ALL.
39
Restrictions on set operators:
 The set operators are not valid on columns of type BLOB, CLOB,
BFILE,VARRAY, or Nested Table.
 The UNION, INTERSECT, and MINUS operators are not valid on LONG
columns.
 To reference a column, you must use an alias to name the column.
 You cannot specify the order by clause in the sub-query of these operators.
 You cannot use these operators in SELECT statements containing TABLE
collection expressions.
Integrity Constraints
 Constraints are enforced on data being stored in a table, are called

Constraints.
 Constraints super control the data being entered into a table for permanent
storage.
 Constraints are preferred Rules applied on table columns while creating or
after creation
 These are automatically activated whenever DML statement is performed on
a table
 Provides high security
Integrity Constraints are three types

1.Entity Integraty: - check for uniqueness of data
ex- primary key, Unique
2. Domain Constraint : - Check for conditional rules
ex:- Check, Not null
3. Referential Constraint : Used bind relation between tables
NOT NULL: Prevent a column from accepting NULL values

UNIQUE : Ensures uniqueness of the values in a column
PRIMARY KEY : Same as UNIQUE, but only one column per table is allowed
CHECK: Controls the value of a column(s) being inserted
DEFAULT: Assigns a default value for the column(s), at the time of insertion when
no value is given for that column
REFERENCES: Assigns a Foreign Key constraint to maintain “Referential Integrity”
ON DELETE CASCADE: Using this option whenever a parent row is deleted then all
the corresponding child rows are deleted from the details Table. This option is
always used with foreing key.
40
Example
Create a table using Primary Key and Not null constraints
create table employee

(empno number(4),
ename varchar2(30) not null,
Job varchar2(30) unique ,
deptno number(2) not null,
constraint Emp_pk_id primary key (empno)) ;
- For foreign key , create the master table first and after that child table.
create table department

(deptno number(2) primary key ,
dname varchar2(30) not null,
location varchar2(30)) ;
- Creating a table using foreign key, primary key, unique , check and default
constraint
create table employee

(empno number(4) primary key,
ename varchar2(30) not null,
Job varchar2(30) unique ,
sal number(5,2) check (sal > 0) ,
DOJ date default sysdate,
deptno number(2) ,
constraint EmpNO_fk foreign key (deptno) references department(deptno) on
delete cascade) ;
Note: If a user is not giving the constraint name, Oracle automatically create a
constraint named as “SYS_C0 (some number)”
Dropping the Primary key constraint
SQL> alter table employee drop primary key ;

or
alter table employee drop constraint constraintname;
alter table employee add constraint Dept_pk primary key (deptno) ;
41
To see details about the infomration of constraints
SQL> desc user_constraints

SQL> select constraint_name,constraint_type from user_constraints where
table_Name=‟TABLENAME‟ ;
Displaying Data from Multiple Tables (Joins)

• Sometimes we have to select data from two tables to make our result complete.
We have to perform a join.
• The relationships between multiple tables and draws information from them in
terms of these relationships all using a single statement.
• We specify the Join condition in WHERE Clause.
Cartesian Products:
When a join condition is invalid or omitted completely, the result is a Cartesian
product, in which all combinations of rows are displayed. All rows in the first table
are
joined to all rows in the second table.
E.g: SELECT ename, job, sal, dname
FROM emp, dept
To avoid a Cartesian product, always include a valid join condition in a WHERE
clause.
Defining Joins
• When data from more than one table in the database is required, a join condition
is used.
• Rows in one table can be joined to rows in another table according to common
values existing in corresponding columns, that is, usually primary and foreign key
columns.
• If a row does not satisfy a join condition, the row will not appear in the query
result.
• If two tables have a column name in common, you must qualify all references to
these columns throughout the query with its table names to avoid ambiguity.
Joins :
 INNER JOIN
 NATURAL JOIN
 CROSS JOIN
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 FULL OUTER JOIN
 SELF JOIN
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inner join :
When we join two tables or datasets together on an equality (i.e. column or set of
columns) we are performing an inner join. The ANSI method for joining EMP and
DEPT is as follows.
Example1 :
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d
,emp e
WHERE d.deptno = e.deptno;
Example2 :
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e USING(deptno);
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e ON(e.deptno=d.deptno)
Example3 :
SELECT COUNT(deptno)
FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e USING(deptno);
Example3 :
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e ON(d.deptno = e.deptno);
Example4 :
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e ON(d.deptno = e.deptno)
WHERE d.loc = 'DALLAS';
43
natural join
A natural join will join two datasets on all matching column names, regardless of
whether the columns are actually related in anything other than name. For
example, the EMP and DEPT tables share one common column name and a natural
join between the two tables would be correct in this scenario.
The following example converts our INNER JOIN from previous examples to a
NATURAL JOIN.
Example1 :
SELECT d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d NATURAL JOIN emp e;
Cross join:
A join without having any condition is known as cross join, in cross join every row
in first table is joins with every row in second table. Cross join is nothing but
cortizion product.
Example1:
select *from emp,dept
Outer join:
Outer join produces the results, which contains matched rows and unmatched rows.
Outer join is further classified as three types.They are
 left outer join
 right outer join
 full outer join.
Left outer join:

