EETPaperIIIYR2 PDF

UNIT 1
Measuring & Testing of

Components
Structure
1.1 Measurement of AC/DC voltage and currents using voltmeter and
current meters
1.2 Regulated power supply
1.3 Measurement of voltages, currents & resistance using analog &
digital multimeter & continuity test
1.4 Test & measure the values of capacitor using R.L.C meter & com
pare with the marked / color code value
1.5 Transformer testing
1.6 Test the given loud speaker and measure the voice call resistance
using multimeter
1.7 Test the working of different types of switches relays connectors
Learning Objectives
After studying this uint, student will be able to
• Able to measure AC DC voltage and DC current by using voltmetre
and Ammeter
• Application of regulated DC power supply
• Measurement of voltage, current and resistance by using Analog and
Digital Multimeter
274 Electronics Engineering Technician
• Measurement of Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance by using digi

tal LCR meter, Color Code.
• Testing of Transformer, Measurement of DC resistance
• Measurement of Voice coil resistance of the loudspeaker.
• Study of Switches, Relays, Connectors and Cables.
1.1 Measurement of AC/DC voltage and currents using
voltmeter and current meters
Voltage Definition
Voltage can be defined as potential difference between two points in a
electric circuit. A voltmeter is used for measuring a voltage in a electrical circuit
the units for voltage are “volts”.
Analog Voltmeter
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage of the circuit.
Digital Voltmeter
Digital voltmeter gives a numerical value of voltage on display system.
AC Voltmeter
To measure ac voltage the output ac voltage is rectified by half wave
rectifier before the current passes through the meter across the meter the other
diode serves as a protection. The diode conducts when a reverse voltage appears
across the diode. So that current by passes the meter in the reverse direction.
+ -
1000 V
326  1M
500 V
638  D1 D2
500K 
1540 
250 V
400K 
53  2.2 
50 V
80K 
10 V
Fig 1.1 AC Voltmeter

Paper - III Measuring Instruments, Consumer & Power Electronics 275
Multirange AC Voltmeter
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 D1
D2 Rsh Rm
250 V
1000 V
50 V
1500 V 10 V
2.5 V
AC i/p
Fig 1.2 Multirange AC Voltmeter
This is the circuit for measuring different ac voltages resistances

R1,R2,R3,R4&R5 from a chain of multiplier for voltage ranges of
1500V,1000V,250V,50V&10V respectively on the 2.5V range, resistance R6
acts as a multiplier and corresponds to the multiplier Rs. Rsh is the meter shunt
and acts to improve the rectifier operation.
DC Voltmeter
Dc voltmeter is necessary, to know the amount of current required to
deflect the basic meter to full scale. This current is known as full scale deflection
(Ifsd)
A basic D‘Arsonval movement can be converted into a dc voltmeter by
adding a series resistor known as multiplier. The function of the multiplier is to
limit the current through the movement so that the current dosenot exceed the
FSD value.
Rs
Im
V
Rm
Fig 1.3 DC Voltmeter
Im = fsd current of the movement Ifsd

Rm = initial resistance of movement
Rs = multiplier resistance
V= full range voltage of the instrument

V = Im (Rs+Rm)
Im = _V___
(Rs+Rm)
Rs = V- ImRm
Im
Problem 1
A basic D‘Arsonval movement with a fsd of 50µA and internal resistance
of 500&is used as a voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance
needed to measure a voltage range of (0-10V)?
Sol
Rs = V Rm
Im
= 10V 500
50µA
= 0.2×106 -500 = 200K – 500
Multirange Voltmeter
To obtain a multirange voltmeter, we connect a number of resistors along
with a range switch to provide a greater number of workable ranges.
The multipliers are connected in a series string and range selector selects
the appropriate amount of resistance required in series with the movement.
+
Im
+
-
Rm
Fig 1.3 Multirange Voltmeter

R1 R2 R3 R4
Im
V1 V2 V3
+ Rm
V4
-
Fig 1.4 Multipliers connected in series string
This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one because

all multiplier resistance value and are also easily available in precision tolerance.
The first resistor or low range multiplier R4 is the only special resistor
which has to be specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.
Problem 2
Convert a basic D‘Arsonval movement with an internal resistance of
50&and a fsd Current of 2mA into a multirange dc voltmeter with voltage
ranges of 0-10V, 0-50V,0-100V,0-250V?
Sol
0-250 V 0-100 V 0-50 V 0-10 V
V1 V2 V3
-
Fig 1.5
10V range(V4 position of switch) the total circuit resistance
Rt = = 5K&
R4 = Rt-Rm =5k-50=4950&
for 50V range (V3 position of switch) the total circuit resistance
Rt = = = 25K&
R3 = Rt - (R4+Rm) = 25×103-(5×103)
R3 = 20K&
for 100V range (V2 position) Rt = = 50K&
R2 = Rt – (R3+R4+Rm)
= 50×103 – [4950+20K&  +50K&]
R2 = 25K&
for 250V range (V1 position)
Rt = = 125k&
R1 = 125×103 - [4950+25×103+20×103+50]
= 125×103 - [5×103+25×103+20×103]
= 125×103 – 50K = 75K&
Rt = R1+Rm+R2+R3+R4
= 75+25+20+4950+50
= 125K &
Extending Voltage range
The voltmeter can be extended to measure high voltages by using a high
voltage probe or by using an external multiplier resistor. In most meters the
basic movement can be used to measure very low voltage. However great care
must be used not to exceed the voltage drop required for full scale deflection of
the basic movement.
External
multiplier
Meter set to lowest

current range To leads
Fig 1.6 Extending Voltage range

Measurement of Current using Ammeter

Ammeter
Battery
Lamp
Fig 1.7 Measurement of Current using Ammeter
DC Current Measurements
Electronic voltmeters are frequently constructed to act as multipurpose

instruments so that they can be used to measure current as well as voltage. The
unknown current is made to flow through a known standard resistance. The
voltage drop across this resistance is proportional to the current and is measured
by a VTVM or a TVM. The scale of the meter is calibrated in terms of current
AC Current Measurement
When alternating current is to be measured a rectifier to change the

alternating current into a corresponding direct current .Which is then measured
by VTVM ot TVM.
Another method employs an AC current probe which enables the AC

current to be measured without disturbing the circuit under test. The AC current
probe clips around the wire carrying the current and in effect makes the wire a
one turn primary of a current transformer(C.T). The C.T has a ferrite core and
the secondary consists of a large number of turns.
The voltage induced in the secondary winding is amplified and the

amplifier’s output can be measured by any suitable AC voltmeter. Normally the
amplifier is designed so that 1mA current in the wire being measured produces
1mV at the amplifier output. The current is then read directly on the voltmeter
using the same scale as for voltage measurements.
DC Ammeter
I
+ Im
Ish +
Rsh
Rm -
-
Fig 1.8 DC Ammeter
The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a pmmc galvanometer. Since

the coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only very
small currents. When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass
a major part of the current through a resistance called a shunt.
The resistance of shunt can be calculated by using conventional circuit
analysis.
Rin = Internal resistance of the movement of the coil
Rsh = Resistance of the shunt
Im = Full scale deflection current of the movement
Ish = shunt current
I = full scale current of the ammeter including the shunt
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel. With the meter measurement the
voltage drop across shunt and movement must be same.
Vsh = Vin
Ish×Rsh = Im×Rm
But
Ish = I - Im
Hence
For each required value of full scale meter current. We can determine
the value of shunt resistance.
Ex : A 1mA meter movement with a an internal resistance of 100&! is

to be converted into a 0-100mA. Calculate the value of shunt resistance
required?
Sol
Given Rn = 100&
Im = 1mA, I = 100mA
The shunt resistance used with a basic movement may consist of a length
of constant temp resistance wire within the case of the instrument. Alternatively,
these may be an external (manganin or constantan) shunt having a very low
resistance.
The general requirements of a shunt as follows
1. The temperature coefficients of the shunt and instrument should be
low and nearly identical.
2. The resistance of the current shunt should not vary with time.
3. It should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
4. It should have a low thermal emf with copper.
Extending the Range of DC Ammeter
+ Im
R1 R2 R3 R4
+ D’Arsonval
Rm
- movement
Fig 1.9 Extending the Range of DC Ammeter
The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a

number of shunts, selected by a range switch, S- such a meter is called “Multirange
Ammeter” shown in fig.
The circuit has four shunts R1,R2,R3&R4 which can be placed in parallel
with the movement to give four different current ranges I1,I2,I3&I4.
Switch S is a multi position, make before break type switch this switch
protects the movement from being damaged without a shunt during range
changing.
The Aryton shunt or universal shunt
3 Rc
2 + D’Arsonval
+ S Rm movement
1 Rb -
Ra
-
Fig 1.10 Aryton shunt or universal shunt
The Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the
circuit without a shunt. This advantage is gained at the price of slightly higher
overall meter resistance. Fig shows a circuit an Ayrton shunt ammeter. In this
circuit, when the switch is in position resistance Ra is in parallel with the series
combination of Rb, Rc and the meter movement, hence the current through the
shunt is more than the current through the meter movement, thereby protecting
the meter movement and reducing its sensitivity.
If the switch is connected to position ‘2’, resistance Ra and Rb are
together in parallel with the series combination of Rc and the meter movement.
Now the current through the meter is more than the current through the shunt
resistance,
If the switch is connected to position ‘3’, Ra, Rb, Rc are together in

parallel with the meter. Hence maximum current flows through the meter
movement and very little through the shunt. This increases the sensitivity.
Precautions to be taken while using an Ammeter
1. As the ammeter resistance is very low, it should never be connected
across any source of e.m.f always connect an ammeter in series with
the load.
2. The polarities must be observed correctly. The opposite polarity
deflects the pointer in opposite direction against the mechanical stop
and this may damage the pointer.
3. While using Multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range
and then decrease the current range until sufficient deflection is
obtained. So to increase the accuracy, finally select the range which
will give the reading near full scale deflection.
1.2 Regulated Power Supply
A regulated power supply is an embedded circuit or stand alone unit the
function of which is to supply a stable voltage (or less often current), to a circuit
of device that must be operated with in certain power supply limits.
The output from the regulated power may be alternating or unidirectional,
but is nearly always DC (direct current).
Applications
1. Dc variable bench supply usually refers to a power supply capable of
supplying a variety of output voltages useful for bench testing electronic
circuits possibly with continuous variation of the output voltage or
just some preset voltages.
2. A laboratory power supply normally implies an accurate bench power
supply, while a balanced or tracking power supply refers to twin
supplies for use when a circuit requires both positive & negative
supply rails.
3. In mobile phone power adaptors.
4. Regulated power supplies in appliances.
The earlier regulated power supplies includes batteries, resonant
transformer, nonlinear resistors, loading resistors, neon stabilizer tubes, vibrating
regulators, power control lines, discrete circuit.
A Test bench power supply circuit
Fuse 0.5
Amp
Line
LM317T
AC
3300 0-15V
F
Ground 35 V
10 F Com-
AC 25V mon
Bridge rectifier D1, 2 =1N4001 R1 = 220 R2 = 2000

Neutral (50 volt / 2 Amp) 
Transformer
seconadry
18 vac - 2 Amp
R2 Vour
Output voltage = 1.25 x 1+ + (ADJ x R2) R2 = -1 xRl
R1 1.25
Fig 1.11 A Test bench power supply circuit
1.5 Volt power supply using the LM 17 T
Heat sink
1N4001 1.52 Volts (calculated)
220 
1N4001
1000uF 1uF
16 V
10uF 47 
12.6 Volts center tapped secondary 450 MA
Fig 1.12 (1.5 Volt power supply using the LM 17 T)

1.3 Measurement of Voltages, Currents & Resistance using

analog & digital multimeter & continuity test
For the measurement of d.c as well as a.c voltage and current resistance,
an electronic multimeter is commonly used. It is also known as Voltage Ohm
Meter (VOM) or multimeter.
The features of multimeter are
1. The basic circuit of VOM includes balanced bridge d.c amplifier.
2. To limit the magnitude of the input signal, range switch is provided by
properly adjusting input attenuator input signal can be limited.
3. It is also includes rectifier section which converts a.c input signal to
the d.c voltage.
4. It facilitates resistance measurement with the help of internal battery
and additional circuitry.
5. The various parameters measurement is possible by selecting required
function using Function switch.
Use of multimeter for D.C voltage measurement
The fig shows the arrangement used in multimeter to measure the d.c
voltages. For getting different ranges of voltages, different series resistances are
connected in series which can be put in the circuit with the range selector switch.
We can get different ranges to measure the d.c voltages by selecting
proper resistance in series with the basic meter.
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
50 V
250 V 10 V
1000 V 2.5 V
D.C Voltage
5000 V d.c
Fig 1.13 Use of multimeter for D.C voltage measurement

Use of multimeter as Ammeter

To get different current ranges, different shunts are connected across
the meter with the help of range selector switch. The working is same as that of
PMMC ammeter.
Fig shows the arrangement used in the multimeter to use is as an ammeter.
R1 R3
R2 R4 R5 R6
250 mA 500 mA
Range
50 mA
select
switch
Fig 1.14 Arrangement used in the multimeter to use is as an ammeter
Use of multimeter for measurement of A.C Voltage

Fig shows voltmeter section of a multimeter
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 D1
M
D2 R6
50 V
250 V 10 V
1000 V 2.5 V
S switch
A-c voltage i/p
Fig 1.15 Voltmeter section of a multimeter
The rectifier used in the circuit rectifies a.c voltage into d.c voltage for
measurement of a.c voltage before current passes through the meter. The other
diode is used for protection purpose.
Use of multimeter for resistance measurement

