Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Telematics and Informatics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tele

A profile of the Internet shoppers: Evidence from nine countries

Lim Yet Mee ⇑, Cham Tat Huei 1
Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) (Sungai Long Campus), Jalan Sungai Long, Bandar Sungai Long, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: As the e-commerce industry continues to grow significantly across the world, the impor-
Received 12 February 2014 tance of understanding the similarities and differences among the consumers in diverse
Received in revised form 25 September 2014 regions of the world is vital for businesses to stay relevant and sustain in the competitive
Accepted 15 October 2014
market. Understanding customers’ characteristics successfully and effective market seg-
Available online 24 October 2014
mentation globally are critical for the success of one’s business. Previous studies have
examined the profiles of Internet shoppers in six countries—the United States, Brazil, Bul-
Keywords:
garia, New Zealand, England and China. This research extends the previous studies by
E-commerce
Online shopping
examining the profiles of Internet shoppers and non-Internet shoppers in three coun-
Consumer behavior tries–Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. The findings from this study reveal that the Internet
Internet shoppers shoppers respond positively towards the motivational and attitude aspects of online shop-
ping. The implications of the findings for theory and practice are discussed.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Internet, a mean for both firms and individuals to conduct business, has become very popular and is recognized as
one of the most widely used non-store formats. Due to its popularity, online retail sales have been estimated to increase
sharply from $430.8 billion in 2008 to $697.8 billion in 2012 (Caris and Company, 2010). Besides the US and European mar-
kets which are common for e-commerce, the Asian region has also shown a significant growth in retail e-commerce with an
estimated value of $161.9 billion of total sales in 2012 (Caris and Company, 2010). The contributing factors to the increased
online sales include high penetration Internet rates, increasing income, and acceptance of online shopping in this Asian
region. As the competition in the e-commerce industry intensifies, it becomes more important for online retailers to under-
stand consumers’ perception and acceptance of online shopping. Such knowledge is essential to customer relationship man-
agement, which has been recognized as an effective business strategy in the e-commerce platform.
Although online retailing has become an emergent trend throughout the world, comparison studies on Internet shopper
profiling across countries are still limited. Prior research has examined the profile of Internet shoppers within specific coun-
tries. A notable study in this area is the one done by Donthu and Garcia (1999) on the Internet shoppers of the United States.
The need on the profiling of Internet shoppers in a global context is very much neglected. The study done by Brashear et al.
(2009) did extend their investigation outside the United States by examining the profiles of Internet shoppers of five countries
namely Brazil, Bulgaria, New Zealand, England and China. However, Brashear et al. (2009) only looked into one Asian coun-
try—China, which is inadequate to generalize the findings to represent the Asian region. Since Asia is formed from a multicul-
tural society, further investigation on the Internet shopper’s profile among other Asian countries is very much needed. This
can be seen as a deficiency in the e-commerce landscape that is worth to be explored further in the global context.

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 182180039.

E-mail addresses: limym@utar.edu.my (Y.M. Lim), jaysoncham@gmail.com (T.H. Cham).
1
Tel.: +60 125825266.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2014.10.002
0736-5853/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354 345

The present study aims to extend the work of Donthu and Garcia (1999) and Brashear and his colleagues (2009) by exam-
ining Internet shoppers and non-Internet shoppers in three Asian countries namely Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. The
results of these three countries were compared with those of the six countries done by Donthu and Garcia (1999) and
Brashear et al. (2009). In doing so, this study seeks to expand the purview for the research to the global platform. The
particular interest is whether the characteristics and profiles of the Internet shoppers differ across world regions or markets.
This study will have profound implications for marketers and advertisers in the virtual business world.
This present study responded to the call for further study on Internet shopper profiling suggested by Donthu and Garcia
(1999) and Brashear et al. (2009). In line with their approach, this study examined the similarity and differences between
Internet shoppers and non-Internet shoppers on their motivational and attitudinal factors in relation to online shopping.
Specifically, Internet shoppers and non-Internet shoppers were compared based on convenience seeking, innovativeness,
impulsiveness, price consciousness, risk aversion, brand consciousness, variety seeking, attitudes towards online shopping,
and attitude towards online advertising. The respondents in this study were Internet users from three Asian countries–
Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. First, relevant literatures on the motivational and attitudinal factors
in relation to online shopping were reviewed and hypotheses for this study were formulated. Second, the research method-
ology for this study was discussed. Third, the analyses and results from this study were presented. Lastly, the researchers
discussed the implications of this research as well as the limitations of this study.