Left outer join produces the results, which contains all the rows from left table and
matched rows from right table.
Example1 :
SELECT d.deptno
,d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d
,emp e
WHERE d.deptno = e.deptno(+);
Example2 :
44
SELECT deptno
,d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d LEFT OUTER JOIN emp e USING(deptno);
In traditional Oracle syntax, outer joins are indicated by (+) and this can
sometimes cause issues when attempting to outer join multiple tables or includeg
expressions in join predicates. Oracle outer joins have no concept of direction,
whereas ANSI-compliant outer joins do. In the following example, we will outer join
DEPT to EMP using the ANSI LEFT OUTER JOIN. The way to interpret this is to read
the tables in the FROM clause from left to right. The left-hand table is the superset
and the table on the right is the potentially deficient set.
Right outer join:

Right outer join produces the resultset, which contains all the rows from right table
and matched rows from left table.
Example1 :
SELECT d.deptno
,d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM dept d
,emp e
WHERE d.deptno(+) = e.deptno
Example2 :
SELECT deptno
,d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d USING(deptno);
As its name suggests, a right outer join is an outer join where datasets are driven
from right to left (i.e. related to the ordering in the query). There are a few
occasions where we might want to use RIGHT OUTER JOIN, but generally, there is
nothing to be gained from switching the ordering of the tables in this way.
Everything described in the left outer join section of this article applies equally to
right outer joins so we will not spend too much time on these. The following
example simply shows how to use this type of join. Again, the OUTER keyword is
optional.
45
Full outer join:
Full outer join produces the result set, which contains all the rows from left table
and all the rows from right table.
Example1:
SELECT deptno
,d.dname
,d.loc
,e.ename
,e.job
FROM emp e FULL OUTER JOIN dept d USING(deptno);
Self join:
A self join is a join in which a table is joined with itself. For example, when you
require details about an employee and his manager (also an employee).
Example1:
SELECT e1.ename || ' works for ' || e2.ename "Employees and their Managers"
FROM emp e1
,emp e2
WHERE e1.mgr = e2.empno;
Example2:
SELECT e1.ename || ' works for ' || e2.ename "Employees and their Managers"
FROM emp e1 JOIN emp e2 ON(e1.mgr = e2.empno);
Outer Join Restrictions:

