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Irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water to apply to an irrigated crop to maximise net returns.
The maximisation of net returns requires a high level of irrigation efficiency. This requires the accurate measurement of
the volume of water applied or the depth of application.

It is also important to achieve a uniform water distribution across the paddock to maximise the benefits of irrigation
scheduling. Accurate water application prevents over- or under-irrigation. Over-irrigation wastes water, energy and
labour, leaches nutrients below the root zone and leads to waterlogging which reduces crop yields. Under-irrigation
stresses the plant, resulting in yield reductions and decreased returns. To benefit from irrigation scheduling you must
have an efficient irrigation system.

Advantages of irrigation scheduling

The advantages of irrigation scheduling include:

The rotation of water amongst paddocks to minimise crop water stress and maximise yields.
A reduction in energy, water and labour costs through fewer irrigations.
A lowering of fertiliser costs through reduced surface runoff and deep drainage.
Increased net returns through increased yields and improved crop quality.
A minimisation of water-logging problems.
Assisting control of root zone salinity problems through controlled leaching.
Additional crops through savings in irrigation water.

Water-balance irrigation scheduling

Water-balance irrigation scheduling is the day-to-day accounting of the amounts of water coming into and going out of
the effective root zone of a crop. It is based on estimating the soil water content in the crop root zone viewed as a system
(see Fig. 1 above).

Irrigation and rainfall add water to the root zone. Some water may be lost before entering the root zone as runoff. Some
may drain below the root zone (and in some situations water can also enter the root zone from a high water table or
water moving laterally through the ground). Water is also lost from the root zone through direct evaporation of water from
the soil surface, and transpiration through the plants.

The total water in the root zone on a particular day can be represented by the water-balance formula:

TWT = TWT-1 + Irr + Rain - ETC - DEEP - Runoff + FLUXnet

where: TWT = total water in the root zone on day T

TW T-1 = total water in the root zone on the previous day (T-1)
Irr = irrigation water applied
Rain = rainfall
ETC = evapotranspiration (soil evaporation plus plant use)
DEEP = drainage or percolation below the root zone
Runoff = runoff
FLUXnet = any change in total water in the root zone from underground water movement (e.g. high water table or water
moving laterally in the ground).

The water-balance approach to irrigation scheduling chooses a starting point total soil water in the root zone. Then the
water-balance equation is solved on a daily basis, considering the amounts of water that move into and out of the root
zone for that day.

The basic steps for water-balance irrigation scheduling of a paddock are:

1. Determine the depth of the effective root zone

The effective root zone (ERZ) of the crop is the depth of soil where you as the irrigator want to control soil moisture. It
may or may not be the full depth of the plant roots. Table 1 shows the root depth at effective cover (when the crop has
reached maximum ETc and maximum rooting depth). The effective root zone where fully irrigated crops draw most of
their water is usually between 60 cm and 1 m. Although roots may be found below this depth, but the bulk of the water

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extracted from the soil by an irrigated crop will come from the top 1 m of soil.

Table 1: Ranges of maximum effective root depth (in metres) and soil water depletion fraction for no stress.

Crop Maximum root depth1 (m) Depletion Fraction2

Barley 1.0 to 1.5 0.55

Chickpea 0.6 to 1.0 0.50

Cotton 1.0 to 1.7 0.65

Maize 1.0 to 1.7 0.55

Millet 1.0 to 2.0 0.55

Mungbeans 0.6 to 1.0 0.45

Navy beans 0.6 to 0.9 0.45

Peanuts 0.5 to 1.0 0.50

Sorghum 1.0 to 2.0 0.55

Soybeans 0.6 to 1.3 0.50

Sunflower 0.8 to 1.5 0.45

Wheat 1.0 to 1.8 0.55

Source: Allen, R.G. et al (1998) Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop water requirements, FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56
1. The larger values for maximum root depth are for soils having no significant layering or other characteristics that can
restrict root growth. The smaller values should be used for irrigation scheduling and the larger values for soil water stress
or raingrown conditions.
2. The Depletion Fraction values apply for ETC» 5 mm/day. The value for the Depletion Fraction can be adjusted for
different ETC conditions using the formula DF = DFTable 1 + 0.04 (5 - ETC)

2. Determine the Total Available Water

Available water is the amount of soil water in the effective root zone that is available to plants. Following heavy rainfall or
irrigation, water will drain out of the root zone until the Drained Upper Limit (DUL) is reached (also known as Field
Capacity) - this is the amount of water that the soil can hold against gravitational forces. Crops will use this water and
lower the water content in the absence of further rain or irrigation. As the water content falls, the remaining water is held
by the soil with greater force and it becomes more difficult for the plant to extract it. Eventually a soil water level is
reached where the crop can no longer extract water - the Crop Lower Limit (CLL).

