Design Considerations for

Durability and Sustainability in

Concrete Construction

Charles Nmai, Ph.D., P.E., M.ASCE, FACI

BASF Construction Chemicals
Cleveland, OH U.S.A.
Concrete as a Construction Material

‹ Concrete is the most versatile

construction material in the world, but
its durability can be compromised.
Benefits of Durability

‹ Durability implies…
¾ Increased service life
¾ Minimal repair
¾ Reduction in use of natural resources
¾ Overall reduction in the carbon footprint of
a structure
Durability and Sustainability

‹ Concrete Durability is key

to “Sustainability” in the
construction industry.
Potential Concrete Durability Issues

‹ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement

‹ Chemical Attack
z Alkali-Silica Reactivity
z Sulfates & Seawater
z Industrial Chemicals

‹ Abrasion Resistance
Improper Design and Construction
can Compromise Durability

‹ Concrete Cover over Reinforcement

‹ Addition of Water at the Jobsite
z will elevate w/cm
z will reduce strength and durability of concrete

‹ Consolidation
‹ Curing
‹ Cracking
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions

‹ Knowledge of exposure conditions helps

in initial assessment of the key durability
issues & high-performance concreting
options that merit consideration.
Exposure Conditions that Require
Consideration of Concrete Durability

‰ Marine Environment / Brackish Water

¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Chlorides)
¾ Chemical Attack (Sulfates & Seawater)
Exposure Conditions that Require
Consideration of Concrete Durability
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
…..Marine Environment
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
…..Marine Environment
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
…..Marine Environment

2003

1992
Exposure Conditions that Require
Consideration of Concrete Durability

‰ Marine Environment / Brackish Water / (Deicing Salts)

¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Chlorides)
¾ Chemical Attack (Sulfates & Seawater)

‰ Heavily Populated Urban Area with Traffic Congestion

¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Carbonation)
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
…..Urban Environment
Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
…..Urban Environment
Exposure Conditions that Require
Consideration of Concrete Durability

‰ Marine Environment / Brackish Water / (Deicing Salts)

¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Chlorides)
¾ Chemical Attack (Sulfates & Seawater)

‰ Heavily Populated Urban Area with Traffic Congestion

¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Carbonation)

‰ Industrial Applications – Chemical / Food Processing, etc

¾ Chemical Attack (application dependent)

‰ Soils & Groundwater with High Levels of Aggressive Salts

¾ Chemical Attack (Sulfates)
¾ Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement (Chlorides)
Familiarity with Applicable Codes &
Standards

‰ Engineers design reinforced concrete structures in

accordance with applicable codes & standards

‰ Guidance with regard to concrete durability dependent on

specific code
¾ ACI 318 Î U.S. / other
¾ ACI 350 Î U.S. / other
¾ EN 206-1 Î European Code
¾ CSA A23.1 Î Canadian Code
¾ NSR 98 Î Colombian Code
¾ NTC 5531 Î Colombian Durability Norm
¾ NMX-C-403 Î Mexican Code
¾ NBR 6118 Î Brazilian Code
ACI 318-11with Applicable Codes &
Familiarity
Standards

Panama
Exposure Classes
z F0
z S?
z P1
z C1 or C2
 ACI 318-11
Panama
Concrete Requirements
z F0În/a

z S?
z P1 Î 0.50, 4500 psi (30 MPa)
z C2 Î 0.40, 5000 psi (34.5 MPa)
ACI 318-11with Applicable Codes &
Familiarity
Standards
 CORROSION
of
Steel Reinforcement
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

High alkalinity of concrete promotes formation &

stabilization of natural protective oxide layer at
the steel surface.
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Protective oxide layer de-stabilized by

dissimilar materials.
materials
Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Protective oxide layer de-stabilized by

carbonation & …...

CO2 CO2 CO2

Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Protective oxide layer de-stabilized by

carbonation & …...