Oracle Corporation recommends that you use the ANSI OUTER JOIN syntax
rather than the Oracle join operator.Outer join queries that use the Oracle join
operator (+) are subject to the following rules and restrictions, which do not apply
to the ANSI syntax:
 You cannot specify the (+) operator in a query block that also contains ANSI
 JOIN syntax.
 If A and B are joined by multiple join conditions, you must use the (+)
operator in all of these conditions. If you do not, Oracle will return only the
rows resulting from a simple join, but without a warning or error to advise
you that you do not have the results of an outer join.
 A condition containing the (+) operator cannot be combined with another
condition using the OR logical operator.
 A condition cannot use the IN comparison condition to compare a column
marked with the (+) operator with an expression.
 A condition cannot compare any column marked with the (+) operator with a
sub-query.
46
Subqueries:
Sub queries can be used to answer queries such as "who has a salary more
than Tom's". For such query, two queries have to be executed: the first query finds
Tom's salary and the second finds those whose salary is greater than Tom's. Sub
query is an approach provides the capability of embedding the first query into the
other: Oracle executes the sub query first, making the result of the sub query
available to the main query and then executing the main query.
The syntax of sub query is
SELECT <column, ...>
FROM <table>
WHERE expression operator
( SELECT <column, ...>
FROM <table>
WHERE <condition>)
For example, the following statement answers the described query above.
Note that:
 a subquery must be enclosed in the parenthesis.
 a subquery must be put in the right hand of the comparison operator, and
 a subquery cannot contain a ORDER-BY clause.
 a query can contain more than one sub-queries.
three types subqueries:
 single-row subquery, where the subquery returns only one row.
 multiple-row subquery, where the subquery returns multiple rows,.and
 multiple column subquery, where the subquery returns multiple columns.
Single-Row Subquery:
Single-row subqueries can only be used with single-row comparison operators, and
multiple-row subqueries can be used only with multiple-row operators. They are to
be described separately in the following.
The operators that can be used with single-row subqueires are =, >, >=, <, <=,
and <>.
Group functions can be used in the subquery. For example, the following statement
retrieve the details of the employee holding the highest salary.
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal = (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp)
Having-clause can also be used with the single-row subquery. For example, the
following statement returns all departments in where the minimum salary is more
than the minimum salary in the department 5.
47
SELECT deptno
,MIN(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING MIN(sal) > (SELECT MIN(sal)
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 5);
SELECT empno
,ename
,job
,sal
,deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN(SELECT deptno
FROM dept
WHERE loc = 'CHICAGO');
Multiple-Row Subquery:
Note the following statement is illegal, because the operator = cannot be used with
subquery returns multiple rows.
Some operators that can be used with multipe-row subqueries are:
1. IN, equal to any member in the list,
2. ANY, compare values to each value returned by the subquery.
3. ALL, compare values to each value returned by the subquery.
Example:
SELECT ename,sal
FROM emp
WHERE sal IN(SELECT MIN(sal)
FROM emp GROUP BY deptno)
Operators:
 <ANY
 <ALL
 >ANY
 >ALL
<ANY : Maximum Value of Subquery(1300)
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal <ANY(SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY
deptno);
<ALL : Minimum Value of Subquery(800)
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal <ALL(SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY
deptno);
>ANY : Minimum Value of Subquery(800)
48
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >ANY (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY
deptno)
>ALL : Maximum Value of Subquery(1300)
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >ALL (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY
deptno)
Multiple-Column Subquery:
In multiple-column subqueries, rows in the subquery results are evaluated in the
main query in pair-wise comparison. That is, column-to-column comparison and
row-to-row comparison.
Note that you can put a subquery in the FROM clause in the main query.
For example, the following statement finds all employees in each department where
their salary is above the average.
Example :
SELECT a.ename
,a.sal
,a.deptno
,b.sal_avg
FROM emp a
,(SELECT deptno
,AVG(sal) sal_avg
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) b
WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno
AND a.sal > b.sal_avg;
Correlated Oracle subquery:

A correlated Oracle subquery is evaluated once FOR EACH ROW as opposed to a
normal subquery which is evaluated only once for each table.
You can reference the outer query inside the correlated subquery using an alias
which makes it so handy to use.
Let's select all employees whose salary is less than the average of all the
employees' salaries in the same department.
SELECT ename
,sal
,deptno
FROM emp a
WHERE a.sal < (SELECT AVG(sal)
49
FROM emp b
WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno);
Using a correlated subquery in an update:
UPDATE emp a
SET sal = (SELECT AVG(sal)
FROM emp b
WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno)
WHERE sal < (SELECT AVG(sal)
FROM emp c
WHERE a.deptno = c.deptno);
correlated subquery in a delete:
Lets delete the highest earning employees in each department.
DELETE FROM emp a WHERE a.sal = (SELECT MAX(sal)