The fig shows ohm meter section of multimeter.
R1 R2 R3 R4
Battery Zero adjust
Resistance to
be measured
Fig 1.16 Ohm meter section of multimeter
For a scale multiplication of 1 before any measurement for a scale is

short circuited and “zero adjust” control is varied until the meter reads zero
resistance i.e. it shows full scale current.
Now the circuit takes the form of a variation of the shunt type ohmmeter.
Scale multiplication of 100 and 10,000 can also be used for measuring high
resistance. Voltages are applied to the circuit with the help of battery.
Digital Multimeter
Digital multimeter is an instrument used for the measurement of voltage,

current and resistance. Fundamentally it is a digital voltmeter.
Working
The block diagram of digital multimeter is shown in fig.
All quantities other than d.c voltage are first converted to an equivalent
d.c voltage by some device. To measure a.c voltage, the input a.c is converted
into a d.c voltage by means of a rectifier. Attenuator is used to bring the input
signals to the level acceptable by the multimeter.
The digital multimeters generally use compensated attenuator for both

a.c and d.c measurement “for resistance measurement” a constant current is
passes through the resistance to be measured and the voltage developed across
it is measured and displayed in ohms.
Attenuator
DCV DCV
ACV Compen- DCV
Input sated at Rectifier
DCMA tenuator DCMA Ohm
Ohm
Current A/D
to volt Con
age con verter
verter Counter
Display
Con unit
stant
current
soruce
Fig 1.17 Block diagram of digital multimeter
For “current measurement”, the unknown current is passes through a

resistor. The voltage developed across the resistor is measured. The value of
resistor is changed in steps according to the range. As shown in block diagram,
a current to voltage converter is used for measurement of current. The circuit for
current to voltage converter is shown in fig b. The current to be measured is
applied to the summing junction ‘A’ at the i/p of operational amplifier (Op-
Amp). The ideal Op-Amp has very high i/p impedance, hence the current through
the resistor IR is equal to the i/p current.
Ir
Ii
A
Op-Amp
To A/D con-
verter of the
DMM
Fig 1.18
The current IR causes a voltage drop across one of the resistor, which is
proportional to the current Ii. Different resistors are used for different ranges.
The analog quantities to be measured are converting into a train of pulses
by A/D converter and fed to the counter. These pulses are counted by the counter
and displayed by the display unit in decimal number. The decimal number as
indicated by the readout is a measure of the value of the i/p quantity.
Specification of Digital Multimeter
The specifications are normally defined in a way that enables different
DMMS from different manufacturers to be compared.
Specifications
1. Maximum voltage between terminals and earth ground 600V.
2. DC voltage ranges : 200m/2/20/200/1000V
(i) Accuracy : 0.5% of rgd2 digits (0.8% for 600V)
(ii) Over voltage protection : 600V dc
3. AC voltage ranges : 200/600
(i) Basic Accuracy : 1.2% of rgd2 digits
(ii) Freq range : 40Hz to 4000Hz average, calibration in rms
of sine wave
(iii) Over load protection : 600Vrms AC
4. Dc current ranges : 200µ/2m/20m/200m/10A
(i) Basic Accuracy : 1% of rgd2 digits (1.5% for 200mA)
(ii) Over load protection : F 200mA/250V (no fuse for 10A
range)
5. Resistance range : 200/2K/20K/200K/2M
(i) Basic Accuracy : 0.8% of rgd2 digits (1.0% for 2M&!
range)
(ii) Over load protection : 250V dc or rms AC for all ranges
6. Diode and Continuity : Continuity check: if continuity exists (less
than 1.5K&!) built in buzzer will sound.
7. LCD display size : 1.8 in0.7 in (4.57 cm 1.78 cm)
( An analogue meter moves a needle along a scale each type of meter

has its advantages. Used as a voltmeter, a digital meter usually better because its
resistance is much higher 1 M&! or 10 M&! compared to 200 K&! for a
analogue multimeter on a similar range. On the other hand, it is easier to follow
a slowly changing voltage by watching the needle on an analogue display. Used
as an ammeter, an analogue multimeter has a very low resistance and is very
sensitive, with scales down to 500 µA. more expensive digital multimeter can
equal or better performance)
1.4 Test & Measure the values of capacitor using R.L.C
meter & compare with the marked / color code value
Basic Concepts
Resistor
It is a passive electronic component mainly used for controlling flow of
electronic current and providing desired amount of voltage in electronic circuits.
Resistors are based on type Nonlinear & Linear
The function of a resistor is controlling flow of electric current and also
it provide desired amount of voltage in electronic circuit.
Symbol is
Unit – ohm (&  )

Capacitor
Capacitors are passive electronic components which have ability to
charge or store energy. It is made up of two parallel conducting plates separated
by same dielectric material.Capacitor types are fixed & variable.
The function of capacitor are block DC & it allows AC
Symbolically represented as fixed
variable
Units are Farads (F)
Inductor
Inductors are passive electronic components used to minimize the
alternating current while permitting the flow of direct current alternating current
while permitting the flow of direct current.
Inductor types are fixed & variable.
The function of a inductor is minimizes AC blocks & permit DC.

Symbol is
Units are Henry (H)
RLC meter
RLC meter is the instrument which measures the value of passive
components like resistor, inductor and capacitor
The value of the component is displayed directly on the front panel
display.
Procedure to calculate the value of capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
+
220 F + 10 F
25 V + 63 V
Fig 1.19 Electrolytic capacitor
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitor because they are

clearly printed with their capacitance, voltage rating and polarity as shown in the
above figure.
By using numerals
Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)
0.1 102
Fig 1.20 Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)
Examples
Small value capacitors are Unpolarized so it can be. Connected any
way they are not damaged by heat while soldering. Many small value capacitors
have their value printed but it is without a multiplier.
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 0.1×106 F = 100nF

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point
For example 4n7 means 4.7nF
Capacitor Number Code
104 K
1st digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance
0 0 0 1 B 0.1pF
1 1 1 10 C 0.25pF
2 2 2 100 D 0.5pF
3 3 3 1,000 F 1%
4 4 4 10,000 G 2%
6 6 J 5%
7 7 K 10%
8 8 8 0.01 M 20%
9 9 9 0.1 Z 80%/-20%
A number code is often used on small capacitor where printing is difficult.

The 1st number is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit and the 3rd
number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. Ignore anyletter
they just indicated the tolerance and voltage rating.
For example 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF)
472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance)
1.5 Transformer testing
The Transformer Ohmmeter is a line-operated, field-portable instrument
designed specifically to measure the dc resistance of all types of magnetic windings
safely and accurately. Its predominant use is the measurement of the dc resistance
of all types of transformer windings within the defined ranges of current and
resistance. It can also test rotating machine windings and perform low-current
resistance measurements on connections, contacts and control circuits. Three
features combine to make this instrument unique: dual measurement, load tap-
changer testing and safety shutdown.
The dual set of potential inputs measure the resistance of the primary
and secondary windings of a single- or three-phase transformer simultaneously.
The dual reading characteristic will speed up the measurement when it is used to
test windings on delta-delta connected windings on three-phase transformers.
Due to circulating currents induced when the test current is applied to

the primary winding, this type of measurement is countered by the same current
on the secondary winding. This action attenuates the circulating current and the
reading time is improved tenfold. The Transformer Ohmmeter is extremely useful
when testing the windings and contact resistance on tap changers with make-
before-break contacts and voltage regulators.
The internal shutdown circuit will be triggered by a voltage kickback of

a few microseconds if the tap-changer contacts are opened when the tap-changer
circuit is operated through all of the tap positions. This action will check for
pitted or misaligned contacts as the instrument will shut down if either condition
occurs. Users are protected by the shutdown circuit safety feature any inadvertent
disconnection of a test lead or loss of power to the instrument will safely discharge
the energy stored in the test sample.
Application
The Transformer Ohmmeter is used
• To verify factory test readings
• As part of a regular maintenance program
• To help locate the presence of defects in transformers, such as loose

connections
• To check the make-before-break operation of on-load tap-changers
A regular maintenance program that includes winding resistance

measurements is the most effective way to use this instrument. Once a benchmark
is established, subsequent test results can be compared to determine if changes
are occurring in the transformers, instrument transformers and associated control
wiring, voltage regulators, motors, generators, breaker contacts, all types of
connections (bolted, soldered, crimped, etc.).
One-winding
measurerment Low - voltage Simultaneous
winding two - winding
High - voltage measurement
winding
Fig 1.21 Transformer testing
T ap-changers are mechanical devices and the most vulnerable part of a

transformer. Tap-changers result in more failures and outages than any other
component and so require frequent testing and attention to ensure proper, reliable
operation. The Transformer Ohmmeter can be used to check the make-before-
break operation of on-load tap-changers and also to measure the contact
resistance of each tap position.
1.6 Test the given loud speaker and measure the voice call
resistance using multimeter
Measuring the impedance or resistance of a speaker can be important
skill to have when wiring car audio system. The speaker resistance potentially
has a big effect on the performance of amplifiers connected to the gear, and in
worst case scenarios, it is possible to damage the amplifier if the resistance of
the speaker is too low. Speaker typically came in three different impedance
ratings:4 ohms,8 ohms and 16 ohms. The impedance of the speaker you need
depends upon the output impedance of your amplifier and the number and
configuration of speakers you connect to that amplifier.
How To Measure Speaker Impedance with a Multimeter

Knowing the resistance of a speaker is important when pairing it with an
amplifier, If the resistance is too low, the amplifier can run too hot, creating the
potential for damage in the circuits. If the resistance is too high, the output of the
amplifier will be restricted, distributing audio performance.
First step to measure speaker’s resistance. Put the probe of the
multimeter into the sockets on the multimeter. Set the range for your multimeter
for readings in the range 2-16 ohms. Touch each of the probe to a different
speakers terminal and check the reading this is the speaker’s resistance.
If speaker runs in series
When the speaker are connected “end-to-end” that is in a daisy chain
with each wire respectively. Connected to the previous and following speakers.
The speakers are in series, the total electrical resistance of the circuit is increased
resistance is measured in ohms. Calculate individual speaker resistance and to
get resultant value add all those values.
1.7 Test the working of different types of switches relays
connectors
Switch
A switch is an electrical device used to connect and disconnect a circuit.
Switches cover a industrial plant switching mega watts of power on high voltage
distribution lines. An ideal switch has zero resistance when closed and infinite
resistance when open.
Types of switches
1. Toggle switch
2. Rocker switch
3. Rotary switch
4. Micro switch
5. Push button switch
6. Proximity switch
7. Switch according topple/throw
8. Thumb wned switch
9. Membrance switch
10. Slide switch

11. Selector switch
12. Joystick switch
Toggle Switch
Toggle switches are actuated by a level angled in one of two or more
positions. Then common light switch used in house hold wiring is an example of
a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will come to rest in any of their positions.
While others have an internal spring mechanism returning the level to a certain
normal position, allowing for what is called “momentary” operation.
Fig 1.22 Toggle switch
Push button Switch

Push button switches are two-position devices actuated with a button
that is pressed and released. Most push button switches have an internal spring
mechanism returning the button to its “out” or “un pressed position”, for momentary
operation. Some push button switches will latch alternatively ON or OFF with
every push of the button. Othe push button is pulled back out. This last type of
push button switches usually have a mushroom shaped button for easy push pull
action.
Fig 1.23 Push button switch
Selector Switch
Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or level of some sort
to select one of two or more positions like the toggle switch, selector switches
can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring- return mechanisms for
momentary operation.
Fig 1.24 Selector switch

Joystick Switch
A joystick switch is actuated by a level free to move in more than one
axis of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated
depending on which way the level is pushe, and sometimes represents the direct
of joystick level motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick hand switches
are commonly used for crane & robot control.
Fig 1.25 Joystick Switch
Rocker Switch
In many ways rocker switches are similar to toggle switches. They are
widely used for mains ON-OFF functions & have a two position capability.
Some include an integral neon lamp to indicate when the circuit is on In view of
their intended use, these switches are often able to switch voltages of around
250V AC and current levels of around lamp.
Rotary Switch
As the name implies, rotary switches are operated by turning a knob
selecting the correct position enables the positions, they enable a particular point
to be connected to one of a number of other points in the electronics circuits.
The purpose of a switch is to make and break electrical circuits. To
achieve this a switch comprises two main sections namely contacts & the actuator.
The contacts are the fixed part and the actuator moves over them to make or
break the constant.
Normally Closed (NC)
This type of switch has contacts that in the normal position, or biased
position of the switch are closed, i.e. the contacts have made contact. Utilizing
the switch then open the contacts.
Normally Open (NO)
This type of switch has contacts that in the normal position, or biased
position of the switch are open, i.e. the contacts have made contact. Utilizing the
switch then close the contacts.
Change Over (CO or C/O)

These types of switches have no form of bias and may have several
contacts. Rotary switches are generally of the change over type.
Relay
Relay is an electrical operated switch consisting of mechanism to make
or break the connection in an electric circuit. Relay consists of three components
basic coil, armature (level) and yoke. In electromagnetic relay when current
passes through coil it generates electromagnetic field that attracts the armature.
No No : Normal open
Com Com : Common
Nc NC: Normal Closed
Fig 1.26 Symbol of relay
Types of Relays
Voltage suppression Relays
As relays are used in industrial purposes very often, they are mostly
controlled with the help of computers. But when relays are controlled with such
devices, there will surely be the presence of semiconductors like transistors.
This will in turn cause the presence of voltage spikes. As a result, it is really
necessary to introduce voltage suppression devices, otherwise they will clearly
destroy the transistors.
2 1
4 3
Fig 1.27 Voltage suppression relay using diode
This voltage suppression can be introduced in two ways either the

computer provides the suppression or the relay provides the suppression. If the
relay provides the suppression they are called voltage suppression relays. In
relays voltage suppression is provided with the help of the resistors of high value
and even diodes and capacitors out of these diodes and resistors are more
commonly used whatever device is used, it will be clearly stated in the relay.
De spiking diode Relays

A diode in the reverse biased position is connected in parallel with the
relay coil. As there is no flow of current due to such a connection, an open
circuit of the relay will cause the current to stop flowing through the coil. This
will have effect on the magnetic field the magnetic field will be decreased instantly.
This will cause the rise of an opposite voltage with very high reverse polarity to
be induced this mainly caused because of the magnetic lines of force that cut the
armature coil due to the open circuit. Thus the opposite voltage rises until the
diode reaches 0.7Volts, as soon as their cut off voltage is achieved, the diode
becomes forward biased. This causes a closed circuit in the relay, causing the
entire voltage to pass through the load. The current thus produced will be flowing
through the circuit for a very long time as soon as the voltage is completely
drained this current flow will also stop.
R
L
On - Off
Fig 1.28 De spiking diode relay
De- Spiking resistor relays

A resistor is almost efficient as that of a diode. It can not only suppress
the voltage spikes efficiently, but also allows the entire current to flow through it
when the relay is in the ON position. Thus the current flow through it sill also be
very high. To reduce this, the value of the resistance should be as high as 1 kilo
ohm. But as the value of the resistor increases the voltage spiking capability of
the relay decreases.
R
L
On - Off
Fig 1.29 De- Spiking resistor relays

