CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGENO

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES 5

ABSTRACT 4

CHAPTERS

1 INTRODUCTION 5

2 ATMEGA8 MICRO CONTROLLER

2.1 INTRODUCTION 6

2.2 ATMEGA8 MICROC0NTROLLER PIN DIAGRAM 7

2.3 FEATURES 9

2.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM 12

3 RELAYS

3.1 INTRODUCTION 14

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 15

3.3 POLE AND THROW RELAYS 16

3.4 NORMALLY OPEN (NO) RELAY 18

3.5 NORMALLY CLOSED (NC) RELAY 19

1
4 ELECTRIC MOTOR

4.1 INTRODUCTION 20

4.2 PARTS OF MOTOR 21

4.2.1 ROTOR

4.2.2 BEARINGS

4.2.3 STATOR

4.2.4 AIR GAP

4.2.5 WINDINGS

4.2.6 COMMUTATOR

4.3 MAJOR CATEGORIES 23

4.4 SELF COMMUTATED MOTORS 27

4.4.1 BRUSHED DC MOTOR

4.4.2 ELECTRICALLY EXCITED DC MOTOR

4.4.3 PERMANENT MAGNETIC DC MOTOR

4.5 ELECTRONIC COMMUTATOR (EC) MOTOR 29

4.5.1 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

4.5.2 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR

4.5.3 UNIVERSAL AC-DC MOTOR

4.6 EXTERNAL COMMUTATED MOTORS 33

2
 4.6.1 INDUCTION MOTOR

4.6.1.1 CAGE AND WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

4.6.2 TORQUE MOTOR

4.7 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 35

4.7.1 DOUBLY FED ELECTRICAL MACHINE

4.8 SPECIAL MAGNETIC MOTORS 37

4.8.1 IRONLESS OR CORELESS ROTOR MOTOR

4.8.2 PANCAKE OR AXIAL ROTOR MOTOR

4.8.3 SERVO MOTOR

4.8.4 STEPPER MOTOR

4.8.5 LINEAR MOTOR

4.9 COMPARISON 43

4.10 ELECTROMAGNETISM 48

4.10.1 FORCE AND TORQUE 48

4.10.2 POWER

4.10.3 BACK EMF

4.10.4 LOSSES

4.10.5 EFFICIENCY

4.10.6 GOODNESS FACTOR

3
5 PROJECT DESCRIPTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.2 CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS

5.3 PROGRAM

5.4 WORKING

5.5 ADVANTAGES

5.6 APPLICATIONS

6 CONCLUSION

7 REFERENCES

4
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sl.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

2 ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER PIN DIAGRAM

3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA8 MICRO CONROLLER

4 RELAY

5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RELAY

6 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS OF RELAYS

7 NORMALLY OPEN RELAY

8 NORMALLY CLOSED RELAY

9 ELECTRIC MOTOR ROTOR AND STATOR

10 CUTAWAY VIEW THROUGH STATOR OF INDUCTION MOTOR

11 SAILENT POLE ROTOR

12 A TOY SMALL DC MOTOR WITH ITS COMMUTATOR

13 POLE SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR

14 MODERN LOW COST UNIVERSAL MOTOR

15 MINIATURE CORELESS MOTOR

16 STEPPER MOTOR

5
 LIST OF TABLES

SL.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 TYPES OF MOTORS

2 COMPARISON OF MOTORS

6
 ABSTRACT

ON AND OFF CONTROL OF MOTORS BY USING MOBILE operation is not only

used for emergency cases it can also helpful for avoiding short circuits. The operate can operate
from anywhere in the world. The operator can make a call to the motors mobile it can
automatically picup the call and he control the motor from where he is stayed. This process
always helpful for every former as well as for domestic applications..

This project done on the ATMEGA8 mega controller. It will controls the motor and we
are using all other equipments like relay, power supply, and micro controller program. Here we
are using the PMDC motor. A mobile with aux cable is used. Here the sound from keypad of
mobile can convert into frequency and gives the signal to the micro controller.

7
 INTRODUCTION
In villages we are seen several motors for water pumping systems like irrigation,
domestic and commercial loading centres. Everywhere we are using motors and for each motor
we are using starters. The starters are started by a operator manually. If incase the operator is
not presented at that time the motors will not operate and there may be a loss of yielding of
fields. Sometimes operator switches on motor and went outside for other work insuch cases ON
AND OFF CONTROL OF MOTORS USING BY MOBILE operation is available.

This operation is not only used for emergency cases it can also helpful for avoiding short
circuits. The operator can operate from anywhere in the world. The operator can make a call to
the motors mobile it can automatically pic up the call and control the motor from where he is
stayed. This process always helpful for every former as well as for domestic applications..

This project done on the ATMEGA8 mega controller. It will controls the motor and we
are using all other equipments like relay, power supply, and micro controller program. Here we
are using the PMDC motor. A mobile with aux cable is used. Here the sound from keypad of
mobile can convert into frequency and gives the signal to the micro controller.