FROM emp b WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno);
Views:
Views are known as logical tables. They represent the data of one of more
tables. A view derives its data from the tables on which it is based. These tables are
called base tables. Views can be based on actual tables or another view also.
Whatever DML operations you performed on a view they actually affect the base
table of the view. You can treat views same as any other table. You can Query,
Insert, Update and delete from views, just as any other table.
Views are very powerful and handy since they can be treated just like any other
table but do not occupy the space of a table.
A view is a named and validated SQL query which is stored in the Oracle data
dictionary. Views do not contain any data - it is just a stored query in the database
that can be executed when called. One can think of a view as a virtual table or
mapping of data from one or more tables.
Views are useful for security and information hiding, but can cause problems if
nested too deeply. Some of the advantages of using views:
 Reduce the complexity of SQL statements

 Share only specific rows in a table with other users
 Hide the NAME and OWNER of the base table
50
Types of Views:
 Simple View
 Complex View
 Inline view
 Materialized View
Simple View:
Simple view derives data from only one table and simple view contain no functions
or group of data simple view always allow DML operation through the view.
Example1:
CREATE VIEW myview
AS
SELECT empno employee_no
,ename NAME
,sal salary
,job job
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 20;
Example2:
CREATE VIEW myview1(emloyee_no
,NAME
,salary
,job
)
AS
SELECT empno
,ename
,sal
,job
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 20;
Complex View:
Complex view derives data from many table and complex view contain function or
group of data and Complex view does not always allow.
Complex views can be constructed on more than one base table. In particular,
complex views can contain:
 join conditions
 group by clause
 order by clause
51
One cannot perform DML operations against complex views directly. To enable DML
operations on complex views one needs to write INSTEAD OF triggers to tell Oracle
how the changes relate to the base table(s).
Example1:
CREATE VIEW v3
AS
SELECT e.*
FROM emp e
,dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno
Inline View:
An inline view is a SELECT statement in the FROM-clause of another SELECT
statement. In-line views are commonly used simplify complex queries by removing
join operations and perform several separate queries into a single query.
Example1 :
SELECT *
FROM (SELECT deptno
,COUNT(*) emp_count
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) emp
,dept
WHERE dept.deptno = emp.deptno;
Example2:
SELECT a.ename
,a.sal
,a.deptno
,b.maxsal
FROM emp a
,(SELECT deptno
,MAX(sal) maxsal
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) b
WHERE a.deptno = b.deptno
AND a.sal = b.maxsal;
Materialized View:
A materialized view is a database object that contains the results of a query. The
FROM clause of the query can name tables, views, and other materialized
views.There are three steps involved in creating a materialized view
 Grant the necessary privileges
 Create the materialized view log
52
 Create the materialized view itself
grant create materialized view to scott;
Privilege grant query rewrite to scott;
Note: you must have privileges on the underlying tables
create table dept (
Create table (if one does not
dept_id number primary key,
exists)
description varchar2(50));
Create Materialized view log create materialized view log on scott.dept;
create materialized view m_dept
build immediate
refresh fast on commit
enable query rewrite
as
select * from dept;
Create Materialized view
build immediate - populate the materialized view right
away
refresh fast on commit - use the fast refresh method using
the logs create above
enable query rewrite - Oracle CBO will rewrite queries to
use the new materialized view.
exec dbms_mview.refresh('m_dept','F');
F = Fast refresh
Refresh a materialized view C = Complete refresh
? = Force refresh
A = Always refresh
exec dbms_mview.refresh.estimate_mview_size (
stmt_id IN VARCHAR2,
Determine Materialized view
select_clause IN VARCHAR2,
size
num_rows OUT NUMBER,
num_bytes OUT NUMBER);
Removing Materialized Views drop materialized view test_mview;
Using the WITH CHECK OPTION clause:
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW myview

AS
SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 20
53
WITH CHECK OPTION CONSTRAINT myview_ck;
CREATE VIEW d20

