CHAPTER-3

Abstract

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
The depletion of fossil fuel invigorates the researchers to identify the suitable alternate for
conventional diesel fuel. The alternative fuels are expected to be biodegradable, non-toxic, user
friendly and moreover renewable in nature. The major advantages of biodiesel are; it can be
blended with diesel fuel at any proportions, can be used in a diesel engine without any
modification, does not contain any harmful substances and produce less harmful emissions to the
environment. Biodiesel is alkyl esters of fatty acids and can be obtained by employing the
transesterification treatment of vegetable oils, animal fats, waste cooking oil and waste restaurant
greases. Vegetable oil can be obtained from both edible (palm oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil,
coconut oil, peanut oil etc) and non-edible (jatropha, karanja. neem, cotton, jojoba, rubber,
Mahua and castor etc) oil sources. The current price of vegetable oil is nearly competitive with
that of petroleum-based fuels. The cost of biodiesel can be reduced by considering non-edible
oils and used cooking oil instead of edible oils. Non-edible oils such as mahua, karanja, babasu,
jatropha and neem are easily available in many parts of the world and are cheaper compared to
edible oils. Because of use of biodiesel in the enduring design of a CI engine, the combustion
process may not produce the expected performance and this leads to higher NOx emission. The
diesel engines are usually designed to operate on diesel fuel alone. Wide range of research works
were carried out in diesel engines using varieties of biodiesels and their blends with diesel fuel.
Majority of these works are to optimize the engine performance and or to reduce exhaust
emissions from the engine. However at the time of engine design, the engine manufacturer will
optimize the engine for the diesel fuel in terms of performance, emission and combustion. Hence
it is necessary to analyze the diesel engine in terms of combustion parameters using alternative
fuels. Earlier studies shows that the effect of injection system parameters has been investigated
by the approach of ‘‘varying one parameter at a time’’. However the combustion process in
diesel engines are highly influenced by the combined effect of various parameters like
compression ratio, injection timing, injection pressure and nozzle geometries, etc., and operating
parameters like load and speed.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS:
3.2.1 FUEL PREPARATION
Karanja oil and its properties
Karanja Oil (Pongamia Pinnata) is a forest-based tree borne non-edible oil with a production
potential of 135,000 metric tons per year in India (Bringi 1980). These trees produce seeds
containing 30–40% oil and are cultivated for two purposes: (1) as an ornamental tree in garden
sand along avenues and roadsides for its fragrant Wisteria like flowers and (2) as a host plant for
lace insects. This species is commonly called Karanja, Pongamia, or a derivation of these names
(Francis and Peter 1980; Ramadhas, Jayaraj, and Muraleedharan 2004; Srivastava and Prasad
2000). Karanja is a medium-sized fast growing ever-green tree which reaches heights up to 12
meters and forms a broad spreading canopy casting moderate shade (Kalam and Masjuki 2002).
The flowers of Karanja tree are pink, light purple, or white. Its pods are elliptical around 3–6 cm
long and 2–3 cm wide, thick walled, and usually contain a single seed. Karanja seeds are 10–
20mm long, oblong and light brown in colour. Mature trees can withstand water logging and
slight frost. It can grow on most types of soils including stony, sandy and clayey soil. It is
commonly found along waterways and sea shores. And it grows best in well-drained soils with
assured moisture. Air-dried Karanja kernels typically have 19.0% moisture, 27.5% fatty oil,
17.4% protein, 6.6% starch, 7.3% crude fibre, and 2.4% ash (Bringi 1980; Meher, Naik, and Das
2004). Fatty acid compositions of Karanja oil is given in Table 1. The oil is normally used as a
lubricant, water-paint binder and pesticide.

Si.No Property Diesel Pongamia diesel

1 Kinematic Viscosity @40 C
(mm2/s) 2.6 4.8
2 Cetane Number 50 51
3 Iodine Value NA 112
4 Calorific Value (MJ/kg) 42.5 36.5
5 Specific Gravity @150c 0.835 0.878
6 Flash Point (_C) 68 172
Table 3.1.Properties of Karanja biodiesel oil

SHIVA KUMAR2011: Since the direct use of vegetable oil poses problems during the running
of the engines because of its higher viscosity, it is subjected to a process called as
transesterification which reduces the viscosity and improves its volatility. In this work biodiesel
was karanja oil using the trans-esterification process. Prepared biodiesel is mixed with neat
diesel in various concentrations (10%, 20%, 30% and 40%) by volume and is termed as K10,
K20, K30 and K40 respectively.

