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A Tale of Fish Scale:
Journey from Waste to Resource
Fish Scales as a Waste Product of the
Aquaculture Industry
Aquaculture allows for the cultivation of freshwater and saltwater
fish populations under controlled conditions, and has been steadily
growing at a rate of 8% per year since the 1980s (source: Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations). As a result
of heavy consumption of fish worldwide, a considerable amount
of fish waste is produced yearly. According to the Agri-Food &
Veterinary Authority (AVA) of Singapore, Singapore’s consumption
of fish is estimated to be 100,000 tonnes per year of which about
5% is accounted for by local foodfish aquaculture. Similar to most
food industries, food-processing operations produce waste, both
in solid (e.g. scales, fins, tails, bones, viscera, skin, heads) as well
as liquid (e.g. water discharge from cleaning and rinsing, brine,
bloodwater) form. Hence, there is an increasing need to address
waste management of fish and fish products. One promising
approach is to come up with innovative ways of transforming and
using the waste products; instead of merely managing the issue
of waste disposal, the primary waste products are converted into
useful secondary products.
Fig. 1. Commonly farmed fish species (a) Tilapia; (b) Asian sea bass/barramundi
and (c) Snakehead.
Using Fish Scale-Derived Materials
Collagen is the most abundant and ubiquitous protein in the
body of the vertebrates as major component of extracellular
matrix (ECM). As a biomaterial, it has good biocompatibility and
can be degraded into physiologically well-tolerated compounds.
For this reason, collagen has attracted great interest in areas
of drug delivery and wound healing applications. In addition,
by Cleo Choong
Fig. 2. (a) Cross-ply arrangement of collagen fibrils in fish scales; (b) morphology
of the fish scales.
it is widely used as a biomaterial in tissue engineering for the
development of scaffold either alone or in combination with
other materials to fabricate porous scaffolds for bone graft,
cartilage, skin replacement, artificial blood vessel etc. In terms of
clinical applications, collagen has been used as a filler material for
orthopaedic and dental applications, as well as for wound healing
in cosmetic surgery.
Currently, the main source of industrial collagen is from skin
or bones of pig and bovine. However, since the outbreaks of mad
cow disease as well as foot-and-mouth disease in pigs, anxieties
regarding the uses of mammalian-sourced collagen have arisen.
Besides, the use of collagen from pigs is prohibited in some regions
due to religious reasons. Consequently, this has motivated research
efforts toward finding alternative sources of collagen, such as fish
scale-derived collagen.
In nature, the primary purpose of fish scales is to provide
external protection. The large diversity of fish species also results
in scales varying in size, shape, structure and composition (Figure
1). Nevertheless, the structure of the fish scale generally consists
of two layers: a thin, well-calcified external layer called the bony
layer, and a thick, partially calcified internal layer referred to as
the basal plate, which consists of mainly type 1 collagen fibrils
(Figure 2). The structure and composition of the bony layer is very
similar to that of woven bone, which also consists of hydroxyapatite
crystals and randomly oriented type I collagen fibrils. Consequently,
the use of fish scales for bone tissue engineering applications is
highly promising.

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Indeed, hydroxyapatite is the other useful material that can
be extracted from fish scales, since it is commonly used as a
filler material for both bone and dental applications. Presently,
commercially available hydroxyapatite is usually chemically
synthesized. An alternative to the synthetically-derived
hydroxyapatite is to isolate the material directly from fish scales. By
harvesting both collagen and hydroxyapatite from fish scales, waste
generation can be reduced and in fact, be converted to useful
materials for biomedical and regenerative medicine purposes.
Moreover, fish scales are readily available and at no cost since they
are currently treated as a waste material, as they are inedible and
is not a source of income for the fish farms.