2. Literature review

With the increased usage of the Internet worldwide, the Internet has risen to become one of the most interactive tools
that influence the decision of consumers in the context of shopping. The influences of the Internet on consumers’ decision
on shopping behavior have been widely acknowledged. Various studies have provided evidence that the consumers who
shop online can be behaviorally different in shopping decisions in comparison to the non-Internet shoppers (Donthu and
Garcia, 1999; Saprikis et al., 2010; Soopramanien and Robertson, 2007).
The Internet shoppers can be defined as those Internet users who make retail purchase with the use of Internet connec-
tion (Swinyard and Smith, 2003). Meanwhile, non-Internet shoppers are referring to those individuals who have made no
such purchases using the Internet. Donthu and Garcia (1999) have revealed that the behaviors of Internet shoppers vary
in terms of motivational and attitudinal dimensions from the non-Internet shoppers. Donthu and Garcia (1999) found that
Internet shoppers were more likely to be convenience seeking, innovative, less risk averse and impulsive than the non-
Internet shoppers. These types of motivational and attitudinal elements have been used across literatures in differentiating
Internet shoppers from non-Internet shoppers in various shopping genre (Brashear et al., 2009). Therefore, in an effort to
understand and compare more about the segments of Internet shoppers, this research focuses on the various motivational
and attitudinal aspects of Internet shoppers across three Asian countries. In line with the studies by Donthu and Garcia
(1999) and Brashear et al. (2009), the dimensions examined in this research encompassed of convenience, innovativeness,
risk aversion, variety-seeking behavior, impulsiveness, brand consciousness, price consciousness, attitude towards online
advertising and attitude towards online shopping.

2.1. Importance of convenience

Internet shopping is similar to other direct shopping methods where it is associated with convenience in the buying pro-
cess. Convenience in e-commerce refers to the practices and services of online shopping websites that reduce customer effort
and time in the transaction process (Yen and Gwinner, 2003). Online shoppers will enjoy multiple forms of convenience.
These include less physical effort involved, flexibility in terms of when they want to shop, easiness in responding to promo-
tions and advertising, and simple and user-friendly websites (Soopramanien and Robertson, 2007; Suki et al., 2008).
According to past studies, many of the studies have identified that convenience as an important factor contributing to
online shopping. Convenience orientation has been widely supported as one of the motivational elements that influence cus-
tomers’ preferences and perception to shop online (Brengman et al., 2005; Choudhury and Karahanna, 2008; Girard et al.,
2003; Kim et al., 2009; Rohm and Swaminathan, 2004). In the similar vein, this scenario also applies to the Malaysia and
Singapore context (Hui and Wan, 2007; Suki et al., 2008; Haque et al., 2009). In relation to these findings, Internet shoppers
have been found to be more likely to perceive that online shopping is more convenience than non-Internet shoppers
(Brashear et al., 2009; Donthu and Garcia, 1999; Soopramanien and Robertson, 2007). Therefore, it is postulated that:

H1. Internet shoppers seek more convenience than non-Internet shoppers.

2.2. Personal innovativeness

In the aspect of IT, personal innovativeness refers to the willingness of an individual to try out and adopt new information
technologies (Agarwal and Prasad, 1999; Leung and Wei, 1998). In the context of consumer behavior, it can be explained as
the relative willingness of a person to try new products or services (Delafrooz et al., 2010; Hirunyawipada and Paswan,
346 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354

2006). An innovative person will adopt or utilize a new product or service before others do so and the innovativeness of con-
sumers can be observed through their attitudes in the process of product and services information acquisition (Midgley and
Dowling, 1978). Innovative consumers take the initiatives to understand technological innovations in the market and tend to
have more extensive technical knowledge (Saaksjarvi, 2003). Moreover, drawing upon Rogers’ theory of the diffusion of
innovations, highly innovative individuals are able to cope with uncertainty and have a higher acceptance of new technol-
ogies (Rogers, 2003). Im et al. (2003) did find that there is a significant positive correlation between consumer innovative-
ness and new technological application adoption behavior.
In the context online shopping, Goldsmith (2001) found that innovators have a greater usage of the Internet and they are
more likely to purchase goods online comparing to the other consumers. Prior literature also reveals that there is a positive
relationship between personal innovativeness and online shopping (Citrin et al., 2000) and intention to shop online
(Limayem et al., 2000; Haque et al., 2009); and consumer innovativeness has a greater impact on the success of Internet
shopping (Hui and Wan, 2004). Furthermore, Brashear et al. (2009) and Donthu and Garcia (1999) found that Internet shop-
pers exhibit more innovative behavior than non-Internet shoppers. Based on the evidence from the past literature, it is
hypothesized that:

H2. Internet shoppers tend to be more innovative than non-Internet shoppers.