3.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

SHIVA KUMAR2011

SHIVARAMAKRISHNAN2013
Experimental setup:
The experimental setup consists of a direct injection single cylinder four stroke cycle diesel
engine connected to an eddy current type dynamometer for loading. It is provided with necessary
instruments for pressure and crank-angle measurements. These signals are interfaced to computer
through engine indicator for P–θ AND PV diagrams. Provision is also made for interfacing air
flow, fuel flow, temperatures, and load measurements. This setup has stand-alone panel box
consisting of air-flow, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air and fuel flow measurements,
process indicator, and engine indicator. Rotameters are provided for cooling water and
calorimeter for water flow measurement. Details of the engine specification are shown in Table 2
The signals from the combustion pressure sensor and the crank angle encoder are interfaced to a
computer for data acquisition. The control module system was used to control the engine load,
monitor the engine speed, and measure the fuel consumption. Windows based engine
performance analysis software package ‘‘Engine soft’’ was provided for online performance
evaluation .HC, CO and NOx emissions were measured with a five gas analyzer with an
accuracy shown in Table 4. In every test, volumetric fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions
such as CO, HC, and NOx were measured. From the initial measurement, brake thermal
efficiency (BTHE), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake power (BP) for different
blends and different CR were calculated and recorded. SHIVARAMAKRISHNAN2013

Figure 3.1.Photographic view of the experimental test rig

 Figure 3.2.Schematic diagram of the test rig

1. Engine 7. Air box

2. Brake drum dynamometer 8. Manometer
3. Fuel tank (biodiesel) 9. Air flow direction
4. Diesel tank 10. Exhaust analyzer
5. Burettes 11. Smoke meter
6. Three way valve 12. Exhaust flow

Engine Engine Four stroke, single cylinder, water cooled,

constant speed diesel engine
Make Kirloskar
Rated power 3.68kW
Speed 1500 rpm
Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Compression ratio 12-18.1
Crank angle Resolution 1degree
Engine indicator For data scanning interfacing with Pentium III
processor

Swept volume 661cc

Temperature Digital PT-100
indicator
Table 3.2 Specifications of the experimental test rig

3.3 Design of Experiments

The design of experiments is a powerful tool for modeling and analyzing the influence of control
factors on performance output. The most significant stage in the design of experiments lies in the
selection of the control factors. An exhaustive literature review on engine performance and
emissions reveals that the parameters such as load, blend, compression ratio, injection pressure
and injection time) largely influence the engine performance and emissions characteristics.
Impacts of these five parameters were studied using L16 orthogonal array. Processing conditions
under which engine were tested are given in Table. All the five process parameters have four
levels. In a full factorial experiment design, it would require 45=1024 combination of runs to
study the effect of five parameters each at four levels, whereas Taguchi’s factorial experiment
approach reduces it to only 16 runs, offering a great advantage in terms of experimental cost and
time. Experimental observations were further transformed into signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios,
which were calculated as a logarithmic transformation of loss function as shown below.
Higher is better characteristic: S/N (ɳ) = -10 log1/n[∑1/y2]
Lower is better characteristic: S/N (ɳ) = -10 log1/n[∑y2]
Where n is the number of observations and y is the observed data.
Levels of the process parameters used in the experiment.

Process parameters Levels

1 2 3 4
Load (A) 4 8 12 16
Blend in %(B) 10 20 30 40
Compression 17.5 17.7 17.9 18.1
ratio(C)
Injection 160 180 200 220
pressure(D)
Injection time(E) 23 25 27 29
Table 3.3 Levels of Injection process parameters

The designed experiments are shown in Table 3.3. Each column represents a process parameter,
whereas a row stands for processing condition, which is nothing but a combination of parameter
levels. Engine was tested with 16 different combinations of parameters levels in Table 3.3. Each
experiment was repeated for three times.
Experimental design using the L16 orthogonal array

A: B: C: D: E:
Trial
Load Blend Compression ratio Injection pressure Injection time
No.
1 4 10 17.5 160 23
2 4 20 17.7 180 25
3 4 30 17.9 200 27
4 4 40 18.1 220 29
5 8 10 17.7 200 29
6 8 20 17.1 220 27
7 8 30 18.1 160 25
8 8 40 17.9 180 23
9 12 10 17.9 220 25
10 12 20 18.1 200 23
11 12 30 17.5 180 29
12 12 40 17.7 160 27
13 16 10 18.1 180 27
14 16 20 17.9 160 29
15 16 30 17.7 220 23
16 16 40 17.5 200 25
Table3.4. Taguchi L16 orthogonal array