The difference between the water level at DLU and CLL is referred to as the Plant Available Water Content (PAWC) - it is
measured in mm water per metre of soil depth. Different soils hold different amounts of PAWC. Table 2 shows the typical
PAWCs for a range of soil types.

Table 2: PAWCs for a range of soil types

Soil type PAWC (mm/m)

Coarse sand 35 to 60

Sand 60 to 75

Loamy sand 75 to 110

Sandy loam 100 to 160

Fine sandy loam 145 to 185

Loam 150 to 220

Silt loam 170 to 250

Clay loam and silty clay loam 170 to 220

Silty clay and clay 150 to 200

The Total Available Water (TAW) in the root zone is found by multiplying the PAWC by the depth of the effective root
zone. For example, a maize crop with an effective root zone of 0.8 m growing on a clay soil with a PAWC of 200 mm has
a TAW of 160 mm (200 mm/m x 0.8 m).

3. Determine your Readily Available Water level

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As the soil water level falls it becomes more tightly held by the soil and it is more difficult for plants to extract. Once the
level falls below a threshold value, soil water cannot be transported quickly enough to crop roots to meet the demand of
transpiration and the crop begins to stress. The fraction of TAW that a crop can extract from the root zone without
suffering water stress is referred to as readily available water (RAW). It is found by multiplying TAW by the depletion
fraction (DF) - the fraction of PAWC that can be depleted from the effective root zone before irrigation is necessary to
minimise yield loss. The depletion fraction changes with crop and at different stages in crop growth. Depletion fractions
for a range of full-grown irrigated crops are given in Table 1.

4. Determine your Refill Point

The Refill Point (RP) is the total soil water balance in the effective root zone at which irrigation is required. It is found by
subtracting the readily available water (RAW) from the total soil water at the Drained Upper Limit in the effective root
zone (TW DUL).

5. Determine the starting point for total soil water in the Effective Root Zone

A starting point for soil water in the effective root zone (ERZ) is needed before beginning to schedule irrigations. It can be
established before or after crop emergence by direct measurement (gravimetric soil water sampling as described in Soil
Matters: monitoring soil water and nutrients in dryland farming) or a calibrated soil-monitoring device such as a neutron
moisture probe or a capacitance probe (for example an EnviroSCAN, Gopher or Diviner). Alternatively you can estimate
it using software such as HOWWET. In furrow irrigated cropping systems it is often assumed that a pre-irrigation will fill
the effective root zone to TWDUL, but direct measurement will be more accurate. Once the starting soil water content is
known it is possible to estimate it on successive days using the water-balance formula.

6. Quantify water movement into and from the Effective Root Zone

Measure rain using rain gauges. Irrigation depth is calculated from the duration and rate of application of the irrigation
system, or by dividing the total net amount of water applied by the irrigated area (this allows for the efficiency of the
irrigation system, as none is 100% efficient). For an accurate estimate of irrigation depth you must measure its
operational efficiency.

If the depth of rain or irrigation exceeds the depth of soil water depleted from the effective root zone the difference is
considered to be deep drainage and/or runoff (the DEEP and RUNOFF terms in the water-balance formula). The
FLUXnet is usually considered negligible although it can be significant where a perched water table exists.

The crop evapotranspiration (ETC) term is the daily withdrawal figure from the soil water balance in the effective root
zone. It is estimated from weather and crop information. The formula for estimating ETC is:

ETC = KC x ETO

where: KC = the crop coefficient which expresses the difference in evapotranspiration between the cropped and a
reference grass surface.
ETO = a grass reference crop evapotranspiration (mm per day).

ETO is calculated using the Penman-Monteith method and requires radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind
speed data. A number of automatic weather stations with sensors for these measurements calculate ETO using this
method. Class A Pans are no longer considered adequate for estimating ETO owing to poor siting and maintenance.

The crop coefficient (KC) integrates the effect of characteristics that distinguish a typical field crop from the grass
reference, which has a constant appearance and a complete ground cover. Thus different crops have different KC
coefficients. It also changes over the growing season with changes in crop development and with changes affecting soil
evaporation. Estimates of KC values for the major irrigated crops are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Crop coefficients (KC) for major irrigated field crops.

Crop KCinitial KCmid-season KCend of season

Barley 0.30 1.15 0.25

Chickpea 0.40 1.00 0.35

Cotton 0.35 1.15-1.20 0.70-0.50

Maize 0.30 1.20 0.35

Mungbean 0.40 1.05 0.35

Navy bean 0.40 1.15 0.35

Peanut 0.40 1.15 0.60

Sorghum 0.30 1.00-1.10 0.55

Soybeans 0.40 1.15 0.50

Sunflower 0.35 1.15 0.35

Wheat 0.30 1.15 0.25

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Source: Allen, R.G. et al (1998) Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop water requirements, FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56.