Recently, the biocompatibility of fish scales-derived scaffold,
has been demonstrated in its clinical application as a scaffold to
cultivate corneal cells for corneal regeneration. Therefore, there
is huge potential for using fish scales, an abundantly available
(waste) material, as sources of both nature-derived collagen
and hydroxyapatite for biomedical applications. It is also worth
noting that fish scales are also being considered for other novel
applications such as for the removal of heavy metals from energy-
produced waste streams, production of protein rich fertilizer,
bioindicator of heavy metal pollution, fabrication of bioplastics,
material for body armor, source of health supplement and a healthy
alternative to diary-based dessert products.
NTU Provost Awarded
Imperial College Fellowship
P
rovost of Nanyang Technological University (NTU),
Professor Freddy Boey, was awarded the prestigious
Faculty of Medicine Fellowship by Imperial College
London on 12 February 2013 for his contributions to the field of
medicine.
The fellowship was accorded to Prof Boey in recognition
of his exceptional achievements in medical technology and his
outstanding contributions to the development of the Lee Kong
Chian School of Medicine — a joint medical school between NTU
and Imperial College.
Over the last three years, Prof Boey has won more than S$36
million in research grants. This includes S$10million from the
National Research Foundation’s Competitive Research Programme
to develop fully biodegradable cardiovascular implants for hole-
in-the-heart conditions.
A renowned serial inventor with 25 global patents to his
name, Prof Boey is passionate about research and education. He
has invented breakthrough biomedical devices such as the world’s
smallest piezoelectric heart pump, a disposable surgical tissue
retractor that keeps wounds open during surgery as well as several
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On-Going Fish Scale-Based Projects
As part of a collaborative project with the School of Biological
Science (Assistant Professor Andrew Tan) under the Nanyang
Environment and Water Research Institute — Interdisciplinary
Graduate School (NEWRI-IGS) program, on-going research is
being carried out to fabricate novel bioscaffolds and coating
materials for biomedical applications that utilize fish scale-derived
materials. Overall, this interdisciplinary project will explore the
theme of waste-to-resource with regards to the use of fish scales
for biomedical applications.
Also, since one of the natural functions of fish scales is to
act as a protective shield against predators and injury, on-going
projects under the Young Defence Scientists Programme (YDSP)
include the development of fish scale-inspired body armor, in
which the theme of biomimetics is explored. By studying the
composition and structural properties of fish scales in more detail,
it may be possible to develop man-made body armor that mimics
the protective function of fish scales.
Cleo Choong is an Assistant Professor in the School of Materials Science
and Engineering at Nanyang Technological University. For more information
about the article, please contact her at cleochoong@ntu.edu.sg.
types of stents that release different drugs for heart patients.
Among his most recent creations is a hernia mesh, a new
surgical mesh that repairs tears in abdominal walls caused by
various reasons such as injuries, pregnancy, surgery or aging, and
makes them stronger. It is the first-of-its-kind to be approved for
sale by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
The home-grown hernia mesh is now marketed and developed
by NTU start-up company Medlinx Acacia, founded in 2009
by Prof Boey and his business partner Mr Tang King Fai, the
company’s Chief Executive Officer.
With FDA approval for its hernia mesh, Medlinx Acacia is now
looking to get approval from Singapore’s Health Sciences Authority
for the product to be marketed locally, and is also in talks with
Singapore hospitals to carry out clinical trials.
Prof Boey joins an illustrious list of Fellows such as UK’s first
female professor of surgery, Professor Averil Mansfield; Director of
the UK’s Medical Research Council (MRC), Dr Pontiano Kaleebu;
Chief Medical Officer of England, Professor Dame Sally Davies;
and inventor Professor Mark Brian Pepys who was knighted in the
2012 New Year Honours for services to Biomedicine.
Imperial College’s Faculty of Medicine Fellowship is
awarded annually to those who have demonstrated outstanding
achievements or who have rendered exceptional service to the
Faculty. They are also awarded to those of outstanding distinction
in the appropriate fields, whom the Faculty wishes to honor.