CO2 CO2 CO2 d =k t

Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

d =k t For t = 50 years

Aggressiveness Classification
II III
Cover Depth, d = 25 mm 35 mm

Carbonation
Constant, k = 3.54 mm/yr0.5 4.95 mm/yr0.5

w/cm 0.55 - 0.65 with 7 days of moist curing

Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Protective oxide layer de-stabilized by

carbonation & chlorides.
chlorides

CO22 CO22 CO22

Cl- Cl- Cl-
Sources of Chloride

z Mixture Ingredients
¾ Contaminated aggregates
¾ Chloride-bearing admixtures
z Brackish Water
z Groundwater

z Marine Environment
¾ Seawater

¾ Airborne Chlorides
Chloride-Induced Corrosion

“ionic path”
Water Chlorides, CO2
OH-
Oxygen iron

Cathode
Anode
e-
Electronic Path
1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH- Fe 2e- + Fe2+
Relative Volumes of Iron & Its
Reaction Products
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Options for Corrosion Protection
of Steel Reinforcement
Protection of Steel in Concrete

Corrosion Process is Influenced by:

Uncontrollable Factors Controllable Factors
Chloride Exposure Concrete Quality
(concentration) (permeability / diffusion coefficient)
Availability of Oxygen & Concrete Cover over Reinforcement
Moisture
Type of Reinforcement
Ambient Temperature
Cementitious Materials System
Relative Humidity
Corrosion Inhibitors
Cracking ??
Workmanship
Protection of Steel in Concrete

Several Options Available:

¾ Surface barrier system
¾ Steel surface protection systems
¾ Alternate reinforcing systems
¾ Cathodic protection
¾ Corrosion-resistant concrete
z Permeability-reducing systems

z Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures
Protection of Steel in Concrete

RULE #1: Follow Good Concreting Practices

¾ Good quality concrete

¾ Low water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm)
¾ High-range water-reducing admixture
¾ Proper placement & consolidation
¾ Good Curing !!!
Why is a Low w/cm Needed?

Ref: Neville and Brooks, 1987

Protection of Steel in Concrete

RULE #2: Use Corrosion-Resistant Concrete

¾ Pozzolans & slag cement

z Fly ash & natural pozzolans Reduce
z Silica fume Permeability
z Metakoalin

¾ Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixtures
z Calcium nitrite inhibitor Protect
z Amine/ester organic inhibitor Reinforcement
Permeability of Silica Fume Concrete

Treat Island 7-year Samples

References
8000
Silica Fume Concrete
Chloride Concentration (ppm)

7000
Plain Concrete
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Depth of Sample (in.)
Protection of Steel in Concrete
Calcium Nitrite Inhibitor
Anodic corrosion inhibitor
Forms protective oxide layer at
surface of steel
Increases chloride threshold
Effective with admixed chlorides
(contaminated aggregates)
Accelerates time of setting
(use with retarding admixture)
Amine-Ester Organic Inhibitor
Mixed corrosion inhibitor
Forms protective film & reduces
permeability of concrete
Modest increase in chloride threshold
Cannot use with admixed chlorides
(contaminated aggregates)
Does not affect time of setting
Other benefit – reduces sulfate attack
May reduce strength slightly
CHEMICAL ATTACK
Internal & External
Chemical Attack of Concrete

‹ Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR)

z Internal Attack
z Requires reactive silica aggregates, sufficient
alkalis & moisture
z Results in formation of expansive gel
z Results in random cracking of concrete matrix

ASR Gel
Chemical Attack of Concrete: ASR

ASR Gel
Chemical Attack of Concrete: ASR
Chemical Attack of Concrete: ASR
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Options for Mitigation of
Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
Options for Mitigation of ASR

‹ Limit alkalis in concrete

‹ Restrict use of reactive aggregates
‹ Reduce exposure to moisture
‹ Use mitigating supplementary
cementitious material
‹ Use lithium-based admixture
Mitigation of ASR with FLY ASH

Modified ASTM C 1567 Expansion vs. Class F Ash Level

0.6

0.5
Expansion (%)

0.4

0.3
Reactive
0.2
Marginally reactive
0.1
Non-reactive

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Class F Ash Replacement Level (%)
Mitigation of ASR with Lithium Nitrate

Lithium reacts with dissolved silica to form

very insoluble and stable lithium silicates.