2.3. Impulsiveness

Impulse buying can be defined as the extent to which individuals make an unplanned purchase or buy on sudden (Kacen
and Lee, 2002). Although impulsive buying tendency can be seen as a personality trait, product types do play a role in
impulse buying among consumers (Rook and Fisher, 1995). For example, products like music, clothing and fashion accesso-
ries that reflect self-identity are more highly bought on impulse; while functional goods such as tools, specialized equip-
ment, etc. are ranked among those least bought through impulse (Dittmar et al., 1995). It is also reported that products
in which the consumer is highly personally involved (e.g., book, medicine, insurance, etc.) will tend to be purchased on
impulse (Hoch and Loewenstein, 1991).
User Interface Engineering (2001) did a study on the marketplace of the United States and found that consumers spent as
much as 40% of the amount of money on impulse purchases over the e-commerce site. The Internet provides the users with
ease of product information searching and comparisons; it is a giant electronic shopping mall to promote impulse buying
Impulse purchase among the consumers is also contributed by the aggressive marketing and promotion strategies adopted
by the online stores (Dawson and Kim, 2009). In addition, visual appeal, rich of information, and enjoyment of online shop-
ping have encouraged the Internet shoppers to buy impulsively (Parboteeah et al., 2009). Various studies have found a posi-
tive relationship between impulsiveness and online purchasing behavior. Specifically, the Internet shoppers throughout the
world are making more impulse purchases compare to the non-Internet shoppers (Hui and Wan, 2007; Madhavaram and
Laverie, 2004; Suki et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2007). Given the strong support and evidence from the previous work, hence,
the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3. Internet shoppers exhibit a higher level of impulsiveness than non-Internet shoppers.

2.4. Price consciousness

According to Cambridge dictionaries online (2013), price-conscious shoppers can be defined as someone who knows how
much things cost and avoids buying things that are considered too expensive. Price is one of the elements that will affect the
decision of the Internet shoppers when buying online (Haque et al., 2011). The more competitive prices offered by the online
retailers and the lower searching costs of shopping on the Internet are the main considerations for the Internet shoppers to
shop online (Harn et al., 2006; Rowley, 2000). Likewise, Lee and Kacen (2008) argued that most of the online stores always
engaged on the price discounting strategy through their websites as to attract the Internet shoppers. Thus, prices are becom-
ing transparent online where customers can easily compare the variety of prices in the market with considerable ease
(Laudon and Traver, 2008). In view of this scenario, the Internet shoppers spend less resources locating for their desired
products at the desired prices. Given their product search capabilities, the Internet shoppers are considered to be more
well-informed (Hoffman and Novak, 1997) and are more price conscious (Brashear et al., 2009; Chu et al., 2010; Mutum
and Ghazali, 2006; Nikhashemi et al., 2011; Suki et al., 2008) then the non-Internet shoppers. Therefore, it is proposed that:

H4. Internet shoppers tend to be more price conscious than non-Internet shoppers.

2.5. Risk aversion

Shopping on the Internet has always been associated with carrying various types of risks as compared to the brick and
mortar stores (Ha, 2002; Ko et al., 2004). Specifically, identity and credit card theft, privacy-related concerns, errors in order,
 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354 347

and the lack of order fulfillment are security risks that are associated directly with online shopping (Brashear et al., 2009;
Dubelaar et al., 2003). Other types of risks involved in the context of online purchase decisions include social, financial, phys-
ical, performance, time, and psychological risks (Ko et al., 2004; Noort et al., 2007). All of these risks are perceived to influ-
ence consumers’ decision to shop online (Brashear et al., 2009; Ranganathan and Ganapathy, 2002).
According to Donthu and Gilliland (1996), risk aversion refers to the tendency to avoid risks and consumers would make
purchase decision with a level of certainty and sureness. Generally, consumers with less risk aversion are able to tolerate
more risks and uncertainty than those who are highly averse to risk (Liang, 2009). Consumers who are able to tolerate a
higher level of risk are more willing to shop different channels and are more willing to try new things (Sheth and
Parvatiyar, 1995). Prior studies on in-home shoppers (eg. Berkowitz et al., 1979; Donthu and Gilliland, 1996) did find that
in-home shoppers are less concerned about risks when purchasing and they tend to buy more new products.
In the context of online shopping, past literature reveals that Internet shoppers are less worried about risks of financial
loss (Allred et al., 2006), have a higher level of risk tolerance (Doolin et al., 2005), and are less risk averse (Brashear et al.,
2009; Donthu and Garcia, 1999) than the non-Internet shoppers. Similarly, there are studies in Singapore and Malaysia con-
text revealed that Internet shoppers have much lower levels of risk aversion than non-Internet shoppers (Aziz and Ariffin,
2010; Hui and Wan, 2007; Sim and Koi, 2002; Tan, 1999). In line with these arguments, it is hypothesized that:

H5. Internet shoppers are lower in risk aversion than non-Internet shoppers.