8
 CHAPTER-1

ATMEGA8 MICRO CONTROLLER

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The abbreviation of AVR Microcontroller is “Advanced Virtual RISC” and MCU is the short
term of the Microcontroller. A Microcontroller is a tiny computer on a single chip and it is also
termed as a control device. Similar to a computer, the Microcontroller is made with a variety of
peripherals like input & output units, memory, Timers, serial data communications,
programmable. The applications of Microcontroller involve in embedded applications &
automatically controlled devices like medical devices, remote control devices, control systems,
office machines, power tools, electronic devices, etc. There are various kinds of Microcontrollers
available in the market like 8051, PIC and AVR microcontroller. This article gives a brief
information about AVR Atmega8 microcontroller.

In 1996, AVR Microcontroller was produced by the “Atmel Corporation”. The

Microcontroller includes the Harvard architecture that works rapidly with the RISC. The features
of this Microcontroller include different features compared with other like sleep modes-6, inbuilt
ADC (analog to digital converter), internal oscillator and serial data communication, performs
the instructions in a single execution cycle. These Micro controller were very fast and they
utilize low power to work in different power saving modes. There are different configurations of
AVR microcontrollers are available to perform various operations like 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit.
AVR microcontrollers are available in three different categories such as TinyAVR, MegaAVR,
and XmegaAVR

Fig1:Atmega8 Microcontroller

9
 The Tiny AVR microcontroller is very small in size and used in many simple applications
 Mega AVR microcontroller is very famous due to a large number of integrated components,
good memory, and used in modern to multiple applications
 The Xmega AVR microcontroller is applied in difficult applications, which require high
speed and huge program memory.

2.2 ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER PIN DESCRIPTION

The main feature of Atmega8 Microcontroller is that, all the pins of the Microcontroller support
two signals except 5-pins. The Atmega8 microcontroller consists of 28 pins where pins
9,10,14,15,16,17,18,19 are used for port B, Pins 23,24,25,26,27,28 and 1 are used for port C and
pins 2,3,4,5,6,11,12 are used for port D.

Fig2:Atmega8 Microcontroller Pin Configuration

\
VCC Digital supply voltage.

10
GND Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0) ( XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2)

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source Capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up Resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active,Even if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can
be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock
source, PB7...6 is used as TOSC2.

Port C (PC5...PC0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
Capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
Resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active,
Even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics Of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C.
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on
this pin For longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not
running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset.

Port D (PD7..PD0)
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and

11
Source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the
pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes
active,even if the clock is not running.

RESET
Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a
reset.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and ADC (7..6). It should
be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5..4) use digital supply voltage,
VCC.

AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7.6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.
These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.

2.3 Features

 High-performance, Low-power AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller

 Advanced RISC Architecture
– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
– Fully Static Operation
– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
 High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments

12
 – 8K Bytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
– 512 Bytes EEPROM
– 1K Byte Internal SRAM
– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C
– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

• Peripheral Features
– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode
– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
– Programming Lock for Software Security
– Three PWM Channels
– 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy
` – 6-channel ADC in PDIP package Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy
– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
– Programmable Serial USART
– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
– On-chip Analog Comparator
• Special Microcontroller Features
– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
– External and Internal Interrupt Sources
– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and
Standby
• I/O and Packages
– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

13
 – 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF
• Operating Voltages
– 2.7 - 5.5V (ATmega8L)
– 4.5 - 5.5V (ATmega8)
• Speed Grades
– 0 - 8 MHz (ATmega8L)
– 0 - 16 MHz (ATmega8)
• Power Consumption at 4 Mhz, 3V, 25°C
– Active: 3.6 mA
– Idle Mode: 1.0 mA
– Power-down Mode: 0.5 μA

The ATmega8 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR RISC architecture.
By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega8 achieves throughputs
approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption
versus processing speed.

14
2.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig3:block diagram of ATMEGA8 MICRO controller

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the
32 registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two
independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The
resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster
than conventional CISC microcontrollers.
The ATmega8 provides the following features: 8K bytes of In-System Programmable
Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1K byte of SRAM, 23 general
purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with

15
compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte oriented
Two wire Serial Interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages)
with 10-bit accuracy, a programmable Watchdog Timer with Internal Oscillator, an SPI serial
port, and five software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while
allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous
timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is
sleeping.
The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except
asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In Standby
mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This
allows very fast start-up combined with low-power consumption. The device is manufactured
using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology. The Flash Program memory can be
reprogrammed In-System through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional non-volatile memory
programmer, or by an On-chip boot program running on the AVR core. The boot program can
use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory.
Software in the Boot Flash Section will continue to run while the Application Flash Section is
updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-
System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega8 is a powerful
microcontroller that provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded
control applications.
The ATmega8 AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system development
tools, including C compilers, macro assemblers, program debugger/simulators, In-Circuit
Emulators, and evaluation kits.

16
 CHAPTER-3

RELAYS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a separate low-power signal, or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long
distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and
re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and
early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Magnetic latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move their contacts in one direction,
and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses from the same input have no
effect. Magnetic latching relays are useful in applications where interrupted power should not be
able to transition the contacts.

