When one object rubs and grates another, it causes friction.

Friction can be defined as a force that resists the relative motion

of solid surfaces, fluid layers and other forms of objects sliding
against each other. The four known types of friction are Sliding,
Static, Rolling and Fluid friction.

When a solid material slides over another solid surface, there is

always resistance to motion. This resistance is what the scientists
refer to as Friction. There is friction between the wheels of a car
and the road. Friction exists between our shoes/legs and the
ground. To sit on a chair there must be friction between our
buttocks and the chair so that we don’t slip off the chair.

Note:

 The tougher the surfaces rubbing against each other,

the more the friction.

 The smoother the surfaces rubbing against each other,

the less the friction.

Causes of Friction

The causes of the friction are molecular adhesion, surface

roughness, and the plowing effect. Adhesion is the molecular
force resulting when two materials are brought into close contact
with each other. Trying to slide objects against each other requires
breaking these adhesive bonds.

Fig. 1
Adhesion is the molecular force resulting when two materials are
brought into close contact with each other. Trying to slide objects
against each (as shown in Fig. 1) other requires breaking these
adhesive bonds. For years, scientists thought that friction was
caused by surface roughness, but recent studies have shown that
it is actually a result of adhesive forces between the materials.

When two objects are brought into contact, many atoms or

molecules from one object are in such close proximity to those in
the other object that molecular or electromagnetic forces attract
the molecules of the two materials together. This force is called
adhesion. Trying to slide one object across the other requires
breaking these adhesive bonds.
Adhesion is the essence of friction.

Surface roughness is a factor when the materials are rough

enough to cause serious abrasion. This is called the sandpaper
effect.
All solid materials have some degree of surface roughness. If you
looked at what seems to be a smooth surface under a high-
powered microscope, you would see bumps, hills and valleys that
could interfere with sliding motion.

Fig. 2
Plowing effect (or deformation of the object) occurs when one or
more of the materials are relatively soft, hence the tougher one
deforms the smoother one; as shown in Fig. 2.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

1. Friction plays a vital role in our daily life. Without friction we are
handicap.

2. It is difficult to walk on a slippery road due to low friction. When

we move on ice, it becomes difficult to walk due to low friction of
ice.

3. We cannot fix nail in the wood or wall if there is no friction. It is

friction which holds the nail.

4. A horse cannot pull a cart unless friction furnishes him a secure

Foothold.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
Despite the fact that the friction is very important in our daily life, it
also has some disadvantages such as:
1. The main disadvantage of friction is that it produces heat in
various parts of machines. In this way some useful energy is wasted
as heat energy.

2. Due to friction we have to exert more power in machines.

3. It opposes motion.

4. Due to friction, noise is also produced in machines.

5. Due to friction, engines of automobiles consume more fuel

which is a money loss.

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

There are a number of methods to reduce friction in which some
are discussed here.

Use of lubrication:
The parts of machines which are moving over one another must
be properly lubricated by using oils and lubricants of suitable
viscosity.

Use of grease:
Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine reduces the
friction.

Use of ball bearing:

In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by
rolling friction by using ball bearings.
Design modification:
Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving
objects. The front of vehicles and airplanes made oblong to
minimize friction.

Laws of friction
There are five laws of friction. These are:

1. When an object is moving, the friction is proportional and

perpendicular to the normal force (N).

2. Friction is independent of the area of contact so long as there

is an area of contact.

3. The coefficient of static friction is slightly greater than the

coefficient of kinetic friction.

4. Within rather large limits, kinetic friction is independent of

velocity.

5. Friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.

Class activity:
1. How can friction be created?
2. How can fiction be reduced?
3. What are the advantages of friction?
4. What are the disadvantages of friction?

Lubricant:
A lubricant is an oily substance that makes surfaces smooth and
slippery, thereby reducing heat, wear, friction and vibration
caused when two or more surfaces rub together.
Lubrication reduces friction. To lubricate means to apply oil in
order to reduce friction, heat, and wear and tear.

Exercises:
1. What is friction?
2. What occurs when two objects rub against each other?
3. What is the frictional difference between tougher surfaces and
smoother surfaces?
4. What are the three main causes of friction?
5. What is surface roughness?
6. What are the five laws of friction?
7. What is a lubricant?
8. What does it mean to lubricate?
A workshop is a place where engineering works are carried
out by the professionals or experts. Things are made or
repaired in a workshop. It is imperative we maintain safety in
the workshop to avoid loss of lives or and properties.

Some workshop safety rules:

1. If chips of wood are likely to fly, wear safety goggles

2. Always hold the work piece securely in the vice

3. Don’t use chisels that have developed mushroom heads

4. Never use a file that has no handle

5. If work piece is hot, mark it so that others will be alerted.

6. Do not operate any machine or use any tool without a

prior knowledge or having being instructed on how it should
be used.

7. Always wear an overall while in the workshop.

8. Always wear hard covered shoes with hard soles.

9. When in doubt, always ask.

10. Do not lean on a running machine

Properties of wood:
1. DENSITY: this is an excellent indicator of wood strength.
Density refers to how think a piece of wood is; the thicker it
is the stronger it will be.