How to test a Relay

A relay will usually have a coil, pole terminal and a set of contacts. The
set of contacts that are open when the relay is not energized are called normally
open (N/O) contacts and the set of contacts that are closed when the relay is
not energized are called normally closed (N/C) contacts.
• Keep the multimeter in the continuity check mode.
• Check for continuity between N/C contacts and pole.
• Check for discontinuity between N/O contacts and pole.
• Now energize the relay using the rated voltage.
• For example use a 9V battery for energizing a 9V relay. The relay will
engage with clicking sound.
• Now check for continuity between N/O contacts & pole
• Also check for discontinuity between N/O contacts & pole
• As a final test, measure the resistance of the relay coil using a multimeter
& check it is matching to the value stated by the manufacturer.
Connectors
An electrical connector is a conductive device for joining electrical circuit
together. The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, or may
require a tool for assembly and removal, or may be a permanent electrical joint
between two wires or devices. The reliability and operation of connector depends
on mechanical strength voltage & current carrying capacity, number of contacts
& spacing between them.
There are different types of connectors
Audio connector, Video connector, RF connector, Printer connector,
PCB connector.
Audio connector and video connectors are electrical connectors for
carrying audio signal and video signal, of either analog or digital format. Analog
A/V connectors often use shielded cables to inhibit radio freq interference &
noise.
A Co-axial RF connector is an electrical connector designed to work at
radio frequencies in the multi megahertz range. RF connectors are typically used
with Co-axial cables and are designed to maintain the shielding that the current
design.
Cables
A cable is most often two or more wires reusing side by side and bonded,
twisted or braided together to form a single assembly, but can also refer to a
heavy strong rope. In mechanic cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are
used for lifting, halving and towing or conveying force through tension. Cables
are used to carry electrical currents.
Types of Cables
Straight through cable
Four pair, eight wire, straight through cables, which means that the color
of wire on pin1 on one end of the cable is same on that of pin1 on the other
bend. Pin2 is same as pin2, so on.
Cross over Cables
A cross over cable means that the second & third pairs on one end of
the cable will be reversed on the other end. All 8 conductors should be terminated
with RJ-45 modular connectors cross over cable is used between switches, it’s
considered to be part of the “vertical” cabling. Vertical cabling is also called
backbone cabling. A cross over cable can be used as a backbone cable to
connect two or more switches in a LAN, or to connect two isolated host to
create a mini LAN.
Roll over Cables
A 4-pair roll over cable. This type of cable is typically 3.05m long but
can be as long as 7.62m. A roll over cable can be used to connect a host or
dumb terminal to the console port on the back of a router or switch.
Both the ends of theRJ-45 connectors on them. One end plugs directly
into the RJ-45 console management port on the back of the router or switch.
Plug the other end into an RJ-45 to DB9 terminal adapter. This adapter converts
the RJ-45 to a 9 pin female D connector for attachment to the PC or dumb
terminal serial.
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Define Voltage, current, resistance.
2. Write applications of analague/Digital multimeters.
3. Write applications of shunts and multipliers.
4. Write applications of DC prone Supplies.
5. Write advantages of digital meter.

6. What are applications of transformers?
7. Mention types of switches
8. What is a relay?
9. Write names of connectors.
10. Write applications of cables.
Long Answer Type Questions
1. Write procedure to measure Voltage, current and resistance with
multimeter.
2. Explain extension of range of given Ammeters.
3. Explain extension of range of given voltmeters.
4. Explain DC power supply with neat diagram.
5. Explain working of Digital LCR meter.
6. Explain measuring Procedure of DC resistance of a transformer.
7. Explain Coil resistance of Loud Speaker.
8. How do you test switchers, Relays, Connectors, Cables using DMM.
UNIT 2
CRO and Frequency
Generators
Structure
2.1 Study & use of CRO (Single trace &dual trace) for measuring
frequency & amplitude.
2.2 Study & use of AF/RF Signal generators
2.3 Study and use DSO for measuring frequency, amplitude, phase,
modulation index of A.M.
2.4 Identification of Diodes and Transistors
2.5 Data sheets of Diodes and Transistors
Learning Objectives
• Application of CRO to measure frequency, phase, amplitude and
modulation index.
• Applications of AF/RF signal generator
• Applications of Dual Storage Oscilloscope
• Measurement of frequency, Amplitude, Phase, Modulation index in
A.M.
• Identification of leads of diodes and transistors.
• Study of data sheets of diodes and transistors.
2.1 Study & use of CRO (Single trace &dual trace) for
measuring frequency & amplitude
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the
‘shape’ of the electrical signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on
its screen.
The graph usually called the trace is drawn by beam electrons striking
the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue.
‘Oscilloscope contains a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode)
at one end to emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate
them Ø so they move rapidly down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is
called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron
beam up/down & left/right.
The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the
cathode and this gives the oscilloscope a name of cathode ray oscilloscope. A
single trace oscilloscope can display one trace on the screen.
Measuring Voltage and Time Period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time.
The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the i/p signal.
Voltage
Amplitude Peak to peak

voltage
Time
Time period
Fig 2.1 Sinusoidal Wave form
In addition to the properties labeled on the graph there is a frequency

which is the number of cycles per second. The diagrams shows a sine wave but
these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.
Amplitude
Is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts
’V’.Peak voltage is another name for amplitude. Peak-Peak voltage is twice the
peak voltage (amplitude) Time period is the time taken for the signal to comp0lete
one cycle.It is measured in seconds(s), but time periods tend to be short so
milliseconds(ms) and microseconds(µs)are often used.
1ms=0.001s
1µs=0.000001s
Frequency is the number of cycle per second. It is measured in Hertz
(Hz), but frequencies tend to be high, so kilohertz (KHz) &Mega Hertz (MHZ).
Frequency=1/Time Period
Time Period = 1/Frequency
Voltage
Voltage is shown on the vertical axis and the scale is determined by the
Y amplifier (volts/cm) control. Usually Peak-Peak voltage is measured because
it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known.
The Amplitude is half the Peak-Peak voltage.
4V
2V
5 10 15 20 25
0
30
-2 V
-4 V
Fig 2.2 Wave form shows amplitude vs time
Example: Peak-Peak voltage = 4 × 2V/cm = 8V

Amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ ×Peak-Peak voltage = 4V
Time Period
Time is shown the horizontal X-Axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is
the time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per
second, frequency=1/Time Period.
Time = Distance in cm × Time/cm
Example
Time period = 40cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms
And Frequency = 1/Time Period
= 1/20ms =50Hz
Dual Trace Oscilloscope
The Comparison of two or more voltages is very much necessary in the
analysis of many electronic circuits and systems. This is possible by using more
than one oscilloscope but in such a case it is difficult to trigger the sweep of each
oscilloscope precisely at the same time. A common and less costly method to
solve this problem is to use dual trace or multi trace oscilloscopes. In this method,
the same this problem is to use dual trace or multi trace oscilloscopes .In this
method , the same electron beam is used to generate two traces which can be
defected from two independent vertical sources. The two methods are used to
generate two independent traces which are alternate sweep method and other is
chop method.
The Block Diagram of dual trace oscilloscope is shown in fig.
Channel A
Delay line
Channel B
Ext
Trigger
Line Trigger
switch
Fig 2.3 Block Diagram of Dual Trace Oscilloscope

There are two separate vertical i/p channels A & B .A separates

preamplifier and attenuator stage exits for each channel. Hence amplitude of
each i/p can be individually controlled. After preamplifier stage, both the signals
are fed to an electronic switch.
The switch has an ability to pass one channel at a time via delay line to
the vertical amplifier. The time base circuit uses a trigger selector switch S2
which allows the circuit to be triggered on either A or B channel, on line frequency
or on an external signal. The horizontal amplifier is fed from the sweep generator
or the B channel via switch S1&S3.The X-Y mode means, the oscilloscope
operates from channelA as the vertical signal and the channel B as the horizontal
signal. Thus in this mode very accurate X-Y measurements can be done.
Depending on the selection of front controls several modes of operation
can be selected such as channel A only, channel B only. ChannelA&B as separate
traces, signals A+B, A-B, B-A or – (A+B) as single trace.
Let us study the two modes of operation i.e. alternate sweep & chop
mode.
1. Alternate mode
When the display mode selector is in the alternate mode the electronic
switch alternatively connects the vertical amplifier to channel A & to channel B.
Initially each vertical amplifier is adjusted with the help of attenuator and position
control such that the two images are positioned separately on the screen. An
electronic switch is controlled by using a toggle flip-flop. The switching takes
place at the start of each newsweep.
Fig 2.4 Traingular Wave form

The switching rate of an electronic switch is synchronized to the sweep

rate so that CRT spot traces channel A signal on one sweep and channel B
signal on the next succeeding sweep. Thus two channel are alternatively connected
to the vertical amplifier. The change once of an electronic switch takes place
during the fly back period of the sweep. During the fly back, the electron beam
is invisible and the change once is also invisible i.e. without flicker.
Thus the alternate mode displays one vertical channel for a full sweep &
the vertical channel for next sweep. The time relationship in alternate mode of
dual trace C.R.O is shown in fig.
The sweep trigger signal is available from channel A or B and the trigger
pick-takes place before the electronic switch. This technique maintains the correct
phase relationship between the A & B signals.
The main limitation of this method is that the display is not the actual
representation of two events taking place simultaneously. The signals are displayed
as if they were existing at two different times. Similarly, the alternate mode cannot
be used for displaying very low frequency signals.
Chop Mode
In this method, there is a switching from one vertical channel to other,
many times during a single sweep. This switching from one vertical channel to
officer is at such a rapid rate that the display is created from small segments of
the actual waveform.
The electronic switch is free running oscillator at a rate of 100 to 500
KHZ entirely independent of the sweep generator frequency. Thus the switch
successively connects the small segments of the channel A & B waveforms to
the main amplifier. At the chopping rate of 500KHZ.For example 1µsec segments
of each waveform are fed to the display.
If the chopping rate is faster than horizontal sweep rate, then the individual
little segments fed to the vertical amplifier together reconstitute the original A
and B waveforms on the CRT screen, without any visible interruption. The little
chopped segments merge to appear continuous to the eye.
The time relationship of dual trace CRO in chop mode is shown in fig
2.5.
Fig 2.5 CRO wave forms in chop mode
These are advantages and disadvantages of both the methods hence

most oscilloscopes have a switch which is capable of selecting either of the
modes.
Electronic Switch
The electronic switch used in dual trace oscilloscope is a device which
enables two signals to be displayed simultaneously on the screen by a single gun
CRT. The circuit diagram of an electronic switch shown in fig 2.6
Fig 2.6 Electronic switch output of the CRO

Each signal is applied to separate control & gate stage. The resistance
R1&R2 adjust the amplitudes of channel A & B signals.Q1 & Q2 are the
amplifiers while Q3 & Q4 are the switches.
Input from channel A is applied to Q1 after proper gain control by
R1.Input from channel B is applied to Q2 after proper gain control by R2.
The square wave generator provides alternate biasing signals to Q3 &
Q4, alternatively when Q3 is conducting; Q4 is cut-off and vice-versa. When
Q3 is cut-off, the Q3 sends the channel A signal at the o/p.
When the square wave generator switching frequency is much higher
than the either signal frequency, bits of each signal are alternatively presented to
the oscilloscopes vertical I/p to reproduce the two signals on the screen.
R5 controls the position. The signals on the screen can be overlapped,
for the easy comparison.
2.2 Study & Use of AF/RF Signal Generators
Signal generators have a variety of applications, such as checking the
stage gain frequency response, and alignment in receivers and in a wide range of
other electronic equipment.
There are various types of signal generators but several requirements
are common to all types.
1. The frequency of the signal should be known and stable.
2. The amplitude should be controllable from very small to relatively
large values.
3. Finally the signal should be distortion free.
AF Sine & Square Wave Generators
The block diagram of an AF sine-square wave audio oscillator is illustrated
in fig.
Fig.2.7 Block Diagram of AF signal generator

The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien Bridge oscillator is

used in this generator. The Wien Bridge oscillator is the best for the audio
frequency range. The frequency of oscillations can be changed by varying the
capacitance in the oscillator. The frequency can be changed in steps by switching
in resistors of different values.
The output of the Wien Bridge oscillator goes to the function switch.
The function switch directs the oscillator o/p either to the sine wave amplifier or
to the square wave shaper. At the o/p, we get either a square or sine wave. In
the sine wave mode, the signal is amplified and given to the o/p terminal through
the attenuator. The amplitude can be set to any desired value by means of
attenuator and the magnitude control. When the function switch is in square
wave position, the oscillator o/p is given to a shaping circuit that converts the
sinusoidal signal into square wave signal.
The square wave signal is amplified and through an attenuator given to
the o/p terminals, the attenuator is used for varying the amplitude of the square
wave o/p.
The instrument generates a frequency ranging from10Hz to 1MHz,
continuosly variable in 5 decades with overlapping ranges. The o/p sine wave
amplitude can be varied from 5mv to 5v (rms).The o/p is taken through a push
pull amplifier. For low o/p, the impedance is 100&!.The square wave amplitudes
can be varies from 0-20v (peak).The instrument requires only 7w of power at
220V-50HZ.
Front Panel Controls of AF Oscillator
The front panel of a AFO consists of the following
Function switch : It selects either sine wave or square wave o/p
Amplitude control: Amplitude adjustment for waveforms
Frequency selector: It selects the frequency in different ranges and
varies it continuously in a Ratio of 1:11 .The scale is non-linear.
Frequency multiplier: It selects the frequency range over 5 decades
from 10Hz to 1MHz.
Amplitude selector: It alternates the signal in 3decades, 1, X0.1 &
X0.01.
Symmetry control : It varies the symmetry of the square wave from
30% to 70 %.
Output Variable : This provides sine wave or square wave o/p ON-
OFF switch.
Applications of AFO
Frequency Range : 10Hz to 1MHz (in five sub ranges)
Frequency accuracy : ±2% under normal conditions.
Output waveforms : sine & square waves
Frequency Response: within ±1dh (of a 1 KHz reference over the
entire frequency range)
Output voltage
Sine : continuously variable 0 to 10 Vrms
Square: continuously variable 0 to 20 Vp-p
Output impedance: 600&!
Distortion: Less than 0.5% below 500 KHz (less than 1% above 500
KHz), independent of Load impedance.
Rise and Fall Time: Less than 100 nano seconds (square wave o/p)
Power Requirement: 230V±10%AC,50/60Hz,10VA
Data cycle: 49% to 51 % (square wave)
Function Generator
A function generator is a versatile instrument that produces a choice of
different waveforms whose frequencies are adjustable over a wide range. The
common o/p waveforms are the sine, square, triangular and saw tooth waves.
The frequency may be adjustable from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred
KHz.
The various o/p’s of the generator can be available at the same time.
For example, the generator can provide a square wave to test linearity of an
amplifier and simultaneously provide a sawtooth to drive the horizontal deflection
amplifier of the CRO to provide a visual display.
Usually the frequency is controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC
and RC circuit. In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying the
magnitude of current which drives the integrator. This instrument delivers sine,
triangular and square waves a frequency range of 0.01Hz to 100KHz.
The frequency control n/w is grounded by the frequency dial on

the front panel of the instrument or by an externally applied control voltage the
frequency control voltage regulates two current sources. The upper current
source supplies a constant current to the integrator whose o/p voltage increases
linearly with time.
The o/p voltage is given by e out =
Fig 2.8 Function Generator Block Diagram
An increase or decrease in the current supplied by the upper current

source increases or decreases the slope of the o/p voltage. The voltage
comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined level on the positive
slope of the integrator o/p voltage. This change of state cuts off the upper current
supply to the integrator and switches on the lower current supply.
The lower current source supplies a reverse current to the integrator, so
that its o/p decreases linearly with time. When the o/p voltage reaches a
predetermined level on the negative slope to the o/p waveform, the voltage
comparator again changes state and cuts off the lower current source while at
the same time switching on the upper current source again.
The o/p of integrator is a triangular waveform whose frequency is
determined by the magnitude of the current supplied by the constant current
sources.
The comparator o/p delivers a square wave o/p voltage of the same
frequency. The resistance diode network alters the slope of the triangular wave
as its amplitude changes and produces a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.
The o/p circuitry of the function generator consists of two o/p

amplifiers that provide two simultaneous, individually selected outputs of any of
the waveform functions.
Applications of AF oscillator and Function Generator
The AF oscillators are useful for service shops, production and testing
departments, educational institutions laboratories.
1. Amplifier frequency response.
2. Tone control test
3. Amplifier performance evaluation using square wave
4. Amplifier overload characteristics
5. Speaker system testing
6. FM receiver alignment
7. Preset frequency selection
8. Communication receiver signal
RF Signal Generator
The block diagram of a R.F signal generator is shown in fig it consists
of a single master oscillator, designed for the highest frequency range and
frequency dividers are switched into produce lower range.
Fig 2.9 RF signal generator