AS
SELECT ename
,sal
,deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = 20
WITH CHECK OPTION;
UPDATE d20 SET deptno = 10
Read-only views:
CREATE VIEW clerk(id_number
,person
,department
,POSITION
)
AS
SELECT empno
,ename
,deptno
,job
FROM emp
WHERE job = 'CLERK'
WITH READ ONLY ;
Rules for performing DML Operations on a view:

 You can perform DML operations on Simple views.
 You cannot remove a row if the view contains the following:
o Group functions such as SUM, MIN, MAX, AVG, …
o A GROUP BY clause.
o The DISTINCT keyword.
 You cannot modify data in a view if it contains:
o Group functions such as SUM, MIN, MAX, AVG, …
o A GROUP BY clause.
o The DISTINCT keyword.
o Columns defined by expressions (i.e, SAL * 12).
o The ROWNUM pseudo column.
 You cannot add data if:
o The view contains any of the conditions mentioned above.
54
o There are NOT NULL columns in the base tables that are not selected
by the view.
Synonyms:
Synonyms are aliases for objects within the database, they are used to make life
easier for users, they hide the objects identity and can be
either public or private. public are accessible to all users, and private synonyms are
part on an individual users schema, so the user has to grant privilege right to other
users. Synonyms can be created for
 tables
 views (including materialized views)
 stored code (packages and procedures)
They are used to allow users access to objects that lie outside their own schema.
There are two major uses of synonyms
 Object transparency - keep original names from the users
 Location transparency - hide the location of the object as it could be on
another database not the local one.
create public synonym employees for test.employees;
Creating public
Note: any user can use the synonym above
Creating private create synonym addresses for hr.locations;
Removing drop synonym addresses;
Useful Views
DBA_SYNONYMS describes all synonyms in the database
lists all indexes, tables, views, clusters, synonyms, and
DBA_CATALOG
sequences in the database
Sequences
Oracle has a automatic sequence generator that can produce a unique set of
numbers, normally the numbers are used for primary keys. It is possible to cache
the sequence numbers making the numbers ready and available in memory which
improves performance, however if the system was to crash those sequences
numbers are lost forever so be careful if the application requires no loss of
sequence numbers.
There are a number of options that can be used when creating a sequence
create sequence employee_id_seq
Creating
start with 1000
55
increment by 1
nomaxvalue
nocycle;
start with - you can choose any number you like to start with
increment by - you can increment by any number
nomaxvalue - just keep on going
nocycle - you can recycle the list
Removing drop sequence employee_id_seq;
alter sequence employee_id_seq cache 100;
caching
Note: remember you will lose the cache values during a system
(default 20)
crash.
select employee_id_seq.nextval from dual;
select employee_id_seq.currval from dual;
Using
Note: If using "currval" in you get error message “is not yet
defined in this session” must use nextval first.
Oracle Indexes:
Oracle indexes provides faster access to table rows by storing sorted values
in specific columns and using those sorted values to easily lookup the associated
table rows. This means that you can lookup data without having to look at more
than a small fraction of the total rows within the table, they are completely
optional.
The trade off is that you get faster retrieval but inserting data is slower as the index
needs to be updated, this slower inserting is bad news for OLTP type of databases
but in a data warehouse type of database where inserting is at a minimal indexes
can be used heavily.
Index Types
Based on unique column, something like national
insurance number. It is better to use unique
Unique/non-Unique
constraints on a tables columns which means oracle
will create a unique index on those columns.
Primary indexes are unique indexes that must always
have a value, they cannot be NULL. Secondary indexes
Primary/Secondary
are other indexes in the same table that may not be
unique.
Indexes that contain two or more columns from the
Composite same table, they are useful for enforcing uniqueness in