2. THERMAL PROPERTIES/TEMPERATURE EFFECT: Although

wood is an excellent heat insulator, its strength and other
properties are affected adversely by exposure for extended
periods to temperatures above about 37°C.

3. ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY: Timber is the most

environmentally responsible building material. Timber has
low production energy requirements and is a net carbon
absorber. Timber is a renewable resource. Well-managed
forests produce timber on a sustained continuous basis, with
minimal adverse effects on soil and water values.

4. STRONG AND LIGHTWEIGHT: Timber is strong, light and

reliable making timber construction simpler and safer than
steel or concrete construction.

5. SAFE: Timber has low toxicity and therefore requires no

special safety precautions to work with it, other than normal
protection from dusts and splinters.
6. EASY TO INSTALL: Timber is one of the easiest engineering
materials to install.

7. AFFORDABLE: comparatively, timber is cheaper that metal

or concrete for construction.

Properties of Metals:
1. Density: this refers to the weight of the metal or its specific
gravity

2. Fusibility: this is the ability of a metal to be melted when

heated until they become liquid

3. Magnetism: the property of a metal which enables it

attract iron

4. Ductility: this is ability of a metal to be drawn out r

stretched without breaking

5. Conductivity of Heat: ability of a metal to transfer heat

generated from one end to the other.

6. Fusibility: the ability of a metal to be melted when heated

until they become liquid

7. Tenacity: the ability of a metal to withstand stress

8. Sound Test: the ability of a metal to give sound when
struck

9. Colour or Lustre: the ability of a metal to have a polished

surface

10. Toughness: the ability of a metal to resist bending

Properties of ceramics:
1. They can break easily;

2. They can withstand high temperature;

3. Ceramics are less dense than most metals;

4. They can be easily decorated;

5. They are good electric insulators;

6. They can withstand heavy compressive loads;

7. They are not affected acids, water or oxygen.

Properties of Glass:
1. Absorbs heat: Glass absorbs and transmits heat which
means that if you heat a glass then the temperature of the
contents inside of it will react.

2. Glasses are light in weight

3. They are good thermal and electrical resistance

4. Durability: Glass is durable due to the strong bonds

between the molecules in it. Its strength and its durability
mainly depend on its thickness.

5. Glass is static: Glass does not react with other materials

and will not be a reactive to other materials and will not be
decomposed by most acids.

6. Transparency: Glass is a transparent substance which

means you see through it.

Questions:
1. Mention 4 professions that can be carried out in a
workshop.
2. Why should workshop users use goggles when carrying out
some specific tasks in the workshop?
3. List 5 workshop safety precautions.
4. As related to metal, differentiate between ductility and
fusibility.
5. Describe how metal is a conductor of heat.
6. At what temperature does an average wood lose its ability
to withstand heat?
7. Outline three important properties of glass.
8. Between glass and ceramic, which is more commonly used
as a good electrical insulator?
9. Why is glass a durable material?
10. What term refers to the ability of a material to withstand
stress?
Basic Technology Notes of Lesson JS2: FIRST AID AND FIRST
AID MATERIALS
First aid is the immediate treatment or assistance given to
someone injured or who gets ill suddenly, before the arrival
of a doctor or before the person is taken to hospital for
further treatment.

Minor accidents may occur in the course of using workshop

tools and machines. Hence, there is a need to learn about
first aid materials and their applications. A first aid box with
its contents is an important piece of equipment needed in
every technology workshop.

Materials inside a first aid box:

1. Cotton wool: this is used as an absorbent material or as a
pad.

2. Scissors: we use scissors for cutting. The scissors should be

blunt ended to avoid injury.

3. Bandages: they are used to protect wounds from dirt,

restrict movement of parts of the body, and maintain
pressure on dressing or reduce swelling. Bandages used to
cover wounds should be clean.

4. Adhesive dressing plaster: this is used to cover minor

wounds.

5. Safety pins and clips: they are used to secure the bandage
or dressing.

6. Disposable gloves: they are used for protecting the hands

against contamination during dressing and disposal of waste
materials.

7. Drugs like paracetamol and panadol which help to reduce

pains, headaches and fever.

8. Iodine B.P.: it is used in disinfectant preparations for

cleaning wounds.

Practical class: visit the college nurse for practical

application of the following first aid techniques:
1. Simple first aid for snake bite or scorpion sting
2. Case of electric shock
3. Minor and deep cuts
4. Burns by fire or chemical

Exercises:
1. What is first aid?

2. Why is it important for students to learn how to use a first

aid box and its contents before they begin to use tools and
equipment in the workshop?

3. Why is there need to have a first aid box in a Basic

Technology workshop?

4. What are five first aid materials?

5. How would you assist a victim of snake bite?

6. If a worker gets cut while using a tool what would you do

to help?

7. What are the two main causes of burns?

8. What will you do first if your skin comes in contact with

chemicals?

9. When a minor cut occurs, why should the thumb be

pressed against the injury.

10. Explain why it is necessary to switch off all electrical

appliances before leaving the workshop.

Research:
1. Define the term ‘rescue’
2. How can dogs be useful to man when he is in danger?