The highest frequency range of 34-80 MHz is passed through B1 an

untuned buffer amplifier, B2 & B3 are additional amplifiers and A is the main
amplifier. The lowest frequency range produced by the cascade frequency divider
is the highest frequency range divided by 512 or 29, or 67-156 KHz thus, the
frequency stability of the highest range is imported to the low frequency ranges.
The use of buffer amplifiers provides a very high degree of isolation
between the master oscillator and the power amplifier almost eliminates the
frequency effects between the i/p and o/p circuits caused by loading.
The master oscillator is tuned by a motor driven variable capacitor for
fast coarse tuning a rocker switch is provided, which sends the indicator gliding
along the slide rule scale of the main frequency dial at approx 7% frequency
changes per second. The oscillator can then be fine tuned by means of a large
rotary switch, with each division corresponding to 0.01% of the main dial setting.
The master oscillator has both automatic & manual controller. The
availability of the motor driven frequency control is employed for programmable
automatic frequency control devices. Internal calibration is provided by the 1MHz
crystal oscillator. The supply voltage of the master oscillator is regulated by a
temperature compensated reference circuit.
The modulation is done at the power amplifier stage. For modulation,
two internally generated signals are used, that is 400Hz and 1 KHz. The
modulation level may be adjusted up to 95% by a control device. Flip Flops can
be used as frequency dividers to get a ratio of 2:1.
Applications of RF Signal Generator
1. RF oscillator is an instrument which can generate various RF voltages
required for alignment and servicing of radio equipments.
2. It can be used for the measurement of gain of each stage at RF
frequency.
3. It is used for accurate alignment and measurement of all tuned circuits
in radio receiver or transmitter.
4. It can be used to determine the distortion characteristic of an amplifier
by connecting the o/p of the amplifier to a CRO when the i/p at the
amplifier is given through a signal generator.
Specifications of RF Signal Generators
Frequency ranges: 50 KHz to 150KHz
150 KHz to 420 KHz
420 KHz to 500 KHz
500 KHz to 1500 KHz

1.5 MHz to 5 MHz
5 MHz to 15 MHz
15 MHz to 80 MHz
RF output : variable for 1 v to 100 v 6db
Output impedance: 1 v to 10 v : 20 Omega
100 v : 40 Omega
Modulated level : 30% + 10%
AF modulation : 400Hz or 1KHz
Power supply : 230V, 1- 50Hz a.c
2.3 Study and Use DSO for measuring frequency,
Amplitude, Phase, Modulation Index of A.M.
2.3.1 Frequency Measurement
If the two frequencies are the same, we will obtain a simple figure on the
screen of the CRT, the shape of that figure being dependent upon the phase shift
between the two AC signals. Here is a sampling of Lissajous figures for two
sine-wave signals of equal frequency, shown as they would appear on the face
of an oscilloscope (an AC voltage-measuring instrument using a CRT as its
“movement”). The first picture is of the Lissajous figure formed by two AC
voltages perfectly in phase with each other.
Fig 2.10 Lissajous pattern for Zero Phase difference

If the two AC voltages are not in phase with each other, a straight line
will not be formed. Rather, the Lissajous figure will take on the appearance of
an oval, becoming perfectly circular if the phase shift is exactly 90o between the
two signals, and if their amplitudes are equal: (Figure below).
Fig 2.11 Lissajous figures for phase 900 or 2700 phase shift
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 900 or 2700 phase shift.

Finally, if the two AC signals are directly opposing one another in phase
(180o shift), we will end up with a line again, only this time it will be oriented in
the opposite direction: (Figure below).
Fig 2.12 Lissajous figure: same frequency, 1800 phase shift
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 1800 phase shift.

When we are faced with signal frequencies that are not the same,
Lissajous figures get quite a bit more complex. Consider the following examples
and their given vertical/horizontal frequency ratios: (Figure below)
Fig 2.13 Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is twice that of vertical
Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is twice that of vertical.

The more complex the ratio between horizontal and vertical frequencies,
the more complex the Lissajous figure. Consider the following illustration of a
3:1 frequency ratio between horizontal and vertical: (Figure below)
Fig 2.14(a) Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is three times that of vertical
Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is three times that of vertical.

. . . and a 3:2 frequency ratio (horizontal = 3, vertical = 2) in Figure

below.
Fig2.14 (b) Lissajous figure: Horizontal/vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/vertical frequency ratio is 3:2.

In cases where the frequencies of the two AC signals are not exactly a
simple ratio of each other (but close), the Lissajous figure will appear to “move,”
slowly changing orientation as the phase angle between the two waveforms rolls
between 0o and 180o. If the two frequencies are locked in an exact integer
ratio between each other, the Lissajous figure will be stable on the view screen
of the CRT.
2.3.2 Amplitude Measurement with CRO
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic
communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier
wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to
the information being sent. As originally developed for the electric telephone,
amplitude modulation was used to add audio information to the low-powered
direct current flowing from a telephone transmitter to a receiver. As a simplified
explanation, at the transmitting end, a telephone microphone was used to vary
the strength of the transmitted current, according to the frequency and loudness
of the sounds received. Then, at the receiving end of the telephone line, the
transmitted electrical current affected an electromagnet, which strengthened
and weakened in response to the strength of the current. In turn, the electromagnet
produced vibrations in the receiver diaphragm, thus closely reproducing the
frequency and loudness of the sounds originally heard at the transmitter. In contrast
to the telephone, in radio communication what is modulated is a continuous
wave radio signal (carrier wave) produced by a radio transmitter. In its basic
form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the
carrier frequency and in two adjacent side bands. This process is known as
heterodyning. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating
signal and is a mirror image of the other. Amplitude modulation that results in
two side bands and a carrier is often called double sideband amplitude modulation
(DSB-AM). This is the process taking place at the transmitting end.
2.3.3 Phase Measurement with CRO
The connections are made as shown in the circuit and as said in the
description. The time base (X-plates) band switch is kept in external mode. The
gain band switch of Y-plates is kept in desired range, so as to get complete
maximum size ellipse on the screen. The maximum deflection (B) from the mean
position and the deflection (A) at t = 0, from the mean position are measured
using the divisions on the screen. The experiment is repeated by varying the
frequency (f) of the signal generator in equal steps. The values of f , A and B are
noted in the table. The values of resistance and capacitance are also noted.
Fig 2.15 Phase Measurement with CRO
2.3.4 Modulation Index Measurement

It is the measure of extent of amplitude variation about an demodulated
maximum carrier. This quantity is also called as modulation depth and it indicates
by how much the modulated variable varies around its ‘original’ level. For AM,
it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude. We compare the modulation
indices both at the in put level and out put level as shown in the above equations.
Fig 2.16 Modulation Index Measurement
The circuit is connected for producing amplitude modulated wave. The

frequency of the carrier wave is in MHz. First measure the peak to peak (2a)
vertical voltage of the carrier wave of the Y2- plates on CR
O screen, find the peak voltage (a). Note this value in the table-1.(This
can be measured by connecting the CRO Y2-plates to the transformer secondary
coil or directly to the carrier in.) Set the frequency of the audio signal to nearly 1
KHz and apply it to the base of T2 and adjust the time base of the CRO to
observe at least two audio waves on the screen of the CRO. Also adjust the
amplitude of the audio signal such that the audio wave in the modulated wave is
completely observed on Y2-plates. Now the audio signal peak to peak voltage
(2b) and the peak voltage (a) are measured from the Y1-plates.
Fig 2.17 Diode Symbols
2.4 Identification of Diodes and Transistors

Transistor and diode numbering the numbering or code systems used
for transistors, diodes and FETs.
There are many thousands of different types of diode and transistor.
These have different characteristics according to the way they are designed and
made. Some may be intended for high power applications, like those used in
power amplifiers of power supplies, whereas others may be intended for small
signal applications where low current consumption is an issue.
Other types of transistor may be required for radio frequency
applications.
Fig 2.18 Transistor and Structural Views
Numbering schemes
There are many different ways of having numbering systems. The first is
that each manufacturer gives each type of transistor that the company
manufactures a type number. This would lead to a huge number of different type
numbers. There would also be a huge overlap as different manufacturers made
transistors that were virtually the same. To overcome this problem, and to allow
electronic equipment manufacturers to be able to buy the same part from a
number of different manufacturers, there are international numbering schemes
that have been developed. One is known as the Pro-electron scheme and was
originated in Europe. The other is known as the JEDEC scheme and originated
in the USA.
By looking at the transistor of diode type number, or code, to is possible

to identify elements about it. The Pro-electron scheme makes it possible to
broadly identify the capabilities of the transistor. For example parameters such
as the transistor being intended for low frequency power, RF, etc can be
determined.
The JEDEC system details far less, being intended to be purely a

numbering system. From the number it can be determined how many PN junctions
are in the device.
Pro-Electron Numbering or Coding System
First Letter Second Letter

Specifies Specifies type of device Su bse que nt
semiconductor Characters
material
A Germanium A Diode - low power or signal The characters
B Silicon B Diode - variable capacitance following the first
two letters form the
C Gallium C Transistor - audio frequency, low
serial number of the
Arsenide power
device. Those
R Compound D Transistor - audio frequency, intended for
materials power domestic use have
E Tunnel diode three numbers, but
those intended for
F Transistor - high frequency, low
power commercial or
industrial use have
G Miscellaneous devices letter followed by
H Diode - sensitive to magnetism two numbers, i.e.
A10 - Z99.
L Transistor - high frequency, power
N Photocoupler
P Light detector
Q Light emitter
R Switching device, low power, e.g.
thyristor, diac, unijunction
S Transistor - switching low power
T Switching device, low power, e.g.
thyristor, triac
U Transistor - switching, power
W Surface acoustic wave device
X Diode multiplier
Y Diode rectifying
Z Diode - voltage reference
This a BC107 is a low power audio transistor and a BBY10 is variable

capacitance diode for industrial or commercial use.
JEDEC Numbering or Coding System
First Number Second Letter Subsequent numbers
1 = Diode S er ial
Number of
2 = Bipolar transistor N Device
3 = FET
Thus a 1N914 is a diode and a 2N3866 is a transistor.

2.5 Data sheets of Diodes and Transistors
Diodes
• 1N4001 - 1N4007
• 1N4148
• 1N47XXA - Series Zeners - National Semiconductor Datasheet
• 1n47XXA - Series Diodes - Diode Incorporated Datasheet
• 1N5400 - 1N5408
• 1N914
• MR750
• MUR405-MUR460 Ultrafast Diode
• MBR350, MBR360 - Schottky Diode
• Miscellaneous Diode Selector Guide
• Ultrafast Diode Selector Guide
• Fast Diode Selector Guide
• General Purpose Diode Selector Guide
• Schottky Diode Selector Guide
• Small Signal Diodes Selector Guide
• Zener Selector Guide
• LIR204x - Infrared Emitting Diode.
Transistors
• ZTX449 Zetex NPN Transistor
• ZTX549 Zetex PNP Transistor
• ZVN3306A Zetex NMOS Transistor
• ZVP3306A Zetex PMOS Transistor
• BS250P Zetex PMOS Transistor
• 2N3904 NPN Small Signal Transistor
• 2N3906 PNP Small Signal Transistor
• 2N2222A NPN Small Signal Transistor (On Semiconductor)
• 2N2222A NPN Small Signal Transistor (Motorola)
• 2N2222A NPN Small Signal Transistor (Phillips)
• 2N956 NPN Small Signal Transistor
• VN2106 N-type MOSFET Array
• VP2106 P-Type MOSFET Array
• VP0109 P-Type MOSFET
• VN0109 P-Type MOSFET
• 2N5951 jFET Small Signal Transistor
• TIP31& TIP32 NPN & PNP Power BJT
• TIP142 Power NPN Darlington
• TIP147 Power PNP Darlington
• TIP102 Power NPN Darlington
• TIP107 Power PNP Darlington
• LM3046 Transistor Array
• MPF102 - N-type jFET

• IRF 530 N-type Power MOSFET
• IRF150 N-type Power MOSFET
• IRF9140 P-type Power MOSFET
• NTE2321 NPN Transistor Array (MPQ3904 equivalent)
• NTE2322 PNP Transistor Array (MPQ3906 equivalent)
• Small Signal BJT and FET Selector Guide\
• LPT2023 - Infrared Photo Transistor
• PNP Silicon Planar
• Medium Power Transistors.
Features
• 60 Volt VCEO
• 1 Amp continuous current
• Ptot = 1 Watt
Fig 19 Transistor data sheet

Applications of Diodes and Transistors

Diodes
• Protect circuits by limiting the voltage (clipping and clamping).

• Turn AC into DC (voltage rectifier).
• Voltage multipliers (e.g. double input voltage).
• Non-linear mixing of two voltages (e.g. amplitude modulation.
Transistors
• Transistors are the heart of modern electronics (replaced vacuum
tubes).
• Voltage and current amplifier circuits
• High frequency switching (computers)
• Impedance matching
• Low power
• Small size, can pack thousands of transistors in mm2.
1. Write operating controls of CRO.
2. Write applications of CRO.
3. Write applications of Spiral Generator.
4. How do you test diode.
5. How do you test Transistor.
6. Write use of Data sheets.