(concatenated) a tables column where there's no single column that
can uniquely identify a row.
56
Index Guidelines:
Here are some guidelines from creating efficient indexes:
 Index if you need to access no more than 10-15% of the data in the table. A
full table scan (read all the table) is better if you intend to retrieve a high
percentage of the table data, this is because a index read requires two reads
 Do not use indexes on small tables, a full table scan would be fine.
 Create primary keys for all tables as a index will be created by default.
 Index the columns that are involved in multi-table join operations
 Index columns that are used frequently in where clauses.
 Index columns that are involved in order by, group by,
union and distinct operations.
 Columns that have long character strings are bad for indexing
 Columns that are frequently update are bad for indexing
 Choose tables where few rows have similar values
 Keep the number of indexes small, to many will cause performance problems
on inserting data.
Index size estimation:
Just like oracle tables you can estimate the size of an index using the DBMS_SPACE
package
set serveroutput on
declare
l_index_ddl varchar2(1000);
l_used_bytes number;
l_allocated_bytes number;
begin
dbms_space.create_index_cost (
ddl=>'create index persons_idx on test01.emp(emp_id)',
used_bytes=>l_used_bytes,
estimating alloc_bytes=>l_allocated_bytes);
dbms_output.put_line ('used = ' || l_used_bytes || 'bytes'
|| ' allocated = ' || l_allocated_bytes || 'bytes');
end;
/
Note:
used - shows the number of bytes that the index data actually represents
allocated - show the number of bytes the index will take up in the
tablespace when you actual create it
57
Oracle Index schemes:
 B*Tree Indexes - These are the common indexes in Oracle. They are similar
construct to a binary tree, they provide fast access by key, to an individual
row or range of rows, normally requiring very few reads to find the correct
row. The B*Tree index has several subtypes
o Index Organized Tables - A table stored in a B*Tree structure
(see Index organized Tables)
o B*Tree Cluster Indexes - They are used to index the cluster keys
(see Cluster Indexes)
o Reverse Key Indexes - The bytes in the key are reversed. This is used
to stop sequence keys being on the same block like 999001, 999002,
999003 would be reversed to 100999, 200999, 300999 thus these
would be located on different blocks.
o Descending Indexes - They allow data to be sorted from big to small
(descending) instead of small to big (ascending).
 Bitmap Indexes - With a bitmap index , a single index entry uses a bitmap to
point to many rows simultaneously, they are used with low data that is
mostly read-only. They should not be used with OLTP systems.
 Function Based Indexes - These are B*Tree or bitmap indexes that store the
computed result of a function on a row(s) - not the column data itself.
 Partition Indexes - These indexes are used to index partitioned tables, there
are two types local and global.
B-Tree Indexes vs Bitmap Indexes
B-tree Index Bitmap Index
Good for high-cardinality data Good for low-cardinality data
Good for OLTP databases (lots of Good for data warehousing
updating) applications
Use a large amount of space Use relatively little space
Easy to update Difficult to update
B*Tree Indexes:
In general B*Tree index would be placed on columns that were frequently used in
the predicate of a query and expect some small fraction of the data from the table
to be returned. It's purely a function on how large of a percentage of the table you
will need to access via the index and how the data happens to be laid out. If you
can use the index to answer the question accessing a large percentage of the rows
makes sense, since you are avoiding the extra scattered I/O to read the table. If
you use the index to access the table you will need to ensure you are processing a
small percentage of the total table.
Reserve key indexes are the same as B-tree indexes except that the byes of the
key column data are reserved during indexing, the column order is kept intact only
58
the bytes are reserved. A big advantage is that data is distributed evenly which
avoid hot spots within the index.
create index employee_id on employee(employee_id)