Magnetic latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay
will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the
polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the
contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ
steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

17
 Fig4: RELAY

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig5 :circuit diagram of relay

18
3.3 POLE & THROW RELAYS

Fig 6:Circuit symbols of relays (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays; a relay
switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.
Normally open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. Normally closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit
when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. All of the contact
forms involve combinations of NO and NC connections.

The National Association of Relay Manufacturers and its successor, the Relay and Switch
Industry Association define 23 distinct electrical contact forms found in relays and
switches.[23] Of these, the following are commonly encountered:

 SPST-NO (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Open) relays have a single Form A contact

or make contact. These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total.
 SPST-NC (Single-Pole Single-Throw, Normally-Closed) relays have a single Form
B or break contact. As with an SPST-NO relay, such a relay has four terminals in total.

19
 SPDT (Single-Pole Double-Throw) relays have a single set of Form C, break before
make or transfer contacts. That is, a common terminal connects to either of two others, never
connecting to both at the same time. Including two for the coil, such a relay has a total of
five terminals.
 DPST – Double-Pole Single-Throw relays are equivalent to a pair of SPST switches or relays
actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has a total of six terminals.
The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each; the designations NO and NCshould be
used to resolve the ambiguity).
 DPDT – Double-Pole Double-Throw relays have two sets of Form C contacts. These are
equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight
terminals, including the coil

The S (single) or D (double) designator for the pole count may be replaced with a number,
indicating multiple contacts connected to a single actuator. For example, 4PDT indicates a four-
pole double-throw relay that has 12 switching terminals.

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-
compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO,
and coil connections, respectively.[24]

DIN 72552 defines contact numbers in relays for automotive use;

 85 = relay coil -
 86 = relay coil +
 87 = common contact
 87a = normally closed contact
 87b = normally open contact

20
3.4 NORMALLY OPEN (NO) COIL RELAY

The NO Normally-Open SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) relay has an opened circuit state
when no current is applied to its coil so basically it disconnects the power to the load in the
inactive state. When current is applied to its coil the generated magnetic field switches the
armature and closes the contact so you can say that it turned ON the load (fan, light bulb, etc). It
is also called Form A.

Fig 7:normally open relay

In above figure , fig1 represents no DC voltage is applied to points A and B therefore no current
flows through the coil of the relay, the contact stays in the opened position and the fan will not
be switched ON because it’s disconnected from the 220V.

In fig2, we apply a DC voltage (let’s say 12V) to the coil (points A and B). Now the coil gets
energized and it switches the contact to the closed position and the fan will be switched
ON because now current can flow from the 220V.

21
3.5 NORMALLY CLOSED (NC) RELAY

The NC Normally-Closed SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) relay has an initial closed circuit
state when no current is applied to its internal coil therefore it connects the power to the load
(fan, light bulb, etc). When voltage is applied to the coil of the relay the internal switch goes to
the open position and disconnects the power from the load. It is also called Form B.

Fig8: Normally-Closed Single Pole Single Throw SPST relay

In figure 1 no DC voltage is applied to points A and B therefore no current flows through the coil
of the relay, the contact stays in the close position and the fan will be switched ON because it is
connected to the 220V.

In figure 2 we apply a DC voltage (let’s say 12V) to the coil (points A and B). Now the coil gets
energized and it switches the contact to the opened position and the fan will be switched
OFF because no current can flow from the 220V.

22
 CHAPTER-4

ELECTRIC MOTORS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and is
done by an electric generator, which has much in common with a motor.

Most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic
field and winding currents to generate force. In certain applications, such as in regenerative
braking with traction motors in the transportation industry, electric motors can also be used in
reverse as generators to convert mechanical energy into electric power.

Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household
appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC)
sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current(AC)
sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in
electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric
motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with
ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type,
internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so on.

Electric motors are used to produce linear or rotary force (torque), and should be distinguished
from devices such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers that convert electricity into motion
but do not generate usable mechanical powers, which are respectively referred to as actuators
and transducers.

Fig 9:Electric motor rotor (left) and stator (rig

23
 Fig10:Cutaway view through stator of induction motor.

4.2 PARTS OF MOTOR

4.2.1 ROTOR
In an electric motor, the moving part is the rotor, which turns the shaft to deliver the mechanical
power. The rotor usually has conductors laid into it that carry currents, which interact with the
magnetic field of the stator to generate the forces that turn the shaft. However, some rotors carry
permanent magnets, and the stator holds the conductors.

4.2.2 BEARINGS
The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis. The bearings are in
turn supported by the motor housing. The motor shaft extends through the bearings to the outside
of the motor, where the load is applied. Because the forces of the load are exerted beyond the
outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung.

4.2.3 STATOR
The stator is the stationary part of the motor’s electromagnetic circuit and usually consists of
either windings or permanent magnets. The stator core is made up of many thin metal sheets,
called laminations. Laminations are used to reduce energy losses that would result if a solid core
were used.