1. How do you measure frequency, Amptitude using CRO?
2. Write working of PF/RF signal generator with diagram.
3. Mention any 3 types diode, transistors. How do you identify the
leads.
4. Write data sheet of transistors.
UNIT 3
UPS and Inverters
Structure
3.1 Classification of Inverters
3.2 Working and Single-phase Inverters using MOSFET
3.3 Working of Voltage Source Inverter
3.4 Need for Uninterrupted Power Supply
3.5 Working of Three-phase UPS
3.6 Types of UPS
3.7 Block diagram of Off-line UPS
3.8 Working of Online UPS
3.9 Classification of UPS
3.10 UPS ICs used Version and Servicing Procedures
Learning Objectives
• Study of Online and offline UPS.
• Types of Inverters
• Working of Single-phase bridge inverters using MOSFET
• Working of Voltage source inverter
• Study of need for uninterrupted power supply.

• Working three-phase inverter.
• Types of UPS
• Working of Offline UPS
• Working of Online UPS
• Study of Online and Offline UPS and its application
3.1.Classification of Inverters
The dc-ac converter, also known as the inverter, converts dc power to
ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. The dc power input to the
inverter is obtained from an existing power supply network or from a rotating
alternator through a rectifier or a battery, fuel cell, photovoltaic array or magneto
hydrodynam ic generator. The filter capacitor across the input terminals of the
inverter provides a constant dc link voltage. The inverter therefore is an adjustable-
frequency voltage source. The configuration of ac to dc converter and dc to ac
inverter is called a dc-link converter.
Inverters can be broadly classified into two types, voltage source and
current source inverters. A voltage–fed inverter (VFI) or more generally a
voltage–source inverter (VSI) is one in which the dc source has small or negligible
impedance. The voltage at the input terminals is constant. A current–source
inverter (CSI) is fed with adjustable current fromthe dc source of high impedance
that is from a constant dc source. A voltage source inverter employing thyristors
as switches, some type of forced commutation is required, while the VSIs
madeup of using GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETs or IGBTs, self
commutation with base or gate drive signals for their controlled turn-on and
turn-off.
Types of Inverters
1. Voltage control in Single - Phase inverters
2. Pulse width modulation control
3. Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
4. Single-phase inverters
5. SPWM with Bi-polar switching
6. SPWM with Uni-polar switching
7. SPWM With Modified Bipolar Switching Scheme (MBPWM)

8. Generalized Carrier-based PWM
9. Bipolar and Modified Bipolar PWM Schemes with Zero Sequence
Voltage.
10. Implementation of the Bipolar and the Modified bipolar PWM
Schemes for an RL load
3.2 Working of Single-Phase inverters using MOSFET
Power MOSFET
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is a power
of transistor. The switching speed of the modern transistors is much higher than
that of thyristors and are extensively employed in dc-dc and dc-ac converters .
However, their voltage ratings and current ratings are lower than those of thyristors
and are used in low to medium-power applications. A power MOSFET is a
voltage-controlled device and requires only a small input current.
Fig 3.1 Power MOSFET using Inverter
The switching speed is very high and the switching times are of the
order of nanoseconds. As the MOSFETs conduct in the duration for which the
gate pulse is present and it doesn’t conduct when the gate pulse is removed,
there is no need for an external commutation circuitry. Power MOSFETs find
increasing applications in low-power high frequency converters. The input
impendence is very high, 10^9 to 10^11 oh ms. They require very low low gate
energy and low switching and low conduction losses. However MOSFETs have
the problem of electrostatic discharge and also its difficult to protect them under
short circuited fault conditions.
The two types of MOSFETs are
1. Depletion MOSFETs, and
2. Enhancement MOSFETs.
A depletion type MOSFET remains on at zero gate voltage where as an
enhancement type of MOSFET remains off at zero gate voltage, the
enhancement type MOSFETs are generally used as switching devices in power
electronics. In this project we have used n-channel enhancement MOSFETs.
Choice of MOSFETs over other Power Transistors
The other types of power transistors are BJTs (Bipolar Junction
Transistors), SITs (static induction transistors), IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar
transistors) and COULUMBS.
MOSFETs do not have the problem of second breakdown phenomena
as do BJT. A BJT is a current-controlled device and its current gain is highly
dependent on the junction temperature. The high on-state drops in SITs limit its
applications for general power conversions. The switching speed of IGBTs is
inferior to that of MOSFETs. IGBTs are costlier than the MOSFETs.
COULUMBS is a new technology for high voltage power MOSFETs, expect
for switching losses (same as the conventional MOSFETs) COULUMBS is
advanced and improved version of power MOSFET. Our hardware
implementation is limited to three level inverters which doesn’t need
COULUMBS technology which is much costlier than MOSFETs.
A practical MOSFET consists of three pins namely G-gate, D-drain,
and S-source. Gate signal is a given between G and S. Supply is a given between
D and S. it’s called the common source connection.
3.3 Working of Voltage Source Inverter
Voltage source inverters are used to regulate the speed of three-phase
squirrel cage motors by changes the frequency and the voltage and consist of
input rectifier, DC link and output converter. They are available for low voltage
range and medium voltage range. Low Voltage Inverter The three-phase low
voltage air cooled frequency inverter is a cabinet built single or multi drive designed
for industrial applications and for customised solutions too and is available in 1-
quadrant and 4-quadrant operation for 6-pulse and 12-pulse mains supply
connection. The used semi-conductors are diodes and IGBT’s.
Voltage and power range

1-quadrant operation, 6 -/ 12-pulse
3 AC 400 V 3 – 1845 / 609 - 1845 kVA
3 AC 500 V 4 – 2312 / 765 - 2312 kVA
3 AC 690 V 15 – 3310 / 750 - 3310 kVA
4-quadrant operation
3 AC 400 V 123 – 1125 kVA
3 AC 500 V 97 – 1380 kVA
3 AC 690 V 210 – 1382 kVA
Fig 3.2 voltage source inverter
Characteristic features
• Cabinet ready for connection
• Alphanumeric multilingual control panel
• Direct torque control (DTC)
• Adaptive programming with 15 function blocks without additional
hardware.
• Easy and fast commissioning procedure with Start-up Assistant
• Process interface for field bus control

• Control solutions for specific drive applications Cabinet ready for
connection.
3.4 Need for Uninterrupted Power supply
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power
source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that
provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically
mains power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system
or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from
input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries or a flywheel.
The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short
(only a few minutes) but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly
shut down the protected equipment.
Fig 3.3 UPS
A UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers,

telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected
power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or
data loss. UPS units range in size from units designed to protect a single computer
without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire
data centers or buildings. The world’s largest UPS, the 46-megawatt, Battery
Electric Storage System (BESS), in Fairbanks, AK, powers the entire city and
nearby rural communities during outages.
3.5 Working of Three-Phase Inverters
Fig 3.4 Three Phase UPS
The dc to ac converters more commonly known as inverters, depending

on the type of the supply source and the related topology of the power circuit,
are classified as voltage source inverters (VSIs) and current source inverters
(CSIs). The single-phase inverters and the switching patterns and so the three
phase inverters are explained in detail here. Three-phase counter parts of the
single-phase half and full bridge voltage source inverters. Single-phase VSIs
cover low-range power applications and three-phase VSIs cover medium to
high power applications.
The main purpose of these topologies is to provide a three-phase voltage

source, where the amplitude, phase and frequency of the voltages can be
controlled. The three-phase dc/ac voltage source inverters are extensively being
used in motor drives, active filters and unified power flow controllers in power
systems and uninterrupted power supplies to generate controllable frequency
and ac voltage magnitudes using various pulse width modulation (PWM)
strategies. The standard three-phase inverter has six switches the switching of
which depends on the modulation scheme. The input dc is usually obtained from
a single-phase or three phase utility power supply through a diode-bridge rectifier
and LC or C filter.
3.6 Types of UPS
Fig 3.5 UPS Technology
Types of UPS
The vast majority of UPS in use today store their energy in sealed valve-
regulated lead-acid batteries (SVRLAs).
Two UPS technologies dominate, ‘on-line’ and ‘off-line’. Almost all
units described by their manufacturers as being ‘line interactive’ are off-line units
but with the addition of an Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) transformer.
The description ‘on-line / off-line’ simply indicates whether the inverter
(that part of the UPS that converts the DC provided by the batteries to the AC
that we use from a wall socket) is on-line or off-line during normal use. Almost
all UPS rated at 10kVA and over are on-line.
To understand the power quality issues that UPS are designed to resolve,
and for help in selecting the most appropriate UPS technology, why not view
Understanding Standby Power. Generally, the following distinctions apply:
Off-line UPS
• Lower cost than other units
• Under mains power unit charges batteries and power passes directly
to the load.
• During mains failure batteries provide power to DC/AC inverter
to provide 230VAC power to the load.
• Square-wave or Sine-wave output
On-line UPS
• Constant duty inverter
• Design inherently improves power quality and reliability
• No break
• Sine-wave output
• Static bypass improves reliability
Line Interactive UPS
These UPS offer enhanced power protection over the basic off-line
designs because they provide additional line conditioning. They can also cope
with a wider range of input voltages without resorting to battery.
High Capacity off-line UPS for Data Centres
With an understanding of the need for power saving within Data Centres,
and having tracked the latest developments in off-line UPS technology, UPS
Systems have now become the sole UK distributor of PureWave UPS products
from S&C Electric in Canada.
Fig 3.6 High capacity Offline UPS
PureWave is a high-capacity, off-line, immediate-discharge UPS that

provides power protection to entire facilities served by a single source. Its modular
structure supports Data Centre loads between 313kVA and 20MVA, protecting
the power sensitive equipment from voltage sags, surges, transients, momentary
disruptions and complete outages.
3.7 Block diagram of Off-line UPS
The offline / standby UPS (SPS) offers only the most basic features,
providing surge protection and battery backup. The protected equipment is
normally connected directly to incoming utility power. When the incoming voltage
falls below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter
circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery.
Fig 3.7 Block diagram of Offline UPS

The SPS then mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its

DC-AC inverter output. The switchover time can be as long as 25 milliseconds
depending on the amount of time it takes the standby UPS to detect the lost
utility voltage. The UPS will be designed to power certain equipment, such as a
personal computer, without any objectionable dip or brownout to that device.
3.8 Working of Online-UPS
The line-interactive UPS is similar in operation to a standby UPS, but
with the addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special
type of transformer that can add or subtract powered coils of wire, thereby
increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output voltage of the
transformer. This is also known as a Buck–boost transformer.
This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage brownouts
and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It
instead compensates by automatically selecting different power taps on the
autotransformer. Depending on the design, changing the autotransformer tap
can cause a very brief output power disruption,[4] which may cause UPSs
equipped with a power-loss alarm to “chirp” for a moment.
Fig 3.8 Block diagram of Online UPS
This has become popular even in the cheapest UPSs because it takes
advantage of components already included. The main 50/60 Hz transformer
used to convert between line voltage and battery voltage needs to provide two
slightly different turns ratios: One to convert the battery output voltage (typically
a multiple of 12 V) to line voltage, and a second one to convert the line voltage
to a slightly higher battery charging voltage (such as a multiple of 14 V). The
difference between the two voltages is because charging a battery requires a

delta voltage (up to 13-14 volts for charging a 12 volt battery). Furthermore, it
is easier to do the switching on the line-voltage side of the transformer because
of the lower currents on that side.
To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two separate
switches so that the AC input can be connected to one of the two primary taps,
while the load is connected to the other, thus using the main transformer’s primary
windings as an autotransformer. The battery can still be charged while “bucking”
an overvoltage, but while “boosting” an undervoltage, the transformer output is
too low to charge the batteries.
Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range of varying
input voltages, but this requires more taps and increases complexity, and expense
of the UPS. It is common for the autotransformer to cover a range only from
about 90 V to 140 V for 120 V power, and then switch to battery if the voltage
goes much higher or lower than that range.
In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so
it may need a higher current circuit than a normal device. For example to power
a 1000-watt device at 120 volts, the UPS will draw 8.33 amperes. If a brownout
occurs and the voltage drops to 100 volts, the UPS will draw 10 amperes to
compensate. This also works in reverse, so that in an overvoltage condition, the
UPS will need less current.
3.9 Classification of UPS
Classification (Types) of Uninterrupted Power Supply(UPS)
Fig 3.9 UPS