3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

3.4.1 Influence of Engine Process Parameters
This section discusses the impact of engine process parameters on brake thermal efficiency,
break specific fuel consumption, carbon monoxide, hydro carbon, oxides of nitrogen and smoke
opacity using the main effect plots, signal to noise ratio and analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Based on the S/N ratio and ANOVA results, optimal combination of process parameters and
their contributions have been obtained.
3.4.2 Data analysis for brake thermal efficiency
Impact on brake thermal efficiency
Brake thermal efficiency evaluates how efficient the engine transforms the chemical energy of
the fuel into useful work. This output response parameter is determined by dividing the brake
power of the engine to the amount of energy input to the system. The amount of energy cannot
be converted into mechanical energy is discharged by the system through friction losses, heat
transfer through the engine cylinder and exhaust gases. The friction losses are highly sensitive to
the engine speed regardless of the fuel. Whereas the heat transfer losses not only depends on the
engine speed, but also varies with the combustion characteristics of the fuel. ANOVA determines
the optimum combination of process parameters more accurately by investigating the relative
importance among the process parameters .In the ANOVA table( ) ,there is F-value for each
independent parameter in the model .when the F-value is more ,then the parameter can be
considered as statistically more significant. It was observed that the contribution of each process
parameter influence the brake thermal efficiency. Blend (F-value 97.36) was the highly
influencing factor followed by the compression ratio (F-value 25.65).The possible reason for
increase brake thermal efficiency may due to the lubricity in biodiesel blends.

Table shows the values of S/N ratios for all process parameters
Table 5.Output responses for Design of experiments
S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Max - Min
0.084
A 29.757 29.727 29.693 29.673

1.549
B 30.650 29.684 29.101 29.414

0.602
C 29.895 29.916 29.724 29.314

0.059
D 29.710 29.714 29.683 29.742

E 29.734 29.676 29.704 29.735 0.060

Table 6. S/N Ratios VS Factor Levels
ANOVA TABLE
Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio
A 3 0.98 0.33 0.90
B 3 211.39 70.46 193.51
C 3 34.31 11.44 31.41
D 3 0.22 0.07 0.20
E 3 0.39 0.13 0.36

Residual 32 11.65 0.36

Total 47 258.95 5.51

ANOVA Table( 7 )

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Figure 3.

3.4.3 Impact on brake specific fuel consumption

BSFC can be thought of as power specific fuel consumption which quantifies the fuel efficiency.
The test engine while running with biodiesel, K10, K20, K30 and K40 fuels at different loads,
compression ratios, injection pressures and injection timings are the process parameters .It can be
seen from the ANOVA Table ( ), the effect of compression ratio is highly instigating the brake
specific fuel consumption .The reason for this due to increase of brake thermal efficiency with
biodiesel blends.

TABLE – 4
S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Max - Min
A -10.576 -10.637 -10.687 -10.680 0.111
B -11.896 -10.506 -9.748 -10.430 2.148
C -11.283 -10.800 -10.388 -10.107 1.176
D -10.650 -10.610 -10.582 -10.738 0.156
E -10.697 -10.584 -10.580 -10.719 0.140

Table 3 : ANOVA TABLE

Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio

A 3 0.0004 0.0001 0.59

B 3 0.0004 0.0001 0.59

C 3 0.0111 0.0037 17.73

D 3 0.0004 0.0001 0.56

E 3 0.0003 0.0001 0.51

Residual 32 0.0067 0.0002

Total 47 0.0514 0.0011

 BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUPTION

Figure ( )

3.4.4 Impact on carbon monoxide emissions

The exhaust CO emissions are evaluated for optimized combined engine process parameters. The
result of analysis of variances on the emission characteristics of CO is shown in Table ( ). It was
observed that the F-values in ANOVA Table ( ), Engine load, injection pressure and injection
timing are significantly influencing the CO emissions. In general emissions of CO decreases may
be due to the poor atomization and uneven distribution of small portions of fuel across the
combustion chamber.
TABLE – 4
S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Max - Min

A -9.836 -10.605 -10.687 -10.680 0.850

B -11.157 -10.506 -9.715 -10.430 1.442

C -10.544 -10.800 -10.388 -10.075 0.726

D -9.878 -10.610 -10.582 -10.738 0.859

E -9.957 -10.551 -10.580 -10.719 0.762

Table 3 : ANOVA TABLE

Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio
A 3 0.08 0.03 1.82
B 3 0.02 0.01 0.38
C 3 0.03 0.01 0.81
D 3 0.07 0.02 1.74
E 3 0.06 0.02 1.53
Residual 32 0.44 0.01
Total 47 0.70 0.01
 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) EMISSIONS