24
4.2.4 AIR GAP

The distance between the rotor and stator is called the air gap. The air gap has important effects,
and is generally as small as possible, as a large gap has a strong negative effect on the
performance of an electric motor. It is the main source of the low power factor at which motors
operate. The air gap increases the magnetizing current needed. For this reason, the air gap should
be minimal. Very small gaps may pose mechanical problems in addition to noise and losses.

Fig11:Salient-pole rotor

4.2.5 WINDINGS

Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated soft iron magnetic
core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current.

Electric machines come in two basic magnet field pole configurations: salient-pole machine
and nonsalient-pole machine. In the salient-pole machine the pole's magnetic field is produced
by a winding wound around the pole below the pole face. In the nonsalient-pole, or distributed
field, or round-rotor, machine, the winding is distributed in pole face slots. A shaded-pole
motor has a winding around part of the pole that delays the phase of the magnetic field for that
pole.

Some motors have conductors that consist of thicker metal, such as bars or sheets of metal,
usually copper, although sometimes aluminum is used. These are usually powered
by electromagnetic induction.

25
4.2.6 COMMUTATOR

Fig12:A toy's small DC motor with its commutator

A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and certain AC
machines consisting of slip-ring segments insulated from each other and from the electric motor's
shaft. The motor's armature current is supplied through the stationary brushes in contact with the
revolving commutator, which causes required current reversal, and applies power to the machine
in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to pole. In absence of such current reversal,
the motor would brake to a stop. In light of significant advances in the past few decades due to
improved technologies in the electronic-controller, sensor less-control, induction-motor, and
permanent-magnet-motor fields, electromechanically-commutated motors are increasingly being
displaced by externally-commutated induction and permanent-magnet motors.

4.3 MAJOR CATEGORIES

Electric motors operate on three different physical
principles: magnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity. By far, the most common is
magnetism. In magnetic motors, magnetic fields are formed in both the rotor and the stator. The
product between these two fields gives rise to a force, and thus a torque on the motor shaft. One,
or both, of these fields must be made to change with the rotation of the motor. This is done by
switching the poles on and off at the right time, or varying the strength of the pole.

The main types are DC motors and AC motors, the former increasingly being displaced by the
latter.AC electric motors are either asynchronous or synchronous. Once started, a synchronous

26
motor requires synchronism with the moving magnetic field's synchronous speed for all normal
torque conditions. In synchronous machines, the magnetic field must be provided by means other
than induction such as from separately excited windings or permanent magnets.

A fractional-horsepower (FHP) motor either has a rating below about 1 horsepower (0.746 kW),
or is manufactured with a standard-frame size smaller than a standard 1 HP motor. Many
household and industrial motors are in the fractional-horsepower class.

Type of Motor Commutation

Major Categories

by Externally Commutated

Self-Commutated

Mechanical- Electronic-
Commutator
Asynchronous Synchronous
(EC)
Machines Machines
Commutator Motors Motors

AC DC AC AC

Three-phase motors:
Electrically Three-phase * WRSM
* Universal excited DC motors:
With PM rotor: * PMSM or
motor motor: * SCIM
* BLDC motor BLAC motor
(AC * Separately * WRIM - IPMSM
commutator excited
With - SPMSM
series motor or * Series AC motors:
ferromagnetic * Hybrid
AC/DC motor) * Shunt * Capacitor
rotor:
* Repulsion * Compound * Resistance
* SRM AC motors:
motor * Split * Permanent-split
PM DC motor * Shaded-pole capacitor
* Hysteresis

27
 * Stepper
* SyRM
* SyRM-PM hybrid

Rectifier,
Simple linear More elaborate Most elaborate
electronics transistor(s) electronics electronics (VFD), when provided
or DC chopper

Notes:

1. Rotation is independent of the frequency of the AC voltage.

2. Rotation is equal to synchronous speed (motor-stator-field speed).
3. In SCIM, fixed-speed operation rotation is equal to synchronous speed, less slip speed.
4. In non-slip energy-recovery systems, WRIM is usually used for motor-starting but can be
used to vary load speed.
5. Variable-speed operation.
6. Whereas induction- and synchronous-motor drives are typically with either six-step or
sinusoidal-waveform output, BLDC-motor drives are usually with trapezoidal-current
waveform; the behavior of both sinusoidal and trapezoidal PM machines is, however,
identical in terms of their fundamental aspects.
7. In variable-speed operation, WRIM is used in slip-energy recovery and double-fed
induction-machine applications.
8. A cage winding is a shorted-circuited squirrel-cage rotor, a wound winding is connected
externally through slip rings.
9. Mostly single-phase with some three-phase.

28
Abbreviations:

 BLAC - Brushless AC
 BLDC - Brushless DC
 BLDM - Brushless DC motor
 EC - Electronic commutator
 PM - Permanent magnet
 IPMSM - Interior permanent-magnet synchronous motor
 PMSM - Permanent magnet synchronous motor
 SPMSM - Surface permanent magnet synchronous motor
 SCIM - Squirrel-cage induction motor
 SRM - Switched reluctance motor
 SyRM - Synchronous reluctance motor
 VFD - Variable-frequency drive
 WRIM - Wound-rotor induction motor
 WRSM - Wound-rotor synchronous motor
 LRA - Locked-Rotor Amps: The current you can expect under starting conditions when you
apply full voltage. It occurs instantly during start-up.
 RLA - Rated-Load Amps: The maximum current a motor should draw under any operating
conditions. Often mistakenly called running-load amps, which leads people to believe,
incorrectly, that the motor should always pull these amps.
 FLA - Full-Load Amps: Changed in 1976 to "RLA - Rated-Load Amps".