UPS is an acronym for Uninterrupted Power Supply which is an

alternative source of power supply which provides an interruption free supply to
sensitive electronic equipment like Personal Computers and Super Computers
etc. You can read this article to know more about U.P.S. :
Now we are going to discuss the types of UPS, that is classification of
Uninterrupted Power Supply. Uninterrupted Power Supply can be classified as:
• On the Basis of their Output Power
• On the Basis of their Working
1. On the Basis of their O/P Power
On the basis of output power, the UPS system may be classified into
two types:
1. Low Power Rating UPS and
2. High Power Rating UPS
The output power of a UPS is rated in KVA i.e. Killo Volt Ampere.
The UPS system can be classified on the basis of power to be handled by it. For
a single personal Computer or any other single sensitive device, we can use
UPS of small rating. But if we have to install a UPS system in a lab or for a
network of computers then we have to select one having high power rating. The
power rating simply determines the maximum power to be handled by UPS.
We should choose power rating of the UPS according to our need. For example
if we uses low power rating UPS for a number of Computers then it can’t
handle the power flow through it and thus lead to destruction.
2. On the Basis Of Working
On the basis of working, the UPS System may be classified into three
types, given as:
• On line UPS
• OFF line UPS
• Line Interactive UPS
Online UPS
In online UPS, the internal circuitry of UPS is sorted as:
AC Mains->Rectifier (Charger)->Battery->Inverter->Load
As shown above, we can see that there is no link between Mains AC
Supply and Load in ON line UPS . The load get power supply from Inverter
whether the main supply is ON or OFF.(Although, we can draw an AC line

directly from AC mains to load, in case our inverter stop working due to any
reason. Then we have to use transfer switch which will transfer control of power
from inverter to direct AC mains) In this type of UPS, the inverter works
continuously therefore this type of UPS are also called Continuous mode UPS.
Working
When the Mains AC Supply is ON, the rectifier circuit converts incoming
AC into DC, which is fed to battery. Battery gets charged by this DC supply
and the output of rectifier is also fed to the inverter. Inverter circuit do the invert
of rectifier. That is it converts incoming DC signal to AC. Then this output of
inverter is fed to the load. In this type of UPS, the load is isolated from AC
mains so there is no affect of interrupted (mains) power supply on the load.
When the Main supply is OFF. Then rectifier stop its operation as there
is no incoming AC signal to convert into DC. But the whole process takes place
similarly. The bank or batteries provides power to inverter. As the output of
batteries are in DC, So the inverter converts DC into AC and this inverted AC
is fed to load for its operation. Now depending on the type and quantity of
batteries, the UPS can give power to the load for a specific time. This time is
called Back up time. The back up time of commonly used UPS is 15 to 40
minutes.
Advantages of ON-line UPS: They gives very good continuity of
power supply and protection.
Dis-Advantages of ON-line UPS: Following are the main dis-
advantages of ON-line UPS:
• Heavy in Weight
• Requires Large Space
• More Costly
OFF-Line UPS
The only difference between ON Line and OFF line UPS is that in
Offline UPS load has a direct link to ac mains via a static switch, while having
other same circuitry. In case of OFF line UPS, the inverter doesn’t remains it
ON state as ON line UPS, Instead it comes to On only when the Main supply
gets OFF. When the main supply is ON the load derives power directly from
AC supply. When the Mains AC supply gets OFF, then inverter come to play
and convert incoming DC supply from Batteries to AC. This inverted ac is then
fed to load. Here we make use of static switch which immediately switches
from one supply to another in case ac mains gets off. The switching time of OFF
line UPS is almost equal to five mili seconds.
Advantages Of OFF-line UPS
• Less Expensive
• Light Weight
• Requires Less Space.
• This type of UPS is mostly used for our personal computers.
Line Interaction UPS
Line interaction UPS is similar to OFF line UPS. In this type of UPS,
the inverter circuit works only when there is no AC Power supply. When AC
Mains are ON, the load derives current directly from Mains power supply. In
case when there is some failure in AC mains then the inverter goes ON and
inverts incoming DC signal from battery to AC. This Inverted AC signal is then
fed to load. The switching time of this UPS is large than both previous UPS.
This type of UPS is commonly used at our homes. The main advantage of this
type of UPS is that its back up time is very high(almost 1 hour to 4 hours). So
this type of UPS are used where switching time does not matter for example:
Fans, Lights, TV , DVD and other home appliances.
3.10 UPS ICs used Version and Servicing Procedures
Choose a charger that can supply enough current to charge the battery
and keep up with the inverter’s load. This will be a fairly heavy duty charger.
• Check RV suppliers for ‘Converters’, designed to run larger RVs if
you are making a big system.
• Check solar power sources for “big” whole house chargers and
inverters for very large systems.
• If an RV or home converter has an inverter built in, make sure it’s
isolated (or can be isolated) from the input power.
• Make sure the charger handles the kinds of batteries you are going to
buy.
Choose only deep cycle batteries. Do not use a car or truck battery,
nor a ‘marine’ battery. If you will be using only one battery, a gel or ‘maintenance
free’ battery will work adequately. For larger systems composed of multiple
deep-cycle batteries, select only wet cells or AGM cells.
• Make sure the batteries are ventilated for escaping hydrogen gas.
• If you buy wet cells, make sure the charger supports an ‘equalize’
charge.
• Lead acid batteries are sold in 6 volt and 12 volt sizes. You will need
to connect them in series to raise the voltage, or in parallel to increase
the amp-hours available.
• 12 volts = 2x6V volt batteries connected in series
• 24 volts = 4x6V or 2x12V batteries in series
• When connecting series-parallel, connect pairs of batteries in parallel
and then connect those pairs in series, not chains of series batteries in
parallel.
• Do not mix different kinds of batteries. Newer batteries added to
existing sets of batteries will be as worn as the originals very quickly.
• In larger series-parallel setups it’s a good idea to swap batteries
around every year or so.
• Batteries that are shallowly drained (cycled) will last a long time,
while batteries that are deeply cycled will have shorter lives.
• A fully charged, new 12 volt battery is 12.6 volts at rest (each of six
cells is 2.1 volts).
• A fully charged, new 6 volt battery will be at 6.3 volts at rest.
• When a 12 volt charger is operating on it, the voltage will be higher.
A float charge (maintenance charge) for a 12 volt system is 13.5 to
13.8 volts; active charging requires at least 14.1 volts. You may see it
go as high as 16 volts when charging, depending upon the charger.
After a full charge, if the battery is not going to be float charged, the
at-rest voltage will slowly return to the nominal full-charge voltage.
• A discharged 12 volt battery is 11.6 volts at rest. A discharged 6 volt
battery is 5.8 volts at rest. The voltage may temporarily fall below
these levels while powering a large load, but should return to a point
within the nominal range after a 1-hour rest. Over-discharging to less
than 1.93 volts per cell at rest will permanently damage your battery.
• Batteries can be measured with a voltmeter for an approximate state
of charge, but many dead batteries can hold a ‘shallow charge’ which
drops off rapidly when current is drawn. You’ll need to test them with
a ‘live’ load over a series of hours to verify them.
• A regulated 12 volt power supply can not fully charge a discharged
12 volt battery, but it makes a good float charger if the output voltage
is correct (again, 13.5-13.8 volts for a 12 volt system). Check the
water level in the cells often, and replenish as needed with distilled
water.
Choose an inverter
• Rated for continuous duty at substantially more power than you think
you’ll need.
• Enough ‘peak’ current to handle motor starting loads, which can be
from 3 to as much as 7 times the rated running wattage.
• Inverters are available for input voltages of 12, 24, 36, 48, and 96
volts, and a few less common voltages. The higher the voltage the
better, especially for large systems. 12 volts is the most common, but
in no case should one consider 12 volts for a system of greater than
2400 watts output (The amount of current that has to be handled is
simply too high).
• Some of the better inverters have a built-in 3-stage automatic battery
charger and transfer relay, greatly simplifying the system. These
inverters are well worth the extra money; if fact they save money
overall, as the built-in charger is a bargain compared to the price of a
comparable stand-alone charger.
Get cables and fuses and other hardware to interconnect batteries,
charger and inverter.
• These should be very heavy gauge, well made, and as short as you
can fit it all together with. This is to keep the cable resistance low.
• Consider spending just a bit more for a bus bar interconnect with big
dividers, instead of just ‘wires everywhere’. It is tidy and helps prevent
accidental shorts. It also makes it easier to remove defective batteries.
Wear protective gear and observe safety precautions.
• Don your eye protection to protect against acid splashes to the eye.
• Wear protective, non-conductive gloves if possible.
• Remove any jewelry and any metallic items you might be wearing.
Securely attach the charger cables to the deep cycle battery, noting
polarity.
Prepare the charging system. Plug the charger into the wall and power
it on. Make sure it begins a proper charge cycle, and make sure the inverter is
powered off.
Attach and test the inverter if it is separate from the charger.
Hook up the cables to the batteries, noting polarity. Turn the inverter on and test
it with some suitable AC load. You shouldn’t see sparks, smoke, or fire at any
point. Leave the inverter on with a load similar to your planned load and allow
the battery to charge overnight. This will test that the charger and load are a
good match. In the morning, the battery should be fully charged.
Dismantle the Test Rig
Design a tidy enclosure. This could be shelves in a shed, or a very
large container. This will hold the batteries, charger, and inverter. Generally the
charger and inverter should not be right next to the batteries where escaping gas
can get to them. If so, it can shorten the life of the electronics, or ignite gases
from sparking if vents are blocked. Some partition should be installed and
separate air circulation should be provided for the charger and inverter.
Alternatively, mount the charger/inverter outside the battery box. Once ready,
install the components into it.
Make the connections. Runs of cable should be kept fairly short. You
need easy access to every battery to check, so clean and tighten cables. For
wet cells, you need to be able to easily take every top off to check fluid levels
and get distilled water into them. Make sure the inverter is grounded. You may
ground it to the ground wire on the charger’s input AC, or use a grounding rod
driven into the soil.
Supplement alternatives where beneficial or necessary. You may
supplement or replace the charger with solar, wind, etc., connected to their own
applicable charge controller. This can keep the power running far longer than it
otherwise would, even indefinitely. Also, you may supplement the charger with a
generator. Attach a truck alternator to a small internal combustion engine, use a
generator with 12 volt charging output, or unplug the charger from its AC outlet
and then use a ‘regular’AC generator to power the charger.
The UPS can be located outside
• Install an inside and outside outlet through a wall connected only to
each other. You can plug the UPS inverter into the outside outlet (with
a ‘gender bender’ extension cable) to power the inside outlet.
• Disconnect and isolate an indoor circuit from the main circuit breaker
panel. Route the wire out of that box through one of the punch-outs
or remove it, and connect it to the inverter, providing conduit to shield
as applicable. All plugs/lights/smoke detectors/etc. on that circuit will
be powered by the UPS, so test and make sure nothing ‘extra’ is
connected to it.
• Run conduit and/or get fancy as you see fit, relative the permanence
of your solution.
1. What are applications of UPS?
2. Mention the types of UPS.
3. Mention the types of invertors.
4. What are advantages of using MOSFET in invertors?
5. What is Voltage Somse inverter?
6. Write applications of three phase inverters.
7. What is the difference between on line/off-line UPS?
8. Write IC member used in inverter.
1. Explain working of Single phase bridge inverter using MOSFET.
2. Explain working of voltage source inverter.
3. Explain working of three-phase inverter.
4. Draw the block diagram of off-line UPS. Explain working.
5. Draw and explain on line UPS
6. Explain servicing procedure of IC’S Used in inverter.
UNIT 4
Telephone and Cellular
Communication
Structure
4.1 Telephone Communication
4.2 Operation of Basic Telephone Equipment
4.3 Working of Digital Dailing instrument
4.4 Intercom System working
4.5 Concepts of Mobile Communicating System
4.6 Intelligent Network Concept
4.7 Cellular Concept
4.8 Celllular System Operation
4.9 Significance Frequency reused Handoff features
4.10 Concepts of Digital Cellular Mobile System
4.11 GSM Standards and Services
4.12 Radio Characteristics of GSM
4.13 Concepts of CDMS system used in Mobile Communication.
Learning Objectives
• Study of basic telephone system.
• Working of telephone equipment.

• Working of Digital dialing instrument.
• Working of Simple Intercom system.
• Concepts of Mobile communication system.
• Concept of Intelligent network.
• Working of cellular concept
• Working of Cellular operation system.
• Significance of frequency re-use and hand off features.
• Concepts of Digital cellular mobile system
• GSM standards and service aspects
• Radio characteristics of GSM
• Basic concepts of CDMA system use in mobile communication.
4.1 Telephone Communication
Introduction
Telephone communication is a routine, but important, component of
every healthcare practice. Everyone in your office should approach telephone
communications as an opportunity to provide patients with good service and to
obtain important information. A patient’s first and lasting impression of your
practice is often from a telephone call.
Fig 4.1 Diagram of Telephone

Fig 4.2 Diagram of Telephone
Healthcare providers also must be mindful of the potential liability risks

associated with telephone communication. Areas of increased telephone office
liability may include allegations of failure to diagnose, delay of treatment, improper
treatment, failure to follow-up, and breach of confidentiality.
Absent or improper documentation of telephone contacts and messages
can negatively impact the defense of a malpractice claim. Therefore, it is essential
that telephone calls be documented with the same detail as an office visit. Have
policies and procedures to enhance andmonitor the quality of your practice’s
telephone communications with patients. All staff share in the responsibility to
provide patients with courteous and efficient telephone communication.
Tips for Effective Telephone Communication
1. Train all office staff in telephone etiquette, including handling an angry
or dissatisfied patient. The attitude of the person who answers the
telephone will set the first impression of your office.
2. A caller should always have the option of speaking with a person.
3. Try to answer the telephone by the third ring and monitor calls that
are put on hold. Allow callers to speak first, and ask for and get their
permission to place them on hold.
4. If your office is equipped with an automatic call distribution system,

limit the menu selections to four or five at most. The first message
should always be, “If this is an emergency, dial 911 or go to the
emergency room immediately.”
5. Conduct telephone conversations out of the hearing of patients to
protect the caller’s privacy.
6. Obtain the caller’s phone number and confirm identifying patient
information.
7. When a return call is required, ask the caller what time he or she will
be available, and give an approximate time for the return call. Then,
make return calls as promised. This conveys a message to patients
that you care and are respectful of their time and concerns.
8. Develop a Telephone Advice Protocol Manual for nursing and other
staff authorized to give telephone advice that addresses areas such
as handling routine questions and doing telephone assessments and
triage. Monitor staff compliance with the protocol.
9. Instruct staff to consult a physician or other designated clinician
whenever they have concerns or questions regarding their telephone
assessment or advice. Respond promptly and positively when staff
seek guidance.
10. Appointment books should be written in black or blue ink. Entries
should never be erased or obliterated with erasure fluid. When
making a change, simply mark a line through the information already
entered and record the change below. Keep old appointment books
and telephone logs for as long as you maintain medical records.
11. Develop a policy and procedures for handling phoned-in lab reports
that include how “panic values” are to be relayed to the physician.
12. The practitioner who orders a test should be the person who calls
the patient to communicate sensitive results.
4.2 Operation of Basic Telephone Equipment
Inset Receiver Type 1L
This receiver uses short cobalt-steel permanent magnet which provides
higher flux density than the tungsten-steel magnet used in the Bell receiver. The
case is either aluminium or moulded bakelite which is threaded so that a bakelite
earpiece (No 18) can be screwed to hold the diaphragm in place.
The resistance of each coil is 40 ohms (total 80 ohms). the impedance

varies from about 110 to 710 ohms over the voice frequency range and is about
350 ohms at 1000 cps.
The magnet and pole piece assembly are mounted on either a die-cast
aluminium case or a case of moulded phenolic material which is threaded so that
the bakelite earpiece (No 23) can be screwed to hold the diaphragm in position.
The DC resistance is about 55 ohms. The impedance varies from about

100 to 640 ohms over the voice frequency range and is about 290 ohms at
1000 cps.The type 1L and 2P receivers do not have Bessemer steel pieces as in
the Bell receiver (1A). However, the wide pole pieces provide an alternative air
path of large cross-section at the base of the coils which shunts the high reluctance
of the permanent magnet for the changes of flux in the magnetic circuit.
Fig 4.3 Cross section of later type bell receiver
4.3 Working of Digital Dialling Instrument

M2616
• Handsfree
• On-Hook Dialing
• Message Waiting Indicator
• Wall Mount Capability
• 13 configurable Feature Keys
Fig 4.4 Digital Dialling Instrument
Volume Control Bar for