Do not absorb water and are non-expansive

[Li] / [Na+K] > 0.70

Mitigation of ASR with Lithium Nitrate

BRE Concrete Prisms at 3 years with LiNO3

(Aggregate is Highly Reactive Siltstone; Alkali Content (kg/m3) Shown in Legend)
0.5

0.4
% Expansion

0.3 4.2 4.8 5.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Li:Na Molar Ratio

30% Lithium Nitrate for ASR
Dosage Rate

Dosage based on the total alkali content of cement

Dosage = 0.55 * Total Alkali Content

(gal/yd3) (lb/yd3)

Dosage reduced if other mitigating material is used,

ex. silica fume, Class F fly ash
(Testing may be required to determine/verify percent reduction)

49
ASTM C 1260 Expansion @ 14 days

(Shakespeare Aggregate- New Mexico)

0.7
0% Li dosage 50% Li dosage 75% Li dosage 100% Li dosage
0.6
ASTM C 1260 is suitable for evaluating effectiveness of fly ash, but
not suitable for evaluating effectiveness of lithium admixtures
0.5
Expansion (%)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
No Fly Ash 15% F-Ash 25% F-Ash 30% F-Ash 15% C-Ash 25% C-Ash 30% C-Ash

50
Mitigation of ASR with Lithium Nitrate

ASTM C 1293 Expansion @ 1 year

(New Mexico Aggregate)
0.06
0% Li dosage 50% Li dosage 100% Li dosage

0.05

0.04
Expansion (%)

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
No Fly Ash 15% F-Ash 25% F-Ash
Chemical Attack of Concrete

‹ Sulfates
z Internal - Excess sulfate in binder material
z External - Calcium, Sodium, Magnesium salts

z Results in formation of ettringite

z Results in cracking & general deterioration
z Degree of deterioration influenced by type of salt
Ettringite

Concrete stained with phenolphthalein Source: PCA

Seawater & Sulfate Attack

z SEAWATER….. Has ~3.5% dissolved solids

Magnesium Sulfate + Sodium Chloride

z Chloride appears to minimize destructive effect of

magnesium sulfate

z Deterioration more from erosion and loss of concrete

constituents
Chemical Attack of Concrete

‹ Industrial Chemicals
z Chemical processing facilities
z Food processing facilities
z Cleaning solutions

z Can result in rapid & progressive

deterioration of concrete
Industrial Chemical Attack of Concrete

Chemical Spills (high temperature)

Industrial Chemical Attack of Concrete

Blood & Caustic Solutions

Industrial Chemical Attack of Concrete

Detergents & Other Cleaning Solutions

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Options for Mitigation of
Chemical Attack
Mitigation of Chemical Attack: Options

RULE #1: Reduce Concrete Permeability

¾ Pozzolans & slag cement

z Fly ash & natural pozzolans
z Silica fume

z Metakoalin

¾ Low water-cementitious materials ratio

z Water-reducing admixtures
Mitigation of Chemical Attack: Options

RULE #2: Use Protective Coatings for Very

Aggressive Industrial Environments

¾ Food & Beverage Processing Facilities

¾ Other Industrial Chemicals

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Consider Life-Cycle Costs
Understanding of Life-Cycle Costs
Understanding of Life-Cycle Costs

‹ Remember that typically the natural

tendency is to select the alternative
with the lowest initial cost !!!

‹ The lowest initial cost option may

not necessarily be the lowest cost
over the useful life of the structure.
Understanding of Life-Cycle Costs

‰ Durability-enhancing options are value-added options

¾ Higher unit concrete cost
¾ In-place concrete cost typically lower…

‰ Know other durability alternatives

¾ Different concreting options
¾ Non-concrete options (ex. increased concrete cover)
Service Life Prediction Models

North America:
‹ Life 365TM (free download)
‹ Stadium®

Links
http://www.nrmca.org/research/life365_instructions.asp
http://www.simcotechnologies.com

66
Understanding of Life-Cycle Costs
…..Service Life Modeling
Understanding of Life-Cycle Costs
…..Service Life Modeling

Confederation Bridge
CANADA

100-year Service Life !!!