29
4.4 SELF COMMUTATED MOTOR

4.4.1 BRUSHED DC MOTOR

By definition, all self-commutated DC motors run on DC electric power. Most DC motors are
small permanent magnet (PM) types. They contain a brushed internal mechanical commutation
to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation.

4.4.2 ELECTRICALLY EXCITED DC MOTOR

A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a
rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator, a long-lasting rotary electrical switch that
periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every
brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or
more pairs of brushes that bear on the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of
electric power to the rotating armature.

The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a
laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the
commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet).
The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced
by either PMs or another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the
two magnetic fields tends to rotate the motor shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils
as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the
magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but
rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and
breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between
commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes
shorting together adjacent sections – and hence coil ends – momentarily while crossing the gaps.
Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its
circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum

30
speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator.
The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the
output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise;
sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on
small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring
precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently
integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat discs consisting of several segments
(typically, at least three) mounted on an insulator.

Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small
brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the
brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.)
Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed,
but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator
wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and
efficiency/wear.

DC machines are defined as follows:

 Armature circuit - A winding where the load current is carried, such that can be either
stationary or rotating part of motor or generator.
 Field circuit - A set of windings that produces a magnetic field so that the electromagnetic
induction can take place in electric machines.
 Commutation: A mechanical technique in which rectification can be achieved, or from which
DC can be derived, in DC machines.
There are five types of brushed DC motor:-

 DC shunt-wound motor
 DC series-wound motor
 DC compound motor (two configurations):
 Cumulative compound

31
  Differentially compounded
 PM DC motor (not shown)
 Separately excited (not shown).

4.4.3 PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR

A PM (permanent magnet) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead
relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce
torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to
improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed
control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power
consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have
stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were
disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However,
large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for
large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made
with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With
their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with
all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure
starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically
links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

4.5 ELECTRONIC COMMUTATOR (EC) MOTOR

4.5.1 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the BLDC design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator is replaced by an external electronic

32
switch synchronised to the rotor's position. BLDC motors are typically 85–90% efficient or
more. Efficiency for a BLDC motor of up to 96.5% have been reported, whereas DC motors with
brushgear are typically 75–80% efficient.

The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal back-emf waveform is derived partly from the
stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement of the rotor's permanent
magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside out DC motors, the stator
windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be with single-phase, two-phase or three-phase and
use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and low cost closed-
loop control of the electronic commutator.

BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk
drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and
mechanisms within office products, such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have
several advantages over conventional motors:

 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of
the fan's bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer
compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause
a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may
be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans,
the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running
speed feedback.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise
speed control.
 BLDC motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited
to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone, which
can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.

33
 BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used
in fans to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also acoustically very quiet motors, which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger BLDC
motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in
high-performance electric model aircraft.

4.5.2 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR

Fig13:6/4 pole switched reluctance motor

The SRM has no brushes or permanent magnets, and the rotor has no electric currents. Instead,
torque comes from a slight misalignment of poles on the rotor with poles on the stator. The rotor
aligns itself with the magnetic field of the stator, while the stator field windings are sequentially
energized to rotate the stator field.

The magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance,
meaning the flux will flow through poles of the rotor that are closest to the energized poles of the
stator, thereby magnetizing those poles of the rotor and creating torque. As the rotor turns,
different windings will be energized, keeping the rotor turning.

SRMs are now being used in some appliances.

34
4.5.3 UNIVERSAL AC-DC MOTOR

Fig 14:Modern low-cost universal motor, from a vacuum cleaner. Field windings are dark copper-colored, toward the back, on
both sides. The rotor's laminated core is gray metallic, with dark slots for winding the coils. The commutator (partly hidden) has
become dark from use; it is toward the front. The large brown molded-plastic piece in the foreground supports the brush guides
and brushes (both sides), as well as the front motor bearing.

A commutated electrically excited series or parallel wound motor is referred to as a universal

motor because it can be designed to operate on AC or DC power. A universal motor can operate
well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the resultant
magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting
mechanical force will occur in a constant direction of rotation.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often found in a range less
than 1000 watts. Universal motors also formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor
in electric railways. In this application, the use of AC to power a motor originally designed to
run on DC would lead to efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic
components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-
laminated) iron and they are now rarely used.

An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors that have some
characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact
design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life
problems caused by the commutator. Such motors are used in devices, such as food mixers and
power tools, that are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands.
Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders

35
that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can
be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).
Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and, as such, are an ideal
choice for devices like domestic washing machines. The motor can be used to agitate the drum
(both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature.

Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal
motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders,
vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also
commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the
motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors
exceed 10,000 rpm, while many similar miniature grinders exceed 30,000 rpm.

4.6 EXTERNAL COMMUTATED MOTORS

The design of AC induction and synchronous motors is optimized for operation on single-phase
or polyphase sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal waveform power such as supplied for fixed-speed
application from the AC power grid or for variable-speed application from VFD controllers. An
AC motor has two parts: a stationary stator having coils supplied with AC to produce a rotating
magnetic field, and a rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.

4.6.1 INDUCTION MOTOR

4.6.1.1 CAGE AND WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by
electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a
rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the
transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are
widely used in industry.

36
Induction motors may be further divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors and Wound Rotor
Induction Motors (WRIMs). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually
aluminum or copper, joined by rings at the ends of the rotor. When one considers only the bars
and rings as a whole, they are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage, hence the name.

Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars
determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel
cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to be in the outer parts of the rotor cage. As the motor
accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current is in the interior of the winding.
By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer
parts of the cage, effectively a variable resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. However, the
majority of such motors have uniform bars.

In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip
rings on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control devices can be connected in the
rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although significant power is dissipated
in the external resistance. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-
frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into the power system through an inverter
or separate motor-generator.

The WRIM is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high
starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the
secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a
relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed. This type of motor also offers
controllable speed.

Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the
amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move
the speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond
the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.

When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate
at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the
load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down
until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated

37
in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is
also very poor.

4.6.2 TORQUE MOTOR

A torque motor is a specialized form of electric motor that can operate indefinitely while stalled,
that is, with the rotor blocked from turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation,
the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).

A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape
drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a
relatively constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding
tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the
torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are
used in force feedback steering wheels.

Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in
conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to
move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed
by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and, depending
on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the
engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor
will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the
engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the
return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

4.7 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils
passing magnets at the same rate as the AC and resulting in a magnetic field that drives it.
Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this
with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is
like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used

38
to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed
hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a
conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond
for its pre-World War II clocks, and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and
discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the
back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-
loaded manually operated switch.

Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-
shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases
sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles
make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). The rotor material, like that of
a common nail, will stay magnetized, but can also be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once
running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.

Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have
multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting
torque. Telechron clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor
that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor.

4.7.1 Doubly-fed electric machine

Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute
active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding
sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding
sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in a single package without topology
duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed
range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the
constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding
set. A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor
winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties
with controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.

39
4.8 SPECIAL MAGNETIC MOTORS

4.8.1 IRONLESS OR CORELESS ROTOR MOTOR

Fig14:A miniature coreless motor

Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel)
portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the soft magnetic material of the rotor is made in the form
of a cylinder, then (except for the effect of hysteresis) torque is exerted only on the windings of
the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a
specialized form of a permanent magnet DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these
motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a
winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the
bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary
cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second
arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the
rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and
likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper
windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a
mechanical time constant under one ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum
rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat
sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. Overheating might be an

40
issue for coreless DC motor designs. Modern software, such as Motor-CAD, can help to increase
the thermal efficiency of motors while still in the design stage.

Among these types are the disc-rotor types, described in more detail in the next section.

The vibrating alert of cellular phones is sometimes generated by tiny cylindrical permanent-
magnet field types, but there are also disc-shaped types that have a thin multipolar disc field
magnet, and an intentionally unbalanced molded-plastic rotor structure with two bonded coreless
coils. Metal brushes and a flat commutator switch power to the rotor coils.

Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of
high-flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk")
drives. Although the contemporary design differs considerably from that of loudspeakers, it is
still loosely (and incorrectly) referred to as a "voice coil" structure, because some earlier rigid-disk-

drive heads moved in straight lines, and had a drive structure much like that of a loudspeaker.

4.8.2 PANCAKE OR AXIAL ROTOR MOTOR

A rather unusual motor design, the printed armature or pancake motor has the windings shaped
as a disc running between arrays of high-flux magnets. The magnets are arranged in a circle
facing the rotor with space in between to form an axial air gap.[73] This design is commonly
known as the pancake motor because of its extremely flat profile, although the technology has
had many brand names since its inception, such as ServoDisc.

The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in a printed armature motor is
made from punched copper sheets that are laminated together using advanced composites to
form a thin rigid disc. The printed armature has a unique construction in the brushed motor world
in that it does not have a separate ring commutator. The brushes run directly on the armature
surface making the whole design very compact.

An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire laid flat with a central
conventional commutator, in a flower and petal shape. The windings are typically stabilized by
being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that have
moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are highlighted by low shrinkage and low

41
exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound insulated with 180 °C,
Class H rating.

The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (torque variations caused
by changing attraction between the iron and the magnets). Parasitic eddy currents cannot form in
the rotor as it is totally ironless, although iron rotors are laminated. This can greatly improve
efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or DC
because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.

These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives in the
burgeoning computer industry, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal
stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-performance servo-
controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the
variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high
temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.