• Ringing Tone
• Buzz Tone
• Speaker
• Handset/Headset
• Handsfree
Support for the following set options
• 2 x 24 Character Display
• MCA data option to provide integrated voice and data transmission
• External Alerter Interface for high ambient noise environments
• Add-on 22 configurable Feature Key Expansion Modules (2 maximum)
• Analog Terminal Adapter (ATA) for simultaneous use of a fax, modem
or other analog device through the ATA’s RJ-11 connection.
M2008/M2008HF
• Handsfree (on the M2008HF only)
• On-Hook Dialing

• 8 configurable Feature Keys (7 on the M2008HF)

• Ringing Tone
• Buzz Tone
• Speaker
• Handset/Headset
• Handsfree (M2008HF)
• 2 x 24 Character Display
or other analog device through the ATA’s RJ-11 connection
M2006
• On-Hook Dialing
• 6 configurable Feature Keys

• Ringing Tone
• Buzz Tone
• Speaker
• Handset/Headset
or other analog device through the ATA’s RJ-11 connection.
4.4 Intercom System Working
An intercom (intercommunication device), talkback or doorphone is
a stand-alone voice communications system for use within a building or small
collection of buildings, functioning independently of the public telephone network.
Intercoms are generally mounted permanently in buildings and vehicles.
Intercoms can incorporate connections to public address loudspeaker
systems, walkie talkies, telephones, and to other intercom systems. Some
intercom systems incorporate control of devices such as signal lights and door
latches.
Basic Intercom System terms
Fig 4.7 Intercom Instrument
Sub-station by Bolinder’s_teleradio (50’s)

Master Station or Base Station – These are units that can control the
system, i.e., initiate a call with any of the stations and make announcements over
the whole system.
Sub-station – Units that are capable of only initiating a call with a Master
Station but not capable of initiating calls with any other stations (sometimes
called slave units).
Door Station – Like sub-stations, these units are only capable of
initiating a call to a Master Station. They are typically weather-proof.
Intercom Station – Full-featured remote unit that is capable of initiating
and receiving party-line conversation, individual conversation and signalling. May
be rack-mounted, wall-mounted or portable.
Wall Mount Station – fixed-position intercom station with built-in
loudspeaker. May have flush-mounted microphone, hand-held push to talk
microphone or telephone-style handset.
Belt Pack – portable intercom station worn on the belt such as an
interruptible feedback (IFB) with an earpiece worn by talent.
Handset – permanent or portable telephone-style connection to an
intercom station. Holds both an earpiece and a push to talk microphone.
Headset – portable intercom connection from a belt pack to one or

both ears via headphones with integrated microphone on a boom arm. Connects
to a belt pack.
Paging Signal – An audible and/or visual alert at an intercom station,
indicating that someone at another station wants to initiate a conversation.
Power Supply – Used to feed power to all units. Often incorporated
into the design of the base station.
4.5 Concepts of Mobile Communicating System
Cellular Telephone Systems
Radio telephone system should be structured to achieve high capacity
with limited radio spectrum while at the same time covering very large areas.
Older System
Achieve a large coverage area by using a simple, high powered
transmitter. Put BS on top of mountains or tall towers, so that it could provide
coverage for a large area. The next BS was so far away that interference was
not an issue. Severely limit the number of users that could communicate
simultaneously. Noise-limited system with few users. The Bell mobile system in
New York City in the 1970s could only support a maximum of twelve simultaneous
calls over a thousand square miles.
The number of simultaneous calls a mobile wireless system can
accommodate is essentially determined by the total spectral allocation for that
system and the bandwidth required for transmitting signals used in handling a
call.
Cellular systems accommodate a large number of users over a large
geographic area, within a limited frequency spectrum. High capacity is achieved
by limiting the coverage of each base station transmitter to a small geographic
area called a cell so that the same radio channels may be reused by another
base station located some distance away. The coverage area is divided into
many cells.
Replace a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power
transmitters (small cells) each providing coverage to only one cell area (a small
portion of the service area). A sophisticated switching technique called a hando
enables a call to proceed un-interrupted when the user moves from one cell to
another.
The concept of cells was first proposed as early as 1947 by Bell

Laboratories in the US, with a detailed proposal for a \High-Capacity Mobile
Telephone System” incorporating the cellular concept submitted by Bell
Laboratories to the FCC in 1971. The first AMPS system was deployed in
Chicago in 1983.
Basic cellular system : Consist of mobile stations, base stations, and
a mobile switching center (MSC).
Mobile switching center (MSC) : Sometimes called a mobile
telephone switching oce (MTSO)
• Coordinates the activities of all of the base stations
• Connect the entire cellular system to the PSTN.
• Accommodates all billing and system maintenance functions
Each mobile communicates via radio with one of the base stations and
may be handed-off to any number of base stations throughout the duration of a
call.
Mobile station : Contains a transceiver, an antenna, and control circuitry.
Base stations : Serve as a bridge between all mobile users in the cell
and connects the simultaneous mobile calls via telephone lines or microwave
links to the MSC.Consist of several transmitters and receivers which
simultaneously handle full duplex communications.
Generally have towers which support several transmitting and receiving
antennas.
Communication between the base station and the mobiles is defined by
a standard “common air interface (CAl)” that species four different channels.
a. Forward voice channels (FVC): voice transmission from the base
station to mobiles
b. Reverse voice channels (RVC): voice transmission from mobiles to
the base station
c. Forward control channels (FCC) and reverse control channels (RCC).
Often called setup channels. Involve in setting up a call and moving it to
an unused voice channel. Initiate mobile calls.
• Transmit and receive data messages that carry call initiation and service
requests, and are monitored by mobiles when they do not have a call
in progress.
• FCCs also serve as beacons which continually broadcast all of the
traffic requests for all mobiles in the system.
• Supervisory and data messages are sent in a number of ways to
facilitate automatic channel changes and handoff instructions for the
mobiles before and during a call.
• Typically, about 5% of the entire mobile spectrum is devoted to control
channels, which carry data messages that are very brief and bursty in
nature, while the remaining 95% of the spectrum is dedicated to voice
channels.
4.6 Intelligent Network concept
The Intelligent Network (IN) is the standard network architecture
specified in the ITU-T Q.1200 series recommendations. It is intended for fixed
as well as mobile telecom networks. It allows operators to differentiate themselves
by providing value-added services in addition to the standard telecom services
such as PSTN, ISDN and GSM services on mobile phones.
The intelligence is provided by network nodes on the service layer, distinct
from the switching layer of the core network, as opposed to solutions based on
intelligence in the core switches or telephone equipment. The IN nodes are
typically owned by telecommunications operators (telecommunications service
providers).
Intelligence Network Services
• Televoting
• Call screening
• Telephone number portability
• Toll free calls/Freephone
• Prepaid calling
• Account card calling
• Virtual private networks (such as family group calling)
• Centrex service (Virtual PBX)

• Private-number plans (with numbers remaining unpublished in
directories).
• Universal Personal Telecommunication service (a universal personal
telephone number)
• Mass-calling service
• Prefix free dialing from cellphones abroad
• Seamless MMS message access from abroad.
• Reverse charging
• Home Area Discount
• Premium Rate calls
• Call distribution based on various criteria associated with the call.
1. Location Based Routing
2. Time-based routing
3. Proportional call distribution (such as between two or more
call centres or offices).
• Call queueing
• Call transfer
4.7 Cellular Concept
1. Cellular Telephone Systems
2. Frequency Reuse
3. Cell planning with hexagonal cells
4. Co-Channel Interference
5. Trunking
6. Improving Coverage and Capacity
Cellular Telephone systems
Radio telephone system should be structured to achieve high capacity
with limited radio spectrum while at the same time covering very large areas.
Fig 4.8 Diagram of Cellular Phone
Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse refers to the use of radio channels on the same carrier
frequency to cover different areas which are separated from one another by
sufficient distances so that co-channel interference is not objectionable. Frequency
reuse is employed not only in mobile-telephone service but also in entertainment
broadcasting and most other radio services.
Cell Planning with hexagonal Cells
There are only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts which are possible.
The number of cells per cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy
N = i2 + i x j + j2
Where i and j are non-negative integers.

To locate the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must
do the following: (1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then (2) turn
60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells.
Co-Channel Interference
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular
radio systems. Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in
increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls
Trunking
Allow a large number of users to share the relatively small number of
channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of
available channels. Exploit the statistical behavior of users. Each user is allocated
a channel on a per call basis, and upon termination of the call, the previously
occupied channel is immediately returned to the pool of available channels.
Fig 4.9 Trunking
Improving coverage and Capacity

As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels
assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number
of users. At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more
channels per unit coverage area. Techniques such as cell splitting, sectoring, and
coverage zone approaches are used in practice to expand the capacity of cellular
systems. Cell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system.
4.8 Cellular system Operation

The cellular concept employs variable low-power levels, which allows
cells to be sized according to the subscriber density and demand of a given
area. As the population grows, cells can be added to accommodate that growth.
Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells. Conversations
can be handed off cell to cell to maintain constant phone service as the user
moves between cells.
Fig 4.10 Diagram of Cellular System
4.9 Significance Frequency reused Handoff Features

The generic term channel is normally used to denote a frequency in
FDMA system, a time slot in TDMA system, and a code in CDMA system or a
combination of these in a mixed system. Two channels are different if they use
different combinations of these at the same place. For example, two channels in
a FDMA system use two different frequencies. Similarly, in TDMA system two
separate time slots using the same frequency channel is considered two different
channels. In that sense, for an allocated spectrum the number of channels in a
system is limited. This limits the capacity of the system to sustain simultaneous
calls and may only be increased by using each traffic channel to carry many calls
simultaneously. Using the same channel again and again is one way of doing it.
This is the concept of channel reuse. The concept of channel reuse can be
understood a cluster of three cells. These cells use three separate sets of channels.
This set is indicated by a letter. Thus, one cell uses set A, the other uses set B,
and so on. This cluster of three cells is being repeated to indicate that three sets
of channels are being reused in different cells. A similar arrangement with cluster
size of seven cells. Now let us see how this helps to increase the system capacity.
Assume there are a total of F channels in a system to be used over a given

geographic area. Also assume that there are N cells in a cluster that use all the
available channels. In the absence of channel reuse this cluster covers the whole
area and the capacity of the system to sustain simultaneous calls is F. Now if the
cluster of N cells is repeated M times over the same area, then the system
capacity increases to MF as each channel is used M times.
The number of cells in a cluster is referred to as the cluster size, the
parameter 1/N is referred to as the frequency reuse factor, and a system using a
cluster size of N sometimes is also referred to as a system using N frequency
reuse plan. The cluster size is an important parameter. For a given cell size, as
the cluster size is decreased, more clusters are required to cover the given area
leading to more reuse of channels and hence the system capacity increases.
Theoretically, the maximum capacity is attained when cluster size is one, that is,
when all the available channels are reused in each cell. For hexagonal cell
geometry, the cluster size can only have certain values. These are given by
N =i2 +j2 +ij,
where i and j are nonnegative integers.
The cells using the same set of channels are known as co-channel cells.
For example the cells using channels A are co-channel cells. The distance between
co-channel cells is known as co-channel distance and the interference caused
by the radiation from these cells is referred to as co-channel interference. For
proper functioning of the system, this needs to be minimized by decreasing the
power transmitted by mobiles and base stations in co-channel cells and increasing
the co-channel distance. Because the transmitted power normally depends on
the cell size, the minimization of co-channel interference requires a minimum co-
channel distance; that is, the distance cannot be smaller than this minimum
distance.
Handoff
It is common for a mobile to move away from its servicing base station
while a call is in progress. As the mobile approaches the cell boundary, the
strength and quality of the signal it receives starts to deteriorate. At some stage,
near the cell boundary, it receives a stronger signal from a neighboring base
station than it does from its serving base station. At this point the control of the
mobile is handed over to the new base station by assigning a channel belonging
to the new cell. This process where a radio channel used by a mobile is changed,
is referred to as handoff or handover [41, 44, 48–50]. When handoff is between
two base stations as described earlier, it is referred to as intercell handoff. On
the other hand, when handoff is between two channels belonging to the same
base stations, it is referred to as intracell handoff. The situation arises when the
network, while monitoring its channels, finds a free channel of better quality than
that used by a mobile and decides to move the mobile to this new channel to
improve the quality of channels in use. Sometimes, the network rearranges
channels to avoid congestion and initiates intracell handoff. Handoff is also
necessary between different layers of overlayed systems consisting of microcells
and macrocells. In these systems, the channels are divided into microcell channels
and macrocell channels. When a mobile moves from one microcell to another
and there is no available channel for handoff, a macrocell channel is used to
meet the handoff request. This avoids the forced termination of a call. Later if a
channel becomes available at an underlayed microcell, then the macrocell channel
may be released and a microcell channel is assigned to the call by initiating a
new handoff.
Fig 4.11 Handoff system
Forced termination of a call in progress is undesirable and to minimize it

a number of strategies are employed. These include reserving channels for
handoff, using channel assignment schemes that give priority to a handoff request
over new calls, and queuing the handoff request. The channel reservation and
handoff priority scheme reduce the probability of forced termination by increasing
the probability of blocking new calls. The queuing schemes are effective when
handoff requests arrive in groups and there is a reasonable likelihood of channel
availability in the near future.
The handoff is initiated when the quality of current channels deteriorates
below an acceptable threshold or a better channel is available. The channel
quality is measured in terms of bit-error rate (BER), received signal strength, or
some other signal quality such as eye opening of radio signal that indicates signal
to interference plus noise ratio.
For handoff initiation the signal strength is used as an indication of the

distance between the base and the mobile. For this reason, a drop in signal
strength resulting from Rayleigh fading is normally not used to initiate handoff
and some kind of averaging is used to avoid the problem. In some systems the
roundtrip delay between mobile and base is also used as an indication of the
distance. The measurement of various parameters may be carried out either at
the mobile or at the base. Depending on where the measurements are made and
who initiates the handoff, various handoff implementation schemes are possible
including network-controlled handoff, mobile-controlled handoff, and mobile-
assisted handoff.
4.10 Concepts of Digital Cellular Mobile System
In contrast to the first-generation analog systems, second-generation
systems are designed to use digital transmission and to employ TDMA or CDMA
as a multiple access scheme. These systems include North American dual-mode
cellular system IS-54, North American IS-95 systems, Japanese Personal Digital
Cellular (PDC) systems, and European GSM and DCS 1800 systems. GSM,
DCS 1800, IS-54, and PDC systems use TDMA and FDD whereas IS-95 is a
CDMA system and also uses FDD for a duplexing technique. Other parameters
for these systems are shown in Table 1.2. In this section a brief description of
these systems is presented.
Fig 4.12 Digital Cellular System