The crop stages used to select a KC value are:

1. Initial stage - planting until 10% ground cover.

2. Crop development stage - 10% to effective groundcover (around 70-80%).
3. Mid-season stage - 70-80% groundcover to the start of maturity.
4. Late season stage - the start of maturity until harvest.

The steps in constructing a crop coefficient curve similar to that in Figure 2 are:

1. Divide the growing period into the four crop stages above, determine their length and identify the corresponding
KC values from Table 3.
2. Adjust KC values for frequent irrigation or rainfall events, humidity and wind speed.
3. Construct the curve by connecting straight lines through each of the growth stages as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Crop coefficient curve.

7. The irrigation decision

Where the total water in the effective root zone falls below the Refill Point then the crop must be irrigated. The amount of
irrigation required is equal to the TW DUL less TW T plus efficiency losses and any required leaching amount.

It is possible to predict future dates and amount of irrigation using long-term average reference evapotranspiration data,
crop coefficient curves and knowledge of the effective root zone.

8. Use soil moisture checks to adjust water balance

The water balance approach to irrigation scheduling is based on estimates and is not always accurate. Actual readings
of soil water using gravimetric soil water sampling or a calibrated soil-monitoring device such as a neutron moisture
probe or a capacitance probe should be taken to update the estimated balance. This is most important following rainfall
and irrigation events where estimation of their effectiveness can lead to errors in calculations of the water balance.

Although the calculations for the Water Balance Irrigation Scheduling approach are relatively simple, it is tedious. The
Departent of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (DEEDI) is currently developing a web-based
irrigation mangement tool that includes an irrigation scheduling component - this will significantly increase the ease with
which the soil water balance is calculated for each paddock on your farm.

Example
A maize crop is planted on the 14 October into a clay soil with a drained upper limit water holding capacity (TWDUL) of
450 mm/m and a plant available water content (PAWC) of 180 mm/m.

The maize crop has an effective root zone (ERZ) of 1 metre and a depletion fraction (DF) of 0.55 (see Table 1) -
therefore the readily available water level (RAW) is 99 mm (200 x 1 x 0.55). The refill point (RP) is thus 351 mm (450 mm
- 99 mm).

On the 17 December the soil water balance is 380 mm (measured using a neutron moisture meter). Table 4 is an extract
from the soil water balance sheet for this crop from this date.

Table 4. Soil water balance sheet for example maize crop.

Crop
Ref ET Crop Soil water Average daily
Days after water Rainfall Irrigation Days to next
Date (mm) factor balance crop water use
planting use (mm) (mm) (4) (mm) (5) irrigation (8)
(1) (2)
(3) (mm) (6) (mm) (7)

17- 64 3.1 1.04 3.2 380 4.5 6

Dec

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Ref ET Crop Crop Soil water Average daily

Days after Rainfall Irrigation Days to next
Date (mm) factor water use balance crop water use
planting (mm) (4) (mm) (5) irrigation (8)
(1) (2) (mm) (3) (mm) (6) (mm) (7)

18- 65 6.1 1.04 6.3 374 4.6 5

Dec

19- 66 6.2 1.04 6.4 367 5.3 3

Dec

20- 67 6.2 1.04 6.4 361 6.4 2

Dec

21- 68 8.2 1.04 8.5 98 450 7.1 14

Dec

22- 69 10.2 1.04 10.6 440 8.5 10

Dec

23- 70 8.6 1.20 10.3 429 9.8 8

Dec

24- 71 9.1 1.20 10.9 418 10.6 6

Dec

25- 72 10.4 1.20 12.5 406 11.2 5

Dec

26- 73 8.5 1.20 10.2 396 11.2 4

Dec

27- 74 8.9 1.20 10.7 385 11.1 3

Dec

28- 75 7.3 1.20 8.8 376 9.9 3

Dec

29- 76 8.2 1.20 9.8 366 9.8 2

Dec

30- 77 7.4 1.20 8.9 35 393 9.2 5

Dec

31- 78 9.2 1.20 11.0 382 9.9 3

Dec

1. Reference evapotranspiration (ET0)

2. Crop factor (Kc)
3. ETc = Kc x ET0
4. Rainfall - all amounts should be included in table.
5. Irrigation - effective irrigation amounts should be entered here.
6. TW T = TW T-1 + Irr + Rain - ETC - DEEP - Runoff. Rainfall and irrigation amounts above that needed to increase
the soil water balance to TWDUL are considered lost as drainage below the root zone (DEEP) and runoff (Runoff).
7. Daily crop water use averaged over the past three days.
8. Estimated from the difference between the daily water balance and the refill point, divided by the average daily
water use {[(6) - 351]/(7)}.

Further information
Allen, R.G. et al (1998) Crop evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop water requirements, FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper 56.

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