4.8.3 SERVO MOTOR

A servomotor is a motor, very often sold as a complete module, which is used within a position-
control or speed-control feedback control system. Servomotors are used in applications such as
machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a
servomechanism must have well-documented characteristics for speed, torque, and power. The
speed vs. torque curve is quite important and is high ratio for a servo motor. Dynamic response
characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are also important; these factors limit
the overall performance of the servomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but slow-responding
servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed
feedback on the motor. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor
designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration
characteristics compared to that of DC motors tends to favor permanent magnet synchronous,
BLDC, induction, and SRM drive applications.

A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that the position feedback is
continuous while the motor is running. A stepper system inherently operates open-loop - relying
on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy - with any feedback such as a "home"

42
switch or position encoder being external to the motor system. For instance, when a typical dot
matrix computer printer starts up, its controller makes the print head stepper motor drive to its
left-hand limit, where a position sensor defines home position and stops stepping. As long as
power is on, a bidirectional counter in the printer's microprocessor keeps track of print-head
position.

4.8.4 STEPPER MOTOR

Fig15:A stepper motor with a soft iron rotor, with active windings shown. In 'A' the active windings tend to hold the rotor in
position. In 'B' a different set of windings are carrying a current, which generates torque and rotation.

Stepper motors are a type of motor frequently used when precise rotations are required. In a
stepper motor an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically soft rotor with
salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper
motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As
each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the
energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may
not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps"—starts and then quickly stops again—from one
position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on
the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed
up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.

Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading
the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally
control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points
and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping.
Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems,
particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

43
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper
motors are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were
used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and
speed they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk
drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made
them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed
limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head
actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in
a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was used for a while to position the heads.
Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade
of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet
wire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital
photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and
inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the
early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper
motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper
motors or servomotors with closed-loop analog control systems.

So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they
have one coil, draw very little power, and have a permanent magnet rotor. The same kind of
motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs,
contain more than one stepping motor.

Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors, stepper motors and SRMs are
classified as variable reluctance motor type. Stepper motors were and still are often used in
computer printers, optical scanners, and computer numerical control (CNC) machines such as
routers, plasma cutters and CNC lathes.

4.8.5 LINEAR MOTOR

A linear motor is essentially any electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of
producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length.

44
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. Linear motors are
commonly found in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is
controlled by the rail. They are also used in maglev trains, where the train "flies" over the
ground. On a smaller scale, the 1978 era HP 7225A pen plotter used two linear stepper motors to
move the pen along the X and Y axes.

4.9 COMPARISON

Comparison of motor types

Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages Typical drive, output
application

Self-commutated motors

Steel mills
Paper making
Maintenance (brushes)
Simple speed machines Rectifier, linear
Brushed Medium lifespan
control Treadmill transistor(s) or DC
DC Costly commutator and
Low initial cost exercisers chopper controller.
brushes
Automotive
accessories

Brushless Rigid ("hard") Synchronous;

DC motor Long lifespan Higher initial cost disk drives single-phase or
(BLDC) Low maintenance Requires EC controller CD/DVD three-phase with
or High efficiency with closed-loop control players PM rotor and
(BLDM) Electric trapezoidal stator

45
 vehicles winding; VFD
RC Vehicles typically VS PWM
UAVs inverter type.

Long lifespan Mechanical resonance PWM and various

Appliances
Low maintenance possible other drive types,
Switched Electric
High efficiency High iron losses which tend to be
reluctance Vehicles
No permanent Not possible: used in very
motor Textile mills
magnets * Open or vector control specialized
(SRM) Aircraft
Low cost * Parallel operation / OEM applications
applications
Simple construction Requires EC controller. .

Handheld Variable single-

Maintenance (brushes)
power tools, phase AC, half-
Shorter lifespan
High starting blenders, wave or full-wave
Universal Usually acoustically
torque, compact, vacuum phase-angle control
motor noisy
high speed. cleaners, with triac(s);
Only small ratings are
insulation closed-loop control
economical
blowers optional.

AC asynchronous motors

AC Self-starting High starting Fixed-speed, Fixed-speed, low-

polyphase Low cost current traditionally, SCIM performance
squirrel-cage Robust Lower efficiency the world's applications of all
or Reliable due to need workhorse types.

46
wound-rotor Ratings to 1+ MW for magnetization. especially in low- Variable-speed,
induction Standardized types. performance traditionally,
motor applications of all WRIM drives or
(SCIM) types fixed-speed V/Hz-
or Variable-speed, controlled VSDs.
(WRIM) traditionally, low- Variable-speed,
performance increasingly, vector
variable-torque -controlled VSDs
pumps, fans, displacing DC,
blowers and WRIM and single-
compressors. phase AC induction
Variable-speed, motor drives.
increasingly, other
high-performance
constant-torque and
constant-power or
dynamic loads.