The PDC system, established in Japan, employs TDMA technique. It

uses three time slots per frequency channel and has a frame duration of 20 ms.
It can support three users at full-rate speech and six halfrate speech users similar
to IS-54. It has a channel spacing of 25 kHz and uses modulation. It supports a
frequency-reuse plan with cluster size four and uses MAHO.
Code Division Multiple Access Digital Cellular System (Interim

Standard-95)
This CDMA digital system uses CDMA as a multiple access technique

and occupies the same frequency band as that occupied by AMPS; that is, the
forward-link frequency band is from 869 to 894 MHz and the reverse-link
band is from 824 to 849 MHz. Forward-link and reverse-link carrier frequencies
are separated by 45 MHz. Each channel in IS-95 occupies a 1.25-MHz
bandwidth and this is shared by many users. The users are separated from each
other by allocating 1 of 64 orthogonal spreading sequences (Walsh functions).
The user data are grouped into 20-ms frames and are transmitted at a basic user
rate of 9600 bps. This is spread to a channel chip rate of 1.2288 Mchip/s giving
a spreading factor of 128. RAKE receivers are used at both base station and
mobiles to resolve and combine multipath components. During handoff the
standard allows for base station diversity whereby a mobile keeps link with
both the base stations and combines.
4.11 GSM Standards and Services

The general packet radio service (GPRS), a data extension of the mobile
telephony standard GSM is emerging as the first true packet-switched
architecture to allow mobile subscribers to benefit from high-speed transmission
rates and run data applications from their mobile terminals. Ahigh-level description
of the GPRS system is given with emphasis on services and architectural aspects.
Nomenclature
ANSI American National Standards Institute
APN Access point name
AuC Authentication center

BSCs Base station controllers
BSS Base station subservice
BTS Base transceiver stations
CDMA Code division multiple access
CLNS Connectionless network service
CONS Connection oriented network service
EDGE Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution
EIR Equipment identity register
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
GGSN Gateway GPRS support node
GMM/SM GPRS mobility management and session management
GPRS GPRS packet radio service
GSM global system for mobile communications
GSN GPRS support node
GTP GPRS tunnelling protocol
HLR Home location register
HSCSD High-speed circuit-switched data
IMSI International Mobile Subscriber Id
IMT 2000 International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
IP Internet protocol
IPsec Internet protocol security
LA location area
LLC logical link control
MAC medium access control

MO mobile originated
MS mobile station
MT mobile terminal, mobile terminated
MSC message switching centre.
NSS network switching subsystem
NSAP network service access point
NSAPI network service access point identifier
PCU packet control unit
PIN personal identification number
PDN packet data network
PDP packet data protocol
PDU protocol data unit, packet data units
PLMN public land mobile network
PTP point-to-point
PTM point-to-multipoint
RA routeing area
RF radio frequency
RLC radio link control
SAP service access point
SGSN serving GPRS support node
SNDCP subnetwork dependent convergence protocol
TDMA time division multiple access

Fig 4.13 GSM cellular system
In the past few years, fixed networks have witnessed a tremendous

growth in data traffic due in good part to the increasing popularity of the Internet.
Consequently new data applications are emerging and are reaching the general
public. At the same time the market is witnessing a remarkable explosion of
cellular and mobile technologies leading to demand that data applications become
available to mobile users. Global system for mobile communications (GSM) [1]
is the European standard for cellular communications developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Throughout Europe and
the rest of the world (including North America), GSM has been widely adopted.
It has already been implemented in over 100 countries [2]. The most important
service in GSM is voice telephony. Voice is digitally encoded and carried by the
GSM network as a digital stream in a circuit-switched mode. GSM o€ers data
services already but they have been constrained by the use of circuit-switched
data channels over the air interface allowing a maximum bit rate of 14.4 kbit/s.
For this reason, the GSM standard has continued its natural evolution to
accommodate the requirement for higher bit rates.
The high-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD) are one solution that
address this requirement by allocating more time slots per subscriber and thus
better rates. It remains however insufficient for bursty data applications such as
Web browsing. Moreover, HSCSD rely on circuit switching techniques making
it unattractive for subscribers who want to be charged based on the volume of

the data traffic they actually use rather than on the duration of the connection. In
turn, service providers need effective means to share the scarce radio resources
between more subscribers. In a circuit-switched mode, a channel is allocated to
a single user for the duration of the connection.
This exclusive access to radio resources is not necessary for data
applications with the use of packet switched techniques. GPRS stands out as
one major development in the GSM standard that benefits from packet switched
techniques to provide mobile subscribers with the much needed high bit rates
for bursty data transmissions.
It is possible theoretically for GPRS subscribers to use several time
slots (packet data channels) simultaneously reaching a bit rate of about 170
kbit/s. Volume-based charging is possible because channels are allocated to
users only when packets are to be sent or received. Bursty data applications
make it possible to balance more efficiently the network resources between
users because the provider can use transmission gaps for other subscriber
activities.
4.12 Radio characteristics of GSM
Characteristics of GSM
Communication : mobile, wireless communication; support for voice
and data services
Total mobility : international access, chip-card enables use of access
points of different providers
Worldwide connectivity : one number, the network handles localization
High capacity : Better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers
per cell
High transmission quality : high audio quality and reliability for wireless,
uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)
Security functions : access control, authentication via chip-card and
PIN
Mobile Services
GSM services
• basic services
• voice services
• data services
• short message service
• additional services
• emergency number
• group 3 fax
• electronic mail
• supplementary services
• identification: forwarding of caller number
• suppression of number forwarding
• automatic call-back
• conferencing with up to 7 participants
Fig 4.14 Radio GSM system
Basic Services
• Services are supported by traffic channels
• full rate: 22.8 kbit/s (gross bit rate, unprotected transmission)
• half rate: 11.4 kbit/s (gross bit rate, unprotected transmission)
Voice services (speech coding with protection)

• full rate: 13 / 12.2 kbit/s (original coder / enhanced full rate coder)
• half rate: 5.6 kbit/s (enhanced half rate coder)
Data services (coding with different levels of protection)
• full rate: 9.6 / 4.8 / 2.4 kbit/s
• half rate: 4.8 / 2.4 kbit/s
• Enhanced data services
HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switched Data)
• n X 14.4 / n X 9.6 / n X 4.8 kbit/s (n=1, 2, 3, 4)
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
• Various rates (typically up to 53.6 kbit/s).
4.13 Concepts of CDMA systems used in Mobile
communication
Spreading: Chips and Symbols
• A chip is the shortest modulated signal in a DS-CDMA system
• Chip rate signal bandwidth
• A symbol is spread over multiple chips
• Spreading Factor (SF): # chips used to transmit one symbol spreading
factor = SF = Rc/ Rs=chip rate / symbol rate
• SF is a spectrum spreading factor: bit rate Ò! chip rate
• Provides processing gain against noise and interference
• The Spreading Code is a sequence of SF chips
• Usually the chips are +-1
• Spreading code can be understood as SF × 1 vector c
• Normalization: cTc = SF
• Spreading
• Transmitted symbol x (any linear modulation).
Fig 4.15 CDMA System
De-spreading
• At receiver, de-spreading is performed
• Chips carrying information about symbol x are coherently combined.
• Noise and interference is de-spread and non-coherently combined.
• As long as interference is not transmitted with the same spreading
code processing gain
Cross- and Autocorrelation
• A family of spreading codes is a set {cj}
• Different spreading codes define different code multiplexed channels
• Cross-correlation
• Correlation between two spreading codes; cTi cj
• Determines orthogonality between codes
• Auto-correlation
• Correlation between code and delayed copies of itself
• Determines performance in multipath environments.
Orthogonal Spreading Walsh-Hadamard Codes

• A family of spreading codes is orthogonal
• At most SF orthogonal codes with length SF
• Orthogonality lost if codes not received synchronously.
Walsh-Hadamard (WH) Spreading Codes
• Family of orthogonal spreading codes for SF = 2n
• SF orthogonal codes with spreading factor SF
• The four SF = 4 WH codes quoted on previous slide.
• Perfect cross-correlation properties between spreading codes with
same timing (orthogonality)
WH OVSF Code Tree
• SF=2 user with code [+1 +1]
• Occupies all branches of code tree branching off from [+1 +1]
• Leaves room e.g. for 4 SF=8 users with codes from the other branch
• While 4 symbols Tx’d to SF=2 user, 1 symbol Tx’d to four SF=8
users.
• All these are orthogonal to each other: 8 symbols in 8 chip periods
Spreading in Cellular Systems
• Synchronous transmissions: orthogonal spreading
• Asynchronous transmissions: pseudo-random spreading
• Randomizes interference
• Downlink is intra-cell synchronous by definition
• Transmissions to all users have the same timing
• Orthogonal spreading between DL users
• Possible orthogonal multicode transmissions to a user
• To synchronize intra-cell UL, accurate Timing Advance is required
• Less than fraction of chip rate
• If UL synchronous, orthogonal spreading between users may be used
• If UL asynchronous, orthogonal spreading between users not possible

• Orthogonal spreading only for UL multicode transmission from a
user.
• In CDMA systems, resource use in different cells not orthogonal
• Reuse 1
• Pseudo-random spreading (“scrambling”) to mitigate inter-cell
interference.
Spreading Partitioning
Functions of spreading in cellular system
1. provide immunity against multipath interference
2. whiten inter-cell interference (randomization)
3. provide orthogonal CDM for synchronized intra-cell channels
Partitioning of Spreading Code
• Scrambling code
• Long sequence of pseudo-random +-1:s generated by mathematically
defined random sign generator, known at BS and MS
• Fulfils targets 1 and 2
• Channelization code
• Performs spreading from symbol rate to chip rate
• Length SF
• Family of SF orthogonal codes, provides multiple orthogonal
channels, if needed
• Fulfils target 3
Spreading and Scrambling
• A symbol is spread by
• Multiplying with a channelization code of length SF chips
• Multiplying the chips with a changing set of SF consecutive chips of
scrambling code
Spreading and Scrambling II

• If two synchronous transmissions are spread with orthogonal
channelization codes, and scrambled with the same scrambling code, the
transmissions remain orthogonal.
Advantages of CDMA
• All resources can be used in all cells
• Wideband channel and large SF produce sufficient SINR for cell
edge users high system capacity
• Protection against multipath interference
• Based on good autocorrelation properties of the spreading codes
• If spreading factor is large
• Multipath diversity can be utilised by the RAKE-receiver
• It is easy to multiplex different channels in the code domain
• Control and transport channels, different users
• Silence periods in the transmitted signal do not consume resources.
Disatvantages of CDMA
• In UL, chip synchronisation between the users may be overwhelming.
• Multiple Access Interference (MAI) between users
• In DL, Inter-Path Interference (IPI) reduces orthogonality of users
• Accurate power control needed to avoid near-far problems which
put distant users in an unfavourable situation
• CDMA is fundamentally an access scheme for low rates and many
users.
• RAKE receiver works well in severe multipath channel only if significant
fraction of the possible orthogonal codes are not used (DL)
• Despreading in UL works well only for large SF
• When striving for high data rates with high SINR requirements, IPI
and MAI dominate performance
• More complex receivers (chip equalizers) are needed to mitigate IPI
and MAI.
• Simplicity of DS-CDMA is lost.

1. Write applications of telephones
2. Write types of telephones
3. Write applications of intercom
4. What are the advantages of digital dialing?
5. Mention the cellular concepts.
6. What is re use frequency?
7. What is hand off features?
8. Mention the types of cell phone networks.
9. Expand GSM, CDMA.
10. Write any two Radio characteristics of GSM.
1. Explain basic telephone working system.
2. Explain working of basic telephone equipment.
3. Explain working of intercom working with neat diagram
4. Describe concepts of mobile communication system
5. Explain cellular concepts.
6. Explain significance of frequency re-use and handoff features.
7. Explain working of digital cellular system.
8. Write GSM standards.
9. Explain radio characteristic of GSM.
10. Explain basic concepts of CDMA systems.

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UNIT 1

Measuring & Testing of

• Measurement of Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance by using digi

Fig 1.1 AC Voltmeter

Fig 1.2 Multirange AC Voltmeter

This is the circuit for measuring different ac voltages resistances

Fig 1.3 DC Voltmeter

Im = fsd current of the movement Ifsd

V= full range voltage of the instrument

Fig 1.3 Multirange Voltmeter

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one because

0-250 V 0-100 V 0-50 V 0-10 V

10V range(V4 position of switch) the total circuit resistance

Meter set to lowest

Fig 1.6 Extending Voltage range

Measurement of Current using Ammeter

Fig 1.7 Measurement of Current using Ammeter

Electronic voltmeters are frequently constructed to act as multipurpose

When alternating current is to be measured a rectifier to change the

Another method employs an AC current probe which enables the AC

The voltage induced in the secondary winding is amplified and the

Fig 1.8 DC Ammeter

The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a pmmc galvanometer. Since

Ex : A 1mA meter movement with a an internal resistance of 100&! is

Fig 1.9 Extending the Range of DC Ammeter

The current range of the dc ammeter may be further extended by a

Fig 1.10 Aryton shunt or universal shunt

If the switch is connected to position ‘3’, Ra, Rb, Rc are together in

A Test bench power supply circuit

Bridge rectifier D1, 2 =1N4001 R1 = 220 R2 = 2000

Fig 1.11 A Test bench power supply circuit

1.5 Volt power supply using the LM 17 T

12.6 Volts center tapped secondary 450 MA

Fig 1.12 (1.5 Volt power supply using the LM 17 T)

1.3 Measurement of Voltages, Currents & Resistance using

Fig 1.13 Use of multimeter for D.C voltage measurement

Use of multimeter as Ammeter

Fig 1.14 Arrangement used in the multimeter to use is as an ammeter

Use of multimeter for measurement of A.C Voltage

Fig 1.15 Voltmeter section of a multimeter

Use of multimeter for resistance measurement

Battery Zero adjust

Fig 1.16 Ohm meter section of multimeter

For a scale multiplication of 1 before any measurement for a scale is

Digital multimeter is an instrument used for the measurement of voltage,

The digital multimeters generally use compensated attenuator for both

Fig 1.17 Block diagram of digital multimeter

For “current measurement”, the unknown current is passes through a

( An analogue meter moves a needle along a scale each type of meter

Unit – ohm (&  )

The function of a inductor is minimizes AC blocks & permit DC.

Fig 1.19 Electrolytic capacitor

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitor because they are

Fig 1.20 Unpolarized capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 0.1×106 F = 100nF

1st digit 2nd digit Multiplier Tolerance

A number code is often used on small capacitor where printing is difficult.

Due to circulating currents induced when the test current is applied to

The internal shutdown circuit will be triggered by a voltage kickback of

The Transformer Ohmmeter is used

• To verify factory test readings

• As part of a regular maintenance program