Figure ( )
3.4.5 Impact on hydro-carbon emissions
It is observed that the F-values in the ANOVA Table (),the unburnt hydro carbon emissions are
influencing by the load , compression ratio and injection timing .The decrease of unburnt hydro
carbon due to may be an in ability to reach the ignition temperature of fuel to be oxidized. The
oxygen content in biodiesel has been shown to pre-oxidize the air fuel mixture leading to a
reduction of the emissions.
TABLE – 4
S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels
Level Level Level Level
Factors Max - Min
1 2 3 4
A 36.243 35.319 36.644 37.013 1.693
B 36.898 36.974 36.098 35.251 1.723
C 37.017 36.458 36.305 35.440 1.577
D 35.792 36.224 37.028 36.177 1.236
E 36.088 36.093 36.704 36.336 0.616
Table ( )
Table 3 : ANOVA TABLE
Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio

A 3 3981.23 1327.08 0.64

B 3 1402.73 467.58 0.22

C 3 2416.56 805.52 0.39

D 3 1872.23 624.08 0.30

E 3 2360.23 786.74 0.38

Residual 32 66560.00 2080.00

Total 47 78592.98 1672.19

Table ( )
 UNBURNT HYDRO CARBON

Figure ( )
3.4.6 Impact on nitrogen oxide emissions
It can be seen that the F-values in the ANOVA Table ( ), of each variable indicates the influence
on NOx emission characteristics .The process parameter compression ratio is highly influencing
the nitrogen oxide and load is influencing the nitrogen oxide by moderately. This is due to may
be cylinder temperature, ignition delay and oxygen content in the fuel. The NOx emission is very
sensitive to the engine combustion temperature which increases with the increasing engine load.
It is generally agreed that the higher the cylinder temperature, the higher the NOx emissions.
S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Max - Min
 A 61.161 60.993 60.466 60.244 0.916

B 60.641 60.813 60.885 60.524 0.361

C 61.652 60.993 60.375 59.843 1.809

D 60.844 60.576 60.485 60.958 0.473

E 60.862 60.530 60.498 60.974 0.476

Table ( )
Table 3 : ANOVA TABLE
Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio
A 3 93271.17 31090.39 2.52
B 3 22333.50 7444.50 0.60
C 3 268912.33 89637.44 7.27
D 3 25928.50 8642.83 0.70
E 3 24868.50 8289.50 0.67
Residual 32 394544.67 12329.52
Total 47 829858.67 17656.57
Table ( )
 NOx EMISSIONS

Figure ( )
3.4.7 Impact on smoke emission:
It can be also seen that the results of analysis of variance values are shown in the ANOVA
Table( ), F-values of injection process parameters like injection timing and load are mainly
effecting on smoke opacity ,blend and injection pressure are influencing the smoke opacity
moderately.
 TABLE – 4

S / N Ratios Vs Factor Levels

Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Max - Min

A -38.036 -37.746 -36.512 -36.189 1.847

B -38.118 -37.331 -36.523 -36.512 1.607

C -36.877 -37.114 -37.503 -36.990 0.626

D -37.606 -37.691 -36.311 -36.874 1.380

E -37.059 -36.230 -38.773 -36.422 2.543

Table ( )
Table 3 : ANOVA TABLE

Source Df SS MSS = SS/df F Ratio

A 3 1849.50 616.50 34.29

B 3 1443.17 481.06 26.76

C 3 103.17 34.39 1.91

D 3 892.67 297.56 16.55

E 3 3516.83 1172.28 65.20

Residual 32 575.33 17.98

Total 47 8380.67 178.31

Table( )
 SMOKE OPACITY

Figure ( )
SUMMARY
Effect of injection process parameters on engine performance and emissions characteristics was
investigated using Taguchi parameter design approach. Based on the above analysis it was
observed that processing temperature has the most significant effect on all the three performance
measures considered in the present work. Processing pressure and heating time were significant
for tensile and flexural strengths, while they were insignificant for impact strength. Cooling rate
and recrystallization soak time were influential on the tensile, flexural and impact strengths, but
their contribution to the impact strength was more than that of the tensile and flexural strengths.
Optimum parameter combinations for the maximum tensile, flexural and impact strengths were
obtained. From the present study, it is evident that the establishment of optimal combination of
hot press forming parameters is very beneficial for manufacturing of green composites with
better tensile, flexural and impact strength. Further, influence of hot press forming techniques
such as film stacking, melt impregnation and solvent impregnation on tensile, flexural and
impact properties of unidirectional jute fiber reinforced composites was investigated. Among the
different hot press forming techniques, solvent impregnated composite had higher tensile and
flexural properties and lower Izod impact strength when compared to composites processed by
film stacking and melt impregnation techniques. In addition, effect of fiber weight fraction on
mechanical properties of jute fiber reinforced composites was investigated. Tensile, flexural and
impact properties enhanced with increase in fiber content and maximum improvement was
observed at 50% fiber weight fraction.