AC SCIM Speed slightly

Appliances Fixed or variable
split-phase High power below synchronous
Stationary Power single-phase AC,
capacitor- high starting torque Starting switch or
Tools variable speed
start relay required
being derived,
typically, by full-
Moderate power wave phase-angle
Speed slightly
AC SCIM High starting torque Industrial blowers
below synchronous control with
split-phase No starting switch Industrial triac(s); closed-loop
Slightly more
capacitor-run Comparatively long machinery
costly control optional.
life

47
AC SCIM Speed slightly
Appliances
split-phase, Moderate power below synchronous
Stationary power
auxiliary Low starting torque Starting switch or
tools
start winding relay required

Speed slightly
AC
below synchronous
induction sha Low cost Fans, appliances,
Low starting torque
ded-pole Long life record players
Small ratings
motor
low efficiency

AC synchronous motors

Fixed or variable speed,

Synchronous speed three-phase; VFD
Wound-rotor
Inherently typically six-
synchronous Industrial
more efficient More costly step CS load-
motor motors
induction motor, commutated inverter
(WRSM)
low power factor type or VS PWM
inverter type.

Clocks,
Accurate speed
timers, sound
control
producing or Single-phase AC, two-
Hysteresis Low noise Very low
recording phase capacitor-start,
motor No vibration efficiency
equipment, capacitor run motor.
High starting
hard drive,
torque
capstan drive

48
 Equivalent to SCIM
except more robust,
more efficient, runs Appliances
Requires a
Synchronous cooler, smaller Electric VFD can be
controller
reluctance footprint vehicles standard DTC type
Not widely
motor Competes with PM Textile mills or VS inverter PWM
available
(SyRM) synchronous motor Aircraft type.
High cost
without applications
demagnetization
issues

Specialty motors

Office Equip
Pancake Compact
Fans/Pumps, Drives can typically be
or axial design Medium cost
fast industrial brushed or brushless DC
rotor Simple speed Medium lifespan
and military type.
motors control
servos

Positioning in
Precision printers and
Not a VFD. Stepper
Stepper positioning Some can be costly floppy disc
position is determined
motor High holding Require a controller drives;
by pulse counting.
torque industrial
machine tools

49
4.10 ELECTROMAGNETISM
4.10.1 FORCE AND TORQUE
The fundamental purpose of the vast majority of the world's electric motors is to
electromagnetically induce relative movement in an air gap between a stator and rotor to produce
useful torque or linear force.

According to Lorentz force law the force of a winding conductor can be given simply by:

F=IL*B

or more generally, to handle conductors with any geometry:

F=J*B

The most general approaches to calculating the forces in motors use tensors

4.10.2 POWER
Where rpm is shaft speed and T is torque, a motor's mechanical power output Pem is given by,

in British units with T expressed in foot-pounds,

Pem = 𝒓𝒑𝒎 ∗ 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆

𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟐
(horsepower), and,

in SI units with shaft angular speed expressed in radians per second, and T expressed in newton-
meters,

Pem=angular speed *torque (watts).

For a linear motor, with force F expressed in newtons and velocity v expressed in meters per
second,

Pem =F*v (watts).

In an asynchronous or induction motor, the relationship between motor speed and air gap power
is, neglecting skin effect, given by the following:

50
 𝐑𝐫
P airgap= ∗ 𝑰𝟐 𝐫, where
𝒔

Rr - rotor resistance

Ir2 - square of current induced in the rotor

s - motor slip; ie, difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides

the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor.

4.10.3 BACK EMF

Since the armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor are moving through a
magnetic field, they have a voltage induced in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor
supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (emf)". The voltage is proportional to
the running speed of the motor. The back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the
winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the
fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the
motor slows down; a lower back emf results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This
increased current provides the additional torque to balance the new load.

In AC machines, it is sometimes useful to consider a back emf source within the machine; as an
example, this is of particular concern for close speed regulation of induction motors on VFDs.

4.10.4 LOSSES

Motor losses are mainly due to resistive losses in windings, core losses and mechanical losses in
bearings, and aerodynamic losses, particularly where cooling fans are present, also occur.

Losses also occur in commutation, mechanical commutators spark, and electronic commutators
and also dissipate heat.

51
4.10.5 EFFICIENCY

To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input
power:

𝑷𝒎
n= 𝐏𝐞
where n is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power, and Pm is mechanical output
power:

Pe=VI

Pm=TW

where V is input voltage, I is input current, T is output torque, and w is output angular velocity.
It is possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is typically at less than
1/2 the stall torque.

Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to
encourage the manufacture and use of higher-efficiency electric motors.

4.10.6 GOODNESS FACTOR

Professor Eric Laithwaite proposed a metric to determine the 'goodness' of an electric motor:

𝑊 𝑤µ𝜎AmAe
G=𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒∗𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙𝑚∗𝑙𝑒
Where:

G is the goodness factor (factors above 1 are likely to be efficient)

Am,Ae are the cross sectional areas of the magnetic and electric circuit

lm,le are the lengths of the magnetic and electric circuits

µ is the permeability of the core.

52
w is the angular frequency the motor is driven at From this, he showed that the most efficient
motors are likely to have relatively large magnetic poles. However, the equation only directly
relates to non PM motors.

53