Quantifying Concrete Sustainability

How do we capture the true

sustainability benefits of concrete?

USGBC, GBI, BREEAM???

 USGBC - LEED Rating System

Quantifying the Benefits of Sustainability Initiatives

The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating
System™ encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building
and development practices through the creation and implementation of universally
understood and accepted tools and performance criteria.
USGBC - LEED Rating System

Quantifying the Benefits of Sustainability Initiatives

Quantifying Concrete Sustainability

Current rating systems do not

necessarily capture the ecological
benefits of green concrete mixtures.
Quantifying Concrete Sustainability

BASF Eco-Efficiency Analysis quantifies the economical

and ecological impact of Green SenseSM Concrete
Quantifying Concrete Sustainability

Eco-Efficiency Analysis (EEA) of Concrete Mixtures

ƒ An Eco-Efficiency Analysis methodology for concrete has

been third-party validated by TÜV Rheinland® (certificate
number: 5711150561).
TUV appraises, tests and certifies technical equipment and
products according to international quality standards and then
registers those in compliance.

ƒ Methodology also validated by NSF International. (Protocol

P352)
NSF International, a not-for-profit, non-governmental
organization, develops national standards and provides third-
party conformity assessment services.

ƒ Data acquisition and calculation typically in line with ISO

environmental protocol ISO 14040 and 14044 (ecological
part).
Quantifying Concrete Sustainability

Eco-Efficiency Analysis (EEA) of Concrete Mixtures

Eco-Efficiency Analysis can be used to quantify the economical

and ecological impact of Green Concrete mixtures
Customized Interactive Program
specifically for concrete mixtures
Eco-Efficiency Analysis
Data gathered from Chemical
Company, Industry Associations,
Government Databases, Contract
Consultants
Evaluates environmental and
economical impact of concrete
ingredients based on input
Compares five different concrete
mixture proportions for six
environmental impact areas
Quantifies environmental and
economical impact for each mix
Environmental Impact Categories

Consumption Emissions Toxicity Risk Consumption Land Use

of Energy Potential Potential of Raw
Materials

• Cumulative • Described by • Potential effect • Potential for • Materials are • Degree of land
energy utilized in categories on human health physical haz. (i.e. weighted development
the production, - Air toxicity wrk. accid.
work accid.&& according to needed to fulfill
fulfil
use,&&disposal
use disposal - Water occupational reserves and the production,
phases - Solids disease) global use,&&disposal
use disposal
• Fossil and • Based on consumption of 1 yd 3 of
renewable published stat. concrete
resources are Air Emissions data (e.g.
included insurance assoc )

Global Warming Potential

Ozone Depletion Potential
Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
Acidification Potential
Ecological Fingerprint

Energy consumption

Reference
Mix
Use of area Emissions
Fly Ash 15%

0.00 Fly Ash 40%

Slag 50%
RM consumption Toxicity potential
Green Sense Concrete

Risk potential

The four concrete alternatives are shown to be progressively more

environmentally preferable in relation to the Reference Mix.
Eco-Efficiency Profile
…Economical and Ecological Impact

0.5
Reference
environmental impact (normalized)

Mix

Fly Ash 15%

Fly Ash 40%

1.0

Slag 50%

Green Sense
Concrete
1.5
1.5 1.0 0.5
Costs (normalized)

The Green Concrete mixture has the lowest overall environmental

burden and is the most economical to produce.
Summary
Assuring Concrete Durability

Requires…..
¾ Knowledge of Exposure Conditions
¾ Proper design

¾ Proper Specification of Materials and Use of

Durability-Enhancing Admixtures & Products

¾ Production of Quality Concrete

¾ Good Concreting Practices