Creating
tablespace index01;
Creating reverse Key create index reserve_idx on employee(emp_id) reserve;
Removing drop index test_idx;
Moving alter index test_idx rebuild tablespace index01;
Renaming alter index test_idx rename to test99_idx;
alter index test_idx coalesce;
Coalescing
Note: this is a quick and dirty rebuild
alter index sales_idx rebuild;

Rebuilding alter index sales_idx rebuild compute statistics;
Note: it is worth doing this regularly
Rebuilding online alter index sales_idx rebuild online;
alter index p_key_sales monitoring usage;
select * from v$object_usage where
Index Usage
index_name='p_key_sales';
Note: use this command to confirm if a index is being used
column column_name format a50;
Display indexed columns
select index_name, table_name, column_name from
for a table
user_ind_columns;
Useful Views
DBA_INDEXES describes all indexes in the database
describes the columns of all the indexes on all tables and
DBA_IND_COLUMNS
clusters in the database
lists expressions of function-based indexes on all tables and
DB_IND_EXPRESSONS
clusters in the database
stores information from the last ANALYZE INDEX ... VALIDATE
INDEX_STATS
STRUCTURE statement
You can use this view to monitor index usage. The view
displays statistics about index usage gathered from the
v$OBJECT_USAGE
database. All indexes that have been used at least once can be
monitored and displayed in this view.
59
Bitmap Indexes:
Bitmap indexes are structures that store pointers to many rows with a single index
key entry. In a bitmap index there will be a very small number of index entries,
each of which point to many rows. Bitmap indexes are best used on low cardinality
data, this is were the number of distinct items in the set of rows divided by the
number of rows is a small number for example a gender column may have MF, F
and NULL. If you had a table with 20000 rows you would find that 3/20000 =
0.00015, this would be an ideal candidate for a bitmap index.
Remember also that a single bitmap entry key points to many rows. If a session
modifies the index then all of the rows that the index points to are effectively
locked. Oracle cannot lock an individual bit in a bitmap index entry; it locks the
entire bitmap, this will seriously inhibit concurrency as each update will appear to
lock potentially hundreds of rows preventing their bitmap columns from being
concurrently updated.
An Oracle bitmap index would look like
Value/Row 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Analyst 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
Clerk 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
Manager 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
President 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Saleman 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Using the above table you can see that rows 1, 4, 6, 7, 11, 12 and 14 would
represent a manager and clerk.
create bitmap index job_desc_idx on employee(job_desc) tablespace
Creating
index01;
Function Based Indexes:

Function-Based indexes give the ability to index computed columns and use theses
indexes in a query, it allows you to have case insensitive searches or sorts, search
complex equations and to extends the SQL language by implementing your own
functions and operators and then searching on them. The main reason to use them
are:
 They are easy to implement and provide immediate value
 They can be used to speed up existing applications without changing the
application code or queries.
There is some work that needs to be done before you can use Function-based
indexes
60
 You must have the privilege QUERY REWRITE to create function-based
indexes on tables in your own schema
 You must have the privilege GLOBAL QUERY REWRITE to create function-
based indexes on tables in your own schema
 Function-based indexes only use the cost based optimizer (CBO) and never
the rule base optimizer (RBO)
 Use SUBSTR to constrain return values from user written functions that
return VARCHAR2 or RAW types. Optionally hide the SUBSTR in a view
(preferred).
 For the optimizer to use function-based indexes, the following session or
system variables must be set:
o QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED=TRUE (means allow optimizer to rewrite
the query to use function-based index)
o QUERY_REWRITE_INTEGRITY=TRUSTED (means that the optimizer
should trust the code of the programmer
You can enable the above with the ALTER SESSION or at the system level via
ALTER SYSTEM or by setting them in in the init.ora file. Function-based indexes will
affect the performance of inserts and updates, if you insert or update frequently
this may not be an option for you.
Creating create index lastname_idx on employee(LOWER(l_name));
Partition Indexes:
There are two types of index global and local
 Local - Indexes are partitioned against the partitions, so for an example if a
table is partitioned 12 ways using a range then there will be 12 indexes one
for each partition, so they have a one-to-one relationship.
 Global - Global indexes have no such relationship, but can be either
partitioned or non-partitioned
There is substantial maintenance involved when using globally partitioned indexes,
when ever there is DDL (update, add, coalesce, exchange, merge, move, split or
truncate) against the table the whole index has to be rebuilt as the DDL will mark
the index unusable. To stop the DDL marking the table unusable you need to
include the UPDATE GLOBAL INDEX statement otherwise the entire index will be
invalidated. You can also hash the index which will reduce high contention of the
leaf blocks. Local indexes have a one-to-one relationship, if any DDL activity is used
against the partition only the index for that partition is invalidated, oracle will also
automatically rebuild the partition, these are the big advantages to using local
partition indexing.
61
create index ticket_sales_idx on ticket_sales(month)
global partition by range(month)
(partition ticketsales1_idx values less than (3)
Create Global index
partition ticketsales2_idx values less than (6)
partition ticketsales3_idx values less than (9)
partition ticketsales4_idx values less than (maxvalue);
create index hg_idx on tab (c1,c2,c3)
global partition by hash (c1,c2)
Create Global hash (partition p1 tablespace tbs_1,
Index partition p2 tablespace tbs_2,
partition p3 tablespace tbs_3,
partition p4 tablespace tbs_4);
create index ticket_no_idx on ticket_sales(ticket_no) local
Create Local Index
tablespace index01;
Dictionary tables:
 USER_CONSTRAINTS used to view the constraints defined for a specific table.