2.6. Brand consciousness

Brand consciousness is characterized by the degree to which consumer is concerned with buying well-known or branded
product (Brashear et al., 2009). Product brands have images or personalities which can be projected to consumers via adver-
tising, packaging, and other marketing strategies (Lin, 2011). It has been argued that brand name is the major force behind
Internet shopping as companies with well-known brands are the first to present their products online (Donthu and Garcia,
1999). Brand consciousness is considered part of consumer style in Internet shopping (Lin, 2011).
Consumers tend to perceive a lower risk when dealing with companies with a high level of brand recognition (Aziz and
Ariffin, 2010; Tan, 1999). Individuals feel more reassured with online purchase if they are buying from established business
entities with well-known brand names (Park and Stoel, 2005). Berkowitz et al. (1979) mentioned that most of the Internet
shoppers are brand loyalists. They repeatedly visit their preferred websites and spend more money online compare to the
non-Internet shoppers. Internet shoppers tend to have a higher brand involvement and brand consciousness compared to
the non-Internet shoppers (Haque et al., 2011; Kwang and Wong, 2010; Punyatoya, 2011). Similarly, the recent study by
Brashear et al. (2009) found that the Internet shoppers in China are more conscious about brands than non-Internet shop-
pers. Hence, it can be postulated that:

H6. Internet shoppers are more conscious about brands than non-Internet shoppers.

2.7. Variety seeking

Variety seeking refers to the tendency of consumers to search for product alternatives or brand choices when making pur-
chases (Kahn and Isen, 1993). Variety seeking is on the rise among the consumers and it has drawn significant attention from
the researchers on consumer behavior given the broad range of product categories available to the consumers (Vohs and
Faber, 2007). Many companies are launching newer brands, models, and flavors at a much faster pace to satisfy consumers’
need for variety (Sajeesh and Raju, 2010). In addition, variety provides pleasant novelty and stimulation that would directly
increase enjoyment and excitement in shopping (Lee et al., 2009; Roehm and Roehm, 2005).
Variety-seeking tendency has been identified as an important shopping motivation and an influential factor in shopping
channel patronage (Michaelidou et al., 2005). Variety seeking is likely to be a significant motive in the online context due to
certain benefits (Rohm and Swaminathan, 2004). Shopping from the home via the Internet enables shoppers to expose to
numerous products and brands which allow them to make price comparisons conveniently (Lee and Kacen, 2008). Online
shopping provides the Internet shoppers with a high level of selection and allows them to minimize the risks involved in
product selection across the online stores. Given the complete, accessible information and the ease of online search, Internet
shoppers have a higher level of variety seeking than non-Internet shoppers (Donthu and Garcia, 1999; Kamaruzaman et al.,
2010; Nikhashemi et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2007). The study by Brashear et al. (2009) did provide some support to this claim.
Hence, it is postulated that:

H7. Internet shoppers seek more variety than non-Internet shoppers.

2.8. Attitude towards online shopping

The past literatures show that Internet shoppers have a more positive attitude towards online shopping due to the
benefits it is provided to the Internet shoppers (Acılar, 2011; Yulihasri et al., 2011). According to the study by Swinyard
348 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354

and Smith (2003), consumers tend to perceive online shopping to be much more favorable and entertaining than offline
shopping. The Internet shoppers were found to make more frequent online orders and enjoy more in comparison to many
offline shoppers. Delafrooz et al. (2010) found that virtual environment allows buyers to compare and understand the
desired products in the interactive form. Moreover, Mutum and Ghazali (2006) reported in his study that most of the Internet
shoppers would not shop on a particular website in the future if they had encountered an unpleasant experience with it.
Thus, the shopping enjoyment that brought by online shopping is significantly and positively related to shoppers’ both inten-
tions and attitudes toward shopping on the web. The past literatures also found that there is a significant difference between
the Internet and non-Internet shoppers when it comes to attitude towards online shopping (Donthu and Garcia, 1999;
Brashear et al., 2009; Sim and Koi, 2002; Suki et al., 2008).
In addition, many other key structural factors such as the relative sophistication of government regulations, dynamic busi-
ness environment, availability of distribution/logistics networks and online payment mechanisms have important bearings in
shaping consumers’ behaviors and attitudes toward online shopping (Xia et al., 2008; Nikhashemi et al., 2011). In view of the
support from the literatures and benefits of online shopping towards Internet shoppers, therefore, we predict that:

H8. Internet shoppers have more favorable attitude toward online shopping than non-Internet shopper.

2.9. Attitude towards online advertising

Online advertising can be defined as the advertisements that are projected to the users of electronic information services
(Hawkins, 1994). As Internet usage is growing rapidly and on the rising level of competition in the global marketplace, many
offline companies have attempted to drive their customers who are separated by the geographical boundary to their web-
sites by using online advertisements. This is because web advertising is more flexible and product information can be
updated on a regular basis which is important especially in the fast moving and highly competitive market.
According to Wang and Sun (2010), the Internet shoppers have a more positive attitude towards online advertising due to
its numerous benefits such as the ability to make price and product comparisons. The comparisons make them to be more
‘‘informative’’ and ‘‘up-to-date’’ then the offline shoppers. Bellman et al. (1999) found that an Internet shopper tends to enjoy
‘‘looking’’ and searching for information on new products. The Internet shoppers are deluged with advertisements, pop-ups,
and search engines from the Internet which are part of the information sources. Other benefits perceived by the Internet
shoppers in view of web advertising include convenience which facilitates the online buying processes (Lee and Kacen,
2008; Mutum and Ghazali, 2006; Wang et al., 2002).
Thus, the Internet shoppers have a more positive attitude towards online advertising based on their desire to search and
shop for products and services. This is supported by the studies done by Brashear et al. (2009), Aziz and Ariffin (2010),
Delafrooz et al. (2010) and Donthu and Garcia (1999). These studies found a significant difference in that the Internet shop-
pers have a more favorable attitude towards online advertising than the non-Internet shoppers. Based on the evidence from
the past literature, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H9. Internet shoppers have a more favorable attitude towards online advertising than the non-Internet shoppers.

3. Methodology

A survey questionnaire was used to collect the data on the motivational and attitudinal characteristics of Internet and
non-Internet shoppers for this study. Questionnaires were distributed to the respondents via email through the social net-
work Facebook. Since the target respondents of the present study were Internet users from various countries, online social
network was considered as the most feasible option. An online social medium is able to reach a large group of people over a
large geographical area in the most cost-effective way. It is also a convenient and efficient approach for a cross-country sur-
vey study (Evans and Mathur, 2005; Socialmediatoday.com, 2013). Furthermore, a quota sampling method was used with a
minimum target of 400 respondents from each country (Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan) to facilitate this study. The goal of
the present study was to obtain a justifiable response by ensuring a sufficient representation from each of the three coun-
tries. A sample size of 400 per country is considered sufficient to represent a large Internet-user population (Hair et al., 2006;
Krejcie and Morgan, 1970; Roscoe, 1975; Saunders et al., 2011; Sekaran and Roger, 2003; Schmidt and Hollensen, 2006;
Weisberg and Bowen, 1977).
The measures for the motivational and attitudinal constructs used in this study were obtained from the studies by Donthu
and Garcia (1999) and Brashear et al. (2009). The motivational aspects were measured by such variables as risk aversion,
innovativeness, brand consciousness, price consciousness, importance of convenience, variety seeking and impulsiveness;
whereas the attitudinal aspects were measured by in terms of attitude towards shopping and attitude toward advertising.
All variables were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, where a higher score indicates a stronger agreement towards the
statement in the scale.
To examine the validity and reliability of the measurement scales, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted
using AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structures). According to Hair et al. (2006), the structural model must have a good fit
where the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) should be less than 0.08 and the values for other indices such
 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354 349

as Goodness of Fit index (GFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and Normed Fit Index (NFI) should be all
above 0.90 in order to address the validity and reliability of the measurement scales. The analysis of model fit showed that
v2 = 1187.19, df = 341, p < 0.001, v2/df = 3.48, RMSEA = 0.05, GFI = 0.917, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, and NFI = 0.92. These results
indicate that the model has a good fit as suggested by Hair et al. (2006).
The convergent validity in this study was assessed by checking the factor loading for each of the measurement items and
the average variance extracted (AVE). As suggested by Hair et al. (2006), all the factor loadings should exceed the ‘‘cut-off’’
point of 0.60 and the average variance extracted (AVE) for a construct should be larger than 0.50. Table 1 shows that the
loadings for each of the items in the measures are above 0.60 and the AVE for all of the constructs are above 0.50, which
imply an acceptable convergent validity in the data.
As for the discriminant validity, Fornell and Larcker (1981) suggest that the AVE for each construct should exceed the
squared correlations of any other constructs in order to achieve discriminant validity. The results in Table 1 show that all
squared correlations (shared variance) between the constructs are smaller than the AVEs, hence, an acceptable discriminant
validity has been established. Moreover, the composite reliability values of all the constructs shown in Table 1 are above
0.70, which means that the measurement items in this study have achieved good reliability.
In addition, Table 2 presents the demographics of the respondents for each country. Based on figures in Table 2, the
majority of respondents for this study were male in Taiwan and female in Malaysia and Singapore. Moreover, the average
age for the respondents in this study were in their 20’s and majority of them hold a bachelor’s degree. Table 2 also revealed
the respondents in this study have an average of 15 years of Internet experience.
The means for the Internet and non-Internet shoppers from Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan in response to the variables
in the study were summarized respectively in Table 3. The hypotheses comparing the Internet and non-Internet shoppers
were tested using t-tests on the country-level basis. Table 3 shows the results of the hypothesis testing by indicating whether
a hypothesis was supported (Y) or not supported (N) by the data.

4. Results and discussion

As seen in Table 3, the results across countries of Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan show that the Internet shoppers gave a
higher rating on the motivational and attitudinal factors compared to the non-Internet shoppers. Table 3 shows the sum-
mary of t-test results for the hypotheses developed in this study. Hypothesis 1 (H1, convenience), which stated that the
Internet shoppers seek more convenience than non-Internet shoppers, was significantly supported by the data across the
three countries. This shows that all the respondents from all the countries that considered in this study tend to opt for online
shopping due to the concern on convenience. This finding is in accordance with that of the prior study by Rohm and
Swaminathan (2004), who also found that consumers are more likely to engage on online shopping due to convenience.
The results from the statistical test also revealed that H2 (innovative) was supported in this study for the three countries.
This indicates that the Internet shoppers are more innovative in comparison to the non-Internet shoppers and are more
likely to engage on online shopping. This result suggests that the Internet shoppers are more informative and more likely
to adopt new products that are available in the marketplace. The finding of this research is in line with the argument put
forth in the study by Hui and Wan (2004) which states that those individuals who are more knowledgeable are more likely
to be the adopters of commercial innovations.
Similarly, H3 (impulsiveness), H7 (variety seeking), H8 (attitude towards online shopping), and H9 (attitude towards
online advertising) were supported by the data across the three countries. The results show that the Internet shoppers will
make more impulse purchases, are variety seekers, have a more favorable attitude towards online shopping and online
advertising in relation to the non-Internet shoppers.
With regards to H3 (impulsiveness), the finding is consistent with the studies by Donthu and Garcia (1999) and
Madhavaram and Laverie (2004). The authors reported that the Internet shoppers made more impulsive purchases due to

Table 1
Test results on convergent validity and discriminant validity.

F.L. C.R. Impul Conve Inno Risk Brand Variety Att Att-Ad Price
Impul 0.748–0.822 0.836 0.656
Conve 0.678–0.843 0.789 0.067 0.603
Inno 0.697–0.789 0.754 0.005 0.025 0.615
Risk 0.815–0.834 0.831 0.111 0.093 0.037 0.686
Brand 0.712–0.839 0.809 0.138 0.055 0.055 0.086 0.695
Variety 0.802–0.822 0.859 0.004 0.040 0.396 0.211 0.100 0.662
Att 0.831–0.812 0.824 0.086 0.090 0.170 0.019 0.364 0.087 0.723
Att-Ad 0.874–0.895 0.889 0.127 0.140 0.248 0.004 0.298 0.177 0.645 0.791
Price 0.634–0.862 0.871 0.107 0.144 0.080 0.258 0.011 0.113 0.012 0.131 0.545

a. Notes: F.L. = factor loading; C.R. = composite reliability; Impul = impulsiveness, Conve = importance of convenience, Inno = innovativeness, Risk = risk
aversion, Brand = brand consciousness, Variety = variety seeking, Price = price consciousness, Att = attitude towards online shopping, Att-Ad = attitude
towards online advertisements.
b. The diagonal entries (in Bold) represent the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) of the construct.
c. The off-diagonal entries (in Italics) represent the variance shared (squared correlations) between constructs.
 350 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354

Table 2
Respondent demographic profile (n = 1200).

Malaysia Singapore Taiwan

Gender
Male 141 177 228
Female 259 223 172
Age (Mean) 25.4 27.7 26.8
Education
Primary 13 5 6
Secondary 32 18 26
Diploma 23 25 23
Degree 285 284 297
Postgraduate 47 68 48
Years of Internet experience (Mean) 15.6 17.3 16.5

Table 3
Summary of the results for the Internet shoppers versus the non-Internet shoppers for Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.

Hypotheses Malaysia Singapore Taiwan

IS NS HT d IS NS HT d IS NS HT d
(n = 200) (n = 200) (n = 200) (n = 200) (n = 200) (n = 200)
H1: importance of convenience 3.55 3.29 Y⁄⁄ 0.325 3.66 3.45 Y⁄⁄ 0.272 3.42 3.07 Y⁄⁄⁄ 0.346
H2: innovativeness 3.53 3.32 Y⁄⁄ 0.266 3.68 3.32 Y⁄⁄⁄ 0.579 3.49 3.30 Y⁄⁄ 0.354
H3: impulsiveness 2.76 2.50 Y⁄⁄⁄ 0.520 2.55 2.69 Y⁄⁄ 0.170 2.60 2.30 Y⁄⁄ 0.191
H4: price consciousness 3.53 3.32 Y⁄⁄ 0.262 3.55 3.33 Y⁄⁄ 0.283 3.33 3.26 N 0.097
H5: risk aversion 3.53 3.32 Y⁄⁄ 0.256 4.08 4.20 N 0.179 4.06 4.01 N 0.043
H6: brand consciousness 3.69 3.51 Y⁄⁄ 0.284 3.23 3.36 N 0.154 2.51 2.35 Y⁄⁄ 0.052
H7: variety seeking 3.66 3.47 Y⁄⁄ 0.230 4.03 3.54 Y⁄⁄⁄ 0.717 3.42 3.11 Y⁄⁄ 0.171
H8: attitude towards online shopping 3.67 2.48 Y⁄⁄⁄ 1.576 3.81 2.74 Y⁄⁄ 1.652 3.68 2.55 Y⁄⁄⁄ 1.273
H9: attitude towards online advertising 3.15 2.91 Y⁄⁄ 0.335 3.34 3.14 Y⁄⁄⁄ 0.275 2.61 2.44 Y⁄⁄ 0.225

Notes: IS = Internet Shoppers; NS = Non-shoppers; HT = Hypothesis testing; Y = supported for hypothesis; N = no support for hypothesis, d = Cohen’s d value.
⁄⁄
p-value < 0.05.
⁄⁄⁄
p-value < 0.001.

promotion, convenience, and attractive offers made by the online stores. The supported hypothesis for variety seeking (H7) is
also in line with the study by Zhou et al. (2007), which found that the advancement of the Internet has allowed the Internet
shoppers to browse for a variety of products that are available from the online stores. Moreover, the finding is also consistent
with the study by Rohm and Swaminathan (2004) where the authors argued that the characteristics of the Internet shoppers
and variety seekers are somehow alike. They are more likely to try new products, new stores, and new brands and do shop
online fairly frequently. With regards to the attitudinal aspect, the findings of the present study show that the Internet shop-
pers are more receptive to both online shopping and online advertising (H8 and H9) than the non-Internet shoppers. These
findings are also consistent with those of the recent studies by Brashear et al. (2009) and Osman et al. (2010).
Nevertheless, there are some differences among the Internet shoppers across countries. The differences lie in H4 (price
conscious), H5 (risk aversion), and H6 (brand conscious). The Internet shoppers were found to be more price conscious than
the non-Internet shoppers in Malaysia and Singapore; but not in Taiwan. With respect to risk aversion (H5), the Internet
shoppers are less risk averse than the non-Internet shoppers in Malaysia but not in Singapore and Taiwan. This is probably
because most of the products that sell online are also available at the physical stores at many parts of Singapore and Taiwan,
the Internet shoppers may tend to be more careful in buying them online, especially those imported and more expensive
products. However, in Malaysia, the online products may not readily available in most parts of Malaysia (mostly available
at the big cities such as Kuala Lumpur); the Internet shoppers in Malaysia may opt for online stores with a higher tolerance
of risks to obtain these desired products. Lastly, it has been found that the Internet shoppers in Malaysia and Taiwan are
more brand conscious (H6) than the non-Internet shoppers. No significant difference in brand consciousness between the
two groups of shoppers was found in Singapore.
In addition, the Cohen’s d effect size was also calculated and presented in Table 3 in order to figure out the standardized
difference between the two means (Internet shoppers and Non-shoppers). According to Cohen (1988), the effect size, d value,
between 0.2 and 0.5 were classified as small and large magnitudes of effect were between 0.5 to 0.8. Based on the Cohen’s d
value in Table 3, the Cohen’s d effect size showed that the most significant difference for Malaysia was attitude towards
online shopping (d = 1.576) while the least significant difference was variety seeking (d = 0.203). In the context of Singapore,
it is also found that attitude towards online shopping (d = 1.652) to have the most significant difference between both inter-
net shoppers and non-shoppers whereas brand consciousness hold the least difference (d = 0.154). As for Taiwan, the Cohen’s
d effect size showed that the most significant difference was attitude towards online shopping (d = 1.273) while the least to
have significant difference was risk aversion (d = 0.043).
 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354 351

The results of the present study were combined with the results obtained by Donthu and Garcia (1999) and Brashear et al.
(2009) to form a comparison of the Internet shoppers’ profile of nine countries. Table 4 shows the results of comparison
between Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan with the other five countries (United States, Brazil, Bulgaria, England, New
Zealand, and China) studied by Donthu and Garcia (1999) and Brashear et al. (2009). The results of the nine countries
comparison indicates that similarities and difference between the Internet shoppers and the non-Internet shoppers do exist
across the global markets. The similarities and difference across the nine countries can be summarized as follows:

(1) The Internet shoppers of all countries in studied value convenience more and have a more positive attitude towards
online advertising than the non-Internet shoppers.
(2) The Internet shoppers of all countries are more innovative and impulsive than the non-Internet shoppers except for
those in New Zealand.
(3) The Internet shoppers of all countries have a more positive attitude towards online shopping than the non-Internet
shoppers except for those in China.
(4) The Internet shoppers of all countries are more conscious in the prices of products and services except for those in the
United States, Bulgaria, and Taiwan.
(5) The Internet shoppers of five out of the nine countries are more favor in branded products than the non-Internet
shoppers. These five countries are the United States, Bulgaria, China, Malaysia, and Taiwan.
(6) The Internet shoppers of four out of the nine countries are more variety seekers than the non-Internet shoppers. These
four countries are Bulgaria, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.

The Internet shoppers of four out of the nine countries are less risk averse than the non-Internet shoppers. These four
countries are Brazil, England, New Zealand, and Malaysia. Some observations can be generalized from the results stated
in (5) to (7) above. Generally, Asian Internet shoppers are more brand conscious and variety seeking than the Western Inter-
net shoppers whereas the Western Internet shoppers are less risk averse than the Asian Internet shoppers.

5. Implications and future research

The findings from this study provide interesting insights for the marketing managers who are involved in online com-
merce internationally. Online store operators need to understand the distinct characteristics of the Internet shoppers and
non-Internet shoppers globally when the Internet has become a necessity for the younger generations. The distinction
between the Internet shoppers and non-Internet shoppers is needed by the marketing managers to tailor marketing strat-
egies to the different segmentations of the shoppers. As pointed out by Brashear et al. (2009), customized strategies are
required to reach the target customers effectively. A lack of understanding on consumer preferences would result a success-
ful strategy in one country to fail in another (Kamaruzaman et al., 2010; Kwang and Wong, 2010).
Online businesses should consistently look for new online-buying service applications to create more value to the existing
shoppers. The findings of the present study suggest that online businesses should focus on convenience, price, branding,
degree of risk aversion, and product varieties in order to attract and retain online shoppers. They should emphasize on these
factors to motivate non-Internet shoppers to purchase online. Paying attention to local online behavior, expectations; aes-
thetics is an important element for a successful international e-commerce strategy.
Although the present results have provided meaningful implications, this research study has a few limitations. Firstly, the
respondents included in this study were mainly social network users which may not be able to represent the entire group of
Internet shoppers effectively. Secondly, most of the respondents were relatively young (based on the mean age of mid
twenty) and hence, the study failed to capture the perspectives from the shoppers of the older group. Lastly, the number

Table 4
Summary of the results of hypotheses testing for United States, Brazil, Bulgaria, England, New Zealand, China Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan.

United Brazilb Bulgariab Englandb New Chinab Malaysia Singapore Taiwan

Statesa Zealandb
H1: importance of convenience Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
H2: innovativeness Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y
H3: impulsiveness Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y
H4: price consciousness N Y N Y Y Y Y Y N
H5: risk aversion N Y N Y Y N Y N N
H6: brand consciousness Y N Y N N Y Y N Y
H7: variety seeking N N Y N N N Y Y Y
H8: attitude toward online Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
advertising
H9: attitude toward online shopping Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y

Notes: Y = supported for hypothesis; N = no support for hypothesis. a = Evidence from study by Donthu and Garcia (1999). b = Evidence from study by
Brashear et al. (2009).
352 Y.M. Lim, T.H. Cham / Telematics and Informatics 32 (2015) 344–354

of Asian countries included in this study is relatively small and the findings may lack of generalizability in relation to other
countries in the Asia region.
In view of these limitations, it is suggested that future research should cover a larger group of both Internet and non-
Internet shoppers in more Asian countries. It is also recommended that future studies should attempt to link culture and
the characteristics of consumers with their online shopping behaviors. Further research may be needed to examine the
mix of online and conventional marketing strategies to attract non-Internet shoppers.
There is still much work to be done in the research area of Internet shopper profiles. Due to globalization, it is important
to explore global similarities and differences on a regional basis—between and within. This body of research will contribute
to effective online marketing strategies across the globe.

Appendix A

Measurement instrument.

Constructs Measurement variables

Importance of convenience It is convenient to shop from home
I do not like complicated things
I hate to spend time gathering information on products

Innovativeness I like to take chances

New products are usually gimmicks⁄
I like to experiment with new ways of doing things

Impulsiveness I often make unplanned purchases

I think twice before committing myself⁄
I always stick to my shopping lists⁄
I like to purchase things on a whim

Price consciousness I often find myself checking prices

I usually purchase the cheapest item
A person can save a lot by shopping for bargains
I usually purchase items on sale only

Risk aversion I want to be sure, before I purchase anything

I would rather be safe than sorry
I avoid risky things

Brand consciousness Store brands are of poor quality⁄

All brands are about the same⁄
I usually purchase brand name products

Variety seeking I like new and different styles

I like to try different things
I like a great deal of variety

Attitude towards online shopping Buying things via Internet makes me happy
I get a real high from online shopping
Online Shopping is fun

Attitude towards online advertisements Online advertisements provide useful information

I think that online advertisements are often deceptive⁄
I usually do not pay any attention to advertisements⁄

Note: ⁄Reverse coded item.

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