 USER_CONS_COLUMNS used to view the constraints defined for a specific
columns,
 USER_VIEWS used to see the name of the view and the view definition.
 USER_SEQUENCES used to view the settings of the sequence.
 USER_SYNONYMS used to view owner and table name for specific synonym.
 USER_CLUSTERS used to view the settings of the cluster.
 USER_INDEXES used to view the settings of the indexes.
 USER_IND_COLUMNS used to view which column involved in an index.
 USER_OBJECTS used to view the database objects and its settings.
 USER_TAB_COMMENTS used to view the table comments.
 USER_COL_COMMENTS used to view the column comments.
62

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Structured English Query Language (“SEQUEL”) was developed by IBM Corporation

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

 Unfortunately, there are many different versions of the SQL language,but to

Five Sub-Languages in SQL:

Rules for creating a table:

CREATE TABLE [schema.]<table_name>

E.g: CREATE TABLE dept

The DEFAULT Option:

E.g: CREATE TABLE emp

The ALTER Command:

Syntax: ALTER TABLE <table_name>

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp ADD grade CHAR(1);

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp ADD (pf NUMBER(7,2),esi NUMBER(7,2) );

The Modify clause:

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY grade VARCHAR2(10);

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp DROP COLUMN comm;

The Rename clause:

E.g: ALTER TABLE emp RENAME COLUMN sal TO salary;

The DROP command:

Syntax: DROP TABLE <table_name>;

E.g: RENAME dept TO department;

The TRUNCATE command:

Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <table_name>;

 DML statements enable manipulation of data in the existing oracle schema

E.g: INSERT INTO dept VALUES (50, 'HRD', 'Chennai');

Inserting Default Values (9i):

E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname) VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');

Inserting Null Values:

E.g: INSERT INTO dept (deptno, dname) VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');

Inserting Special Values:

Inserting Specific Date Format:

E.g: INSERT INTO emp (empno, ename, hiredate)

Copying Rows from Another Table:

Syntax: INSERT INTO table [column (, column…)] subquery;

E.g: INSERT INTO emp2 SELECT * FROM emp;

Syntax: UPDATE [schema.]{<table_name> | <view_name>}

WHERE Clause with UPDATE Statement:

Updating more than one column values:

Updating with Default, Null and Special Values:

Updating rows using substitution variables:

Syntax: DELETE [FROM] [schema.]{<table_name> | <view_name>}

E.g: DELETE emp;

Unconditional INSERT: ALL into_clause

Syntax: INSERT [ALL] [insert_into_clause values_clause] (sub-query);

E.g: INSERT ALL

Syntax: INSERT [ALL] [WHEN condition THEN]

Syntax: INSERT [FIRST] [WHEN condition THEN]

E.g: INSERT FIRST

When Does a Transaction Start?

Syntax: SAVEPOINT <savepoint_name>;

Syntax: ROLLBACK TO <savepoint_name>;

Syntax: CREATE USER user IDENTIFIED BY password;

Changing Your Password:

E.g: ALTER USER scott IDENTIFIED BY lion;

E.g: SELECT rownum, rowid FROM emp;

To display the Structure of a tables:

E.g: SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job = 'MANAGER';

Special Comparison Operators:

E.g: SELECT ename, sal FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE('S%');

Sorting Rows using ORDER BY clause

Types of Single Row Functions:

E.g: SELECT ename, TRANSLATE(ename, 'ALT', 'alt') FROM